Note – Cell Structure
A. Microscope
1. Microscope Slide Preparation
• In order to observe cellular material in more detail, specimens can be prepared for viewing
under a light microscope
• Samples need to be thin enough to allow light to pass through
• The type of preparation that is appropriate is dependent on the cellular material that needs
to be viewed
Slide preparation methods table
• Samples sometimes need to be stained, as the cytosol and other cell structures may be
transparent or difficult to distinguish
• To stain a slide the sample needs to be first air-dried and then heated by passing it
through a Bunsen burner flame – this will allow the sample to be fixed to the slide and to
take up the stain
• As with the type of preparation required, the type of stain used is dependent on what type of
specimen is being used
Common microscope stains & uses table
2. Drawing Cells
• To record the observations seen under the microscope (or from photomicrographs taken) a
labelled biological drawing is often made
• Biological drawings are line pictures which show specific features that have been
observed when the specimen was viewed
• There are a number of rules/conventions that are followed when making a biological
drawing
• The conventions are:
o The drawing must have a title
o The magnification under which the observations shown by the drawing are made
must be recorded
o A sharp HB pencil should be used (and a good eraser!)
o Drawings should be on plain white paper
o Lines should be clear, single lines (no thick shading)
o No shading
o The drawing should take up as much of the space on the page as possible
o Well-defined structures should be drawn
o The drawing should be made with proper proportions
o Label lines should not cross or have arrowheads and should connect directly to
the part of the drawing being labelled
o Label lines should be kept to one side of the drawing (in parallel to the top of the
page) and drawn with a ruler
• Drawings of cells are typically made when visualizing cells at a higher magnification power,
whereas plan drawings are typically made of tissues viewed under lower magnifications
(individual cells are never drawn in a plan diagram)
3. Magnification Calculations
• Magnification is how many times bigger the image of a specimen observed is in comparison
to the actual (real-life) size of the specimen
• The magnification (M) of an object can be calculated if both the size of the image (I), and the
actual size of the specimen (A), is known
An equation triangle for calculating magnification
To find the actual size of the cell:
• The size of cells is typically measured using the micrometre (μm) scale, with cellular
structures measured in either micrometers (μm) or nanometers (nm)
• When doing calculations all measurements must be in the same units. It is best to use
the smallest unit of measurement shown in the question
• To convert units, multiply or divide depending if the units are increasing or decreasing
• Magnification does not have units
• There are 1000 nanometers (nm) in a micrometre (µm)
• There are 1000 micrometres (µm) in a millimetre (mm)
• There are 1000 millimetres (mm) in a metre (m)
Step 1: Check that units in magnification questions are the same
Remember that 1mm = 1000µm
2000 / 1000 = 2, so the actual thickness of the leaf is 2 mm and the drawing thickness is 50 mm
Step 2: Calculate Magnification
Magnification = image size / actual size = 50 / 2 = 25
So the magnification is x 25
4. Eyepiece Graticules & Stage Micrometers
• An eyepiece graticule and stage micrometer are used to measure the size of the object
when viewed under a microscope
• Each microscope can vary slightly so needs to be calibrated when used
• The calibration is done with a stage micrometer, this is a slide with a very accurate scale
in micrometres (µm), it is usually in 10 µm divisions, so 1 mm divided into 100 divisions
• The eyepiece graticule is a disc placed in the eyepiece with 100 divisions, this has no scale
• To know what the divisions equal at each magnification the eyepiece graticule is calibrated
to the stage micrometer at each magnification
Using stage micrometer & eyepiece graticule
• In the diagram, the stage micrometer has three lines each 10 µm apart
• Each 10 µm division has 40 eyepiece graticule divisions
• 40 graticule divisions = 10 µm
1 graticule division = number of micrometres ÷ number of graticule division
• 1 graticule division = 10 ÷ 40 = 0.25 µm this is the magnification factor
• The specimen slide would be used to replace the stage micrometer and the eyepiece
graticule at the same magnification would be used to measure the length of the object
• The number of graticule divisions can then be multiplied by the magnification factor:
graticule divisions x magnification factor = measurement (µm)
5. Resolution & Magnification
Magnification
• Magnification is how many times bigger the image of a specimen observed is in compared
to the actual (real-life) size of the specimen
• A light microscope has two types of lens:
o An eyepiece lens, which often has a magnification of x10
o A series of (usually 3) objective lenses, each with a different magnification
• To calculate the total magnification the magnification of the eyepiece lens and
the objective lens are multiplied together:
eyepiece lens magnification x objective lens magnification = total magnification
Resolution
• Resolution is the ability to distinguish between two separate points
• If two separate points cannot be resolved, they will be observed as one point
• The resolution of a light microscope is limited by the wavelength of light
• As light passes through the specimen, it will be diffracted
• The longer the wavelength of light, the more it is diffracted and the more that this
diffraction will overlap as the points get closer together
• Electron microscopes have a much higher resolution and magnification than a light
microscope as electrons have a much smaller wavelength than visible light
o This means that they can be much closer before the diffracted beams overlap
• The concept of resolution is why the phospholipid bilayer structure of the cell membrane
cannot be observed under a light microscope
o The width of the phospholipid bilayer is about 10nm
o The maximum resolution of a light microscope is 200nm (half the smallest
wavelength of visible light, 400nm)
o Any points that are separated by a distance less than 200nm (such as the 10nm
phospholipid bilayer) cannot be resolved by a light microscope and therefore will not
be distinguishable as “separate”
The resolving power of an electron microscope is much greater than that of the light microscope, as
structures much smaller than the wavelength of light will interfere with a beam of electrons
Comparison of the electron microscope & light microscope
• Light microscopes are used for specimens above 200 nm
o Light microscopes shine light through the specimen, this light is then passed
through an objective lens (which can be changed) and an eyepiece lens (x10)
which magnify the specimen to give an image that can be seen by the naked eye
o The specimens can be living (and therefore can be moving), or dead
o Light microscopes are useful for looking at whole cells, small plant and
animal organisms, tissues within organs such as in leaves or skin
• Electron microscopes, both scanning and transmission, are used for specimens above
0.5 nm
o Electron microscopes fire a beam of electrons at the specimen either a broad static
beam (transmission) or a small beam that moves across the specimen (scanning)
o The electrons are picked up by an electromagnetic lens which then shows the image
o Due to the higher frequency of electron waves (a much shorter wavelength)
compared to visible light, the magnification and resolution of an electron microscope
is much better than a light microscope
o Electron microscopes are useful for looking at organelles, viruses and DNA as well
as looking at whole cells in more detail
o Electron microscopy requires the specimen to be dead however this can provide
a snapshot in time of what is occurring in a cell eg. DNA can be seen replicating
and chromosome position within the stages of mitosis are visible
Light vs Electron Microscope Table
6. Calculating Actual Size
• When investigating the size of organisms and biological structures you will use a
microscope of a specific magnification to produce an image
• Photomicrographs are images obtained from a light microscope, these are used for
specimens above 200 nm (a bacteria cell is about 1000 nm)
• Electron micrographs are images obtained from electron microscopes, both scanning
and transmission, these are used for specimens above 0.5 nm
o Electron microscopes are useful for looking at organelles and biological molecules,
eg. DNA can be seen replicating
• To better understand the images we produce using microscopes we need to know the
actual size of the specimen
Worked example: Calculating the actual size of a specimen
A scientist looks at a sample of red blood cells under a light microscope.
The eyepiece lens of the microscope has a magnification of x10 and an objective lens of x40 was
used to view the blood cells. The scientist takes a photomicrograph of the blood cells, in which the
average size of each cell is 3 mm.
What is the average size of the red blood cells in the sample? Give your answer in micrometres.
Known values:
• Eyepiece lens magnification: x10
• Objective lens magnification: x40
• Image size: 3 mm
Step 1: Calculate the total magnification of the specimen
eyepiece lens magnification x objective lens magnification = total magnification
x10 x x40 = x400
Step 2: Calculate the image size in the units asked for (micrometres)
1 mm = 1000 μm
3 mm = 3000 μm
Step 3: Calculate the actual size of the red blood cell
• Therefore, the average size of a red blood cell in this sample is 7.5 micrometres
B. Cell Structure
1. Structural Features of Typical Prokaryotic Cells
• Animal and plant cells are types of eukaryotic cells, whereas bacteria are a type
of prokaryote
• Prokaryotes have a cellular structure distinct from eukaryotes:
o Their genetic material is not packaged within a membrane-bound nucleus and is
usually circular (eukaryotic genetic material is packaged as linear chromosomes)
o Prokaryotes lack membrane-bound organelles
o They are many (100s/1000s) of times smaller than eukaryotic cells
o Their ribosomes are structurally smaller (70 S) in comparison to those found in
eukaryotic cells (80 S)
2. Eukaryotic Cell Structures & Functions
1) Cell surface membrane
The structure of the cell surface membrane – although the structure looks static the phospholipids and
proteins forming the bilayer are constantly in motion
• All cells are surrounded by a cell surface membrane which controls the exchange of
materials between the internal cell environment and the external environment
o The membrane is described as being ‘partially permeable’
• The cell membrane is formed from a phospholipid bilayer of phospholipids spanning a
diameter of around 10 nm
2) Cell Wall
The cell wall is freely permeable to most substances (unlike the plasma membrane)
• Cell walls are formed outside of the cell membrane and offer structural support to cell
• Structural support is provided by the polysaccharide cellulose in plants, and peptidoglycan
in most bacterial cells
• Narrow threads of cytoplasm (surrounded by a cell membrane)
called plasmodesmata connect the cytoplasm of neighbouring plant cells
3) Nukleus
The nucleus of a cell contains chromatin (a complex of DNA and histone proteins) which is the genetic
material of the cell
• Present in all eukaryotic cells, the nucleus is relatively large and separated from the
cytoplasm by a double membrane (the nuclear envelope) which has many pores
• Nuclear pores are important channels for allowing mRNA and ribosomes to travel out of the
nucleus, as well as allowing enzymes (eg. DNA polymerases) and signalling molecules to
travel in
• The nucleus contains chromatin (the material from which chromosomes are made)
• Usually, at least one or more darkly stained regions can be observed – these regions are
individually termed ‘nucleolus’ and are the sites of ribosome production
4) Mitochondrion
A single mitochondrion is shown – the inner membrane has protein complexes vital for the later stages of
aerobic respiration embedded within it
• The site of aerobic respiration within eukaryotic cells, mitochondria are just visible with a
light microscope
• Surrounded by double-membrane with the inner membrane folded to form cristae
• The matrix formed by the cristae contains enzymes needed for aerobic
respiration, producing ATP
• Small circular pieces of DNA (mitochondrial DNA) and ribosomes are also found in the
matrix (needed for replication)
5) Chloroplast
Chloroplasts are found in the green parts of a plant – the green colour a result of the photosynthetic pigment
chlorophyll
• Larger than mitochondria, also surrounded by a double-membrane
• Membrane-bound compartments called thylakoids containing chlorophyll stack to form
structures called grana
• Grana are joined together by lamellae (thin and flat thylakoid membranes)
• Chloroplasts are the site of photosynthesis:
o The light-dependent stage takes place in the thylakoids
o The light-independent stage (Calvin Cycle) takes place in the stroma
• Also contain small circular pieces of DNA and ribosomes used to synthesise proteins
needed in chloroplast replication and photosynthesis
6) Ribosome
Ribosomes are formed in the nucleolus and are composed of almost equal amounts of RNA and protein
• Found freely in the cytoplasm of all cells or as part of the rough endoplasmic reticulum in
eukaryotic cells
• Each ribosome is a complex of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and proteins
• 80S ribosomes (composed of 60S and 40S subunits) are found in eukaryotic cells
• 70S (composed of 50S and 30S subunits) ribosomes in prokaryotes, mitochondria and
chloroplasts
• Site of translation (protein synthesis)
7) Endoplasmic Reticulum
The RER and ER are visible under the electron microscope - the presence or absence of ribosomes helps to
distinguish between them
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER)
• Surface covered in ribosomes
• Formed from continuous folds of membrane continuous with the nuclear envelope
• Processes proteins made by the ribosomes
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
• Does not have ribosomes on the surface, its function is distinct to the RER
• Involved in the production, processing and storage of lipids, carbohydrates and steroids
8) Golgi Apparatus (Golgi Body)
The structure of the Golgi apparatus
• Flattened sacs of membrane similar to the smooth endoplasmic reticulum
• Modifies proteins and packages them into vesicles or lysosomes
9) Large Permanent Vacuole
• Sac in plant cells surrounded by
the tonoplast, selectively
permeable membrane
• Vacuoles in animal cells are not
permanent and small
The structure of the vacuole
10) Vesicle
• Membrane-bound sac for transport
and storage
The structure of the vesicle
11) Lysosome
The structure of the lysosome
• Specialist forms of vesicles which contain hydrolytic enzymes (enzymes that break
biological molecules down)
• Break down waste materials such as worn-out organelles, used extensively by cells of
the immune system and in apoptosis (programmed cell death)
12) Centriole
The structure of the centriole
• Hollow fibres made of microtubules, two centrioles at right angles to each other form
a centrosome, which organises the spindle fibres during cell division
• Not found in flowering plants and fungi
13) Microtubule
The structure of the microtubule
• Makes up the cytoskeleton of the cell about 25 nm in diameter
• Made of α and β tubulin combined to form dimers, the dimers are then joined into
protofilaments. Thirteen protofilaments in a cylinder make a microtubule
• The cytoskeleton is used to provide support and movement of the cell
14) Microvilli
The structure of the microvilli
• Cell membrane projections that increase the surface area for absorption
15) Cilia
The structure of the cilia
• Hair-like projections made from microtubules
• Allows the movement of substances over the cell surface
16) Flagella
The structure of the flagella
• Similar in structure to cilia, made of longer microtubules
• Contract to provide cell movement for example in sperm cells
3. Animal and Plant Cell
TEM electron micrograph of a TEM electron micrograph of a
animal cell showing key features plant cell showing key features
Structure of Animal & Plant Cells
• The only structure found in animal cells but not plant cells are the centrioles and
microvilli
• Plant cells also have additional structure: the cellulose cell wall, large permanent
vacuoles, and chloroplasts
The ultrastructure of an animal cell shows a densely packed cell – the ER and RER and ribosomes form
extensive networks throughout the cell in reality
Plant cells have a larger, more regular structure in comparison to animal cells
4. The Vital Role of ATP
• All organisms require a constant supply of energy to maintain their cells and stay alive
• This energy is required:
o In anabolic reactions – building larger molecules from smaller molecules
o To move substances across the cell membrane (active transport) or to move
substances within the cell
o In animals, energy is required:
▪ For muscle contraction – to coordinate movement at the whole-organism
level
▪ In the conduction of nerve impulses, as well as many other cellular
processes
• In all known forms of life, ATP from respiration is used to transfer energy in all energy-
requiring processes in cells
• This is why ATP is known as the universal energy currency
• Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) is a nucleotide
o The monomers of DNA and RNA are also nucleotides
5. Key Features of Viruses
• Viruses are non-cellular infectious particles that straddle the boundary between ‘living’
and ‘non-living’
• They are relatively simple in structure; much smaller than prokaryotic cells (with diameters
between 20 and 300 nm)
• Structurally they have:
o A nucleic acid core (their genomes are either DNA or RNA, and can be single or
double-stranded)
o A protein coat called a ‘capsid’
• Some viruses have an outer layer called an envelope formed usually from the membrane-
phospholipids of a cell they were made in
• All viruses are parasitic in that they can only reproduce by infecting living cells and using
their protein-building machinery (ribosomes) to produce new viral particles
•
Viruses are not cellular like prokaryotes and eukaryotes – this is just one example of a virus structure
