LARSEN & TOUBRO ENERGY HYDROCARBON

A PROJECT REPORT

Submitted by
Krish Ravi Dutt Sharma
210140119016

In partial fulfilment for the award of the degree of

BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING
in

Mechanical Engineering
Government Engineering College, Bharuch

GOVERNMENT ENGINEERING COLLEGE, BHARUCH

Gujarat Technological University,
Chandkheda, Ahmedabad
April, 2025
TEAM ID-715461

Government Engineering College, Bharuch

Opp. Govt. Rest House, Old N.H. 8, Bholav, Bharuch, Gujarat 392002

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the project report submitted along with the project entitled Internship
at LARSEN & TOUBRO ENERGY HYDROCARBON has been carried out by Krish
Ravi Dutt Sharma (210140119016) under my guidance in partial fulfilment for the degree
of Bachelor of Engineering in Mechanical Department, 8th Semester of Gujarat
Technological University, Ahmedabad during the academic year 2024-25.

Prof. D.B Patel Dr. Kalpesh Modi

Internal Guide Head of the Department

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Internship Approval Certificate

This is to certify that internship work titled “An Internship at LARSEN & TOUBRO
ENERGY HYDROCARBON” was carried out by Krish Ravi Dutt Sharma
(210140119016) at LARSEN & TOUBRO ENERGY HYDROCARBON, Vadodara is
approved for the degree of Bachelor of Engineering in Mechanical Engineering by Gujarat
Technological University.

Date :
Place :

Examiner’s Sign and Name:

---------------------------------- ----------------------------------

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COMPANY CERTIFICATE

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PMMS CERTIFICATE

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Government Engineering College, Bharuch

Opp. Govt. Rest House, Old N.H. 8, Bholav, Bharuch, Gujarat 392002

DECLARATION

I hereby declare that the Internship report submitted in partial fulfilment for the degree of
Bachelor of Engineering in Mechanical Engineering to Gujarat Technological University,
Ahmedabad, is a Bonafide record of original project work carried out by me at Larsen &
Toubro Ltd. under the supervision of Mr. Ashvin H Shrimali and that no part of this report
has been directly copied from any student’s reports or taken from any other source, without
providing due reference.

Name of the Student Sign of Student

Krish Ravi Dutt Sharma

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Acknowledgement
Training is a crucial aspect of a Bachelor of Technology program, as it offers students the
chance to experience the industrial environment even before graduation. It provides
invaluable industrial learning and practical knowledge that cannot be gained solely through
classroom instruction or reading books and journals.

This training allows students to apply theoretical knowledge in real-world situations,

blending the expertise and experience of professionals in the field. The guidance and
motivation from these experts foster a deep sense of respect and admiration for them.

like to take this opportunity to express my gratitude to those who made this enriching
industrial exposure possible. I am deeply thankful to Mr. Sandeep S. Shah, the Head of
the Plant & Piping Engineering Department, for his unwavering support and
encouragement.

I also extend my heartfelt thanks to Mr. Ashvin H. Shrimali & Mr. Ketan S. Rana, and
all other staff members for their continuous support and valuable guidance, which were
instrumental in making my training successful. Their dedication and professionalism have
left a lasting impression on me, and I am truly grateful for their assistance.

Krish Ravi Dutt Sharma

Government Engineering College, Bharuch

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Abstract

Piping systems in chemical, petrochemical, and hydrocarbon plants, such as those managed
by L&T Energy Hydrocarbon Engineering Ltd., are essential for the transportation of fluids,
vapours, slurries, and solids under various process conditions like high temperature,
pressure, and flow. These systems face additional challenges from corrosion, erosion, toxic
conditions, and radioactivity. As process conditions become more severe with
advancements in technology, continuous efforts are required to meet these demands. Piping
design involves numerous day-to-day decisions on detailed matters, which can be more
challenging than major project issues and can cause costly delays if not addressed properly.
Historically, piping has been undervalued in project engineering, despite requiring
extensive knowledge, experience, and skills.

The primary task in process industries is the transportation of materials, often in fluid form,
through interconnected piping systems that include pipes, fittings, valves, and other
elements. This project explores the details of piping materials, their industrial applications,
and the basics of engineering design, material study, layout, and stress analysis. The role of
a piping engineer involves meticulous attention to detail, as even minor errors can lead to
significant plant issues. Efficiency and precision are crucial in this field.

Additionally, the interdependence of various departments, such as process, electrical,

equipment, machinery, and project management, highlights the collaborative nature of
industrial operations. At L&T Energy Hydrocarbon Engineering Ltd., a piping engineer's
skills and precision are vital in ensuring the successful integration and functioning of these
departments, contributing to the company's reputation for high-quality performance and
professional work ethic.

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List of Figures
FIGURE 1.1 L&T LOGO .................................................................................................... 2
FIGURE 2.1 PIPING SYSTEM .......................................................................................... 6
FIGURE 2.1 PIPE AND TUBE ........................................................................................... 8
FIGURE 3.1 TYPES OF MATERIALS ............................................................................ 10
FIGURE 3.2 STANDARDS .............................................................................................. 11
FIGURE 3.3 P&ID............................................................................................................. 16
FIGURE 3.4 P&ID SYMBOLS ......................................................................................... 17
FIGURE 3.5 PIPING ISOMETRIC DRAWING .............................................................. 18
FIGURE 3.6 PMS SHEET ................................................................................................. 19
FIGURE 3.7 SAMPLE MATERIAL TAKE - OFF SHEET ............................................. 20
FIGURE 4.1 PIPE FITTINGS ........................................................................................... 24
FIGURE 4.2 CAPS ............................................................................................................ 24
FIGURE 4.3 RETURNS .................................................................................................... 25
FIGURE 4.4 TEES............................................................................................................. 25
FIGURE 4.5 CROSSES ..................................................................................................... 25
FIGURE 4.6 REDUCERS ................................................................................................. 26
FIGURE 4.7 CAPS ............................................................................................................ 26
FIGURE 4.8 FLANGES .................................................................................................... 27
FIGURE 4.9 GASKETS .................................................................................................... 27
FIGURE 4.10 BOLTING................................................................................................... 28
FIGURE 4.11 SPECIAL FITTINGS ................................................................................. 28
FIGURE 4.12 PIPE SUPPORTS ....................................................................................... 29
FIGURE 4.13 OVERALL PLOT PLAN ........................................................................... 30
FIGURE 4.14 UNIT PLOT PLAN .................................................................................... 31
FIGURE 4.15 PIPE RACK ................................................................................................ 32
FIGURE 5.1 TYPES OF VALVES ................................................................................... 34
FIGURE 5.2 GATE VALVES ........................................................................................... 35
FIGURE 5.3 GLOBE VALVES ........................................................................................ 36
FIGURE 5.4 BUTTERFLY VALES ................................................................................. 37
FIGURE 5.5 BALL VALVES ........................................................................................... 38
FIGURE 5.6 PRESSURE RELIEF VALVES ................................................................... 40
FIGURE 6.1 SAMPLE PHOTO OF STRESSES IN PIPING SYSTEM .......................... 42

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FIGURE 8.1 LEGEND OF NAMING A LINE................................................................. 62

FIGURE 8.2 LEGEND OF LINE FOR INSTRUMENT .................................................. 62
FIGURE 8.3 LEGEND OF TYPE OF LINE ..................................................................... 63
FIGURE 8.4 LEGEND OF VALVE ................................................................................. 63
FIGURE 8.5 SPECIAL EQUIPMENT .............................................................................. 64
FIGURE 8.6 LEGEND OF CONTROL EQUIPMENT .................................................... 64
FIGURE 8.7 LEGEND OF VESSELS .............................................................................. 65
FIGURE 8.8 LEGEND OF FURNACES .......................................................................... 65
FIGURE 8.9 LEGEND OF PUMP .................................................................................... 66
FIGURE 8.10 LEGEND OF DEMISTER ......................................................................... 66
FIGURE 8.11 LEGEND OF TOWER ............................................................................... 67

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List of Tables
TABLE 2.1 PIPE ENDS ...................................................................................................... 7
TABLE 2.2 PIPE AND TUBE ............................................................................................ 8
TABLE 5.1 FUNTION OF VALVES ............................................................................... 33
TABLE 7.1 ASME MATERIAL GROUP ........................................................................ 51
TABLE 7.2 PROCURED THICKNESS WITHOUT ALLOWANCE ............................. 55
TABLE 7.3 BEND CHECK .............................................................................................. 57
TABLE 7.4 HYDRO TEST ............................................................................................... 59
TABLE 7.5 EXTERNAL PRESSURE CHECK ............................................................... 60
TABLE 7.6 THREAD CHECK ......................................................................................... 61

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Table of Contents
CERTIFICATE ...................................................................................................................I
CERTIFICATE .................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
COMPANY CERTIFICATE ......................................................................................... III
PMMS CERTIFICATE................................................................................................... IV
DECLARATION............................................................................................................... V
Acknowledgement ............................................................................................................ VI
Abstract ........................................................................................................................... VII
List of Figures ................................................................................................................VIII
List of Tables ..................................................................................................................... X
Chapter 1: Overview of the Company ............................................................................. 1
1.1 LARSEN & TOUBRO LIMITED (L&T) ................................................................. 1
1.2 L&T-CHIYODA LIMITED (LTC) ........................................................................... 3
1.3 Plant and Piping Engineering Department ................................................................. 3
Chapter 2: Piping Systems ................................................................................................ 5
2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 5
2.2 Pipe ............................................................................................................................ 6
2.2.1 Welded Pipes ...................................................................................................... 6
2.2.2 Seamless Pipes .................................................................................................... 7
2.2.3 Pipe Ends ............................................................................................................ 7
2.3 Difference Between Pipe and Tube ........................................................................... 8
Chapter 3: Material ........................................................................................................... 9
3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 9
3.1.1 Selection Of Material .......................................................................................... 9
3.2 Codes & Standards ................................................................................................... 10
3.2.1 Code .................................................................................................................. 11
3.2.2 Standards ........................................................................................................... 11
3.3 MATERIAL DEPARTMENT ACTIVITY ............................................................. 12
3.4 SELECTING MATERIAL ...................................................................................... 13
3.5 CODES AND STANDARDS FOR PIPE MATERIAL .......................................... 13
3.5.1 AMERICAN STANDARD .............................................................................. 14
3.6 Material Selection of Piping Components ............................................................... 14
3.7 P & ID No. ............................................................................................................... 15
3.7.1 P&ID Name Representation ............................................................................. 15
3.7.2 Piping and Instrumentation Diagram(P&ID) .................................................... 15
3.7.3 P&ID Symbols .................................................................................................. 16
3.7.4 Piping Isometric Drawing ................................................................................. 17

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3.8 PMS (Piping Material Specification) ....................................................................... 19

3.9 MTO (Material Take-Off)........................................................................................ 20
3.9.1 Information in a Material Take-off Sheet ......................................................... 20
3.9.2 Sequence of the piping items within MTO sheet .............................................. 21
3.10 BOM (Bill of Material) .......................................................................................... 21
Chapter 4: Piping Elements ............................................................................................ 22
4.1 Piping Elements ....................................................................................................... 22
4.2 Material Selection of Piping Components ............................................................... 23
4.3 Pipe Fittings ............................................................................................................. 24
4.3.1 Types of Fittings ............................................................................................... 24
4.4 Flanges ..................................................................................................................... 26
4.5 Gaskets ..................................................................................................................... 27
4.6 Bolting...................................................................................................................... 27
4.7 Special Fittings......................................................................................................... 28
4.8 Pipe Supports ........................................................................................................... 29
4.9 Plant Layout ............................................................................................................. 30
4.9.1 Overall Plot Plan ............................................................................................... 30
4.9.2 Unit Plot Plan (Equipment Layout) .................................................................. 31
4.9.3 Battery Limit(B/L) ............................................................................................ 31
4.9.4 Pipe Rack .......................................................................................................... 32
Chapter 5: Valves in Piping Systems ............................................................................. 33
5.1 Valve Classifications ............................................................................................... 33
5.1.1 Based on Function............................................................................................. 33
5.1.2 Based on End Connection ................................................................................. 33
5.2 Components of Valves ............................................................................................. 34
5.3 Types of Valves ....................................................................................................... 34
5.3.1 Gate Valves - Structure, Advantages & Limitations ........................................ 35
5.3.2 Globe Valves - Functionality and Usage .......................................................... 36
5.3.3 Butterfly Valves - Basic Design and Applications ........................................... 37
5.3.4 Ball Valves - Working Mechanism................................................................... 38
5.3.5 Check Valves .................................................................................................... 39
5.4 Safety and Pressure-Relief Valves ........................................................................... 40
Chapter 6: Stresses and Loads in Piping Systems ........................................................ 42
6.1 Why is Stress analysis required?.............................................................................. 42
6.2 Loads on Piping System........................................................................................... 43
6.2.1 Different types of loading in the piping systems are as follows ....................... 43
6.2.2 Categorization of loads ..................................................................................... 44

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6.2.3 Classification of Loads Based on load application ........................................... 45

6.3 Stresses in Pipe ........................................................................................................ 46
6.3.1 Axial Stress ....................................................................................................... 46
6.3.2 Bending Stress .................................................................................................. 47
6.3.3 Torsion Stress.................................................................................................... 47
6.3.4 Code Stress........................................................................................................ 48
6.3.5 Code Stress Ratio .............................................................................................. 48
Chapter 7: Piping calculations ASME B31.3 ................................................................ 49
7.1 THICKNESS CALCULATIONS FOR PIPE .......................................................... 49
7.1.1 Thickness calculation based on internal gauge pressure................................... 49
7.1.2 Case Study For Thickness Calculation And Verification ................................. 51
7.2 Bend check ............................................................................................................... 56
7.3 Leak test or Hydro test ............................................................................................. 58
7.4 External Pressure check ........................................................................................... 60
7.5 Thread Check ........................................................................................................... 61
Chapter 8: Legend ........................................................................................................... 62
8.1 Legend for Line........................................................................................................ 62
8.1.1 How to name a line ........................................................................................... 62
8.1.2 Designation of Line........................................................................................... 62
8.1.3 Type of Line and Continuity used .................................................................... 63
8.2 Valve ........................................................................................................................ 63
8.3 Special Equipment ................................................................................................... 64
8.4 Control System......................................................................................................... 64
8.5 Vessels ..................................................................................................................... 65
8.6 Furnaces ................................................................................................................... 65
8.7 Pump ........................................................................................................................ 66
8.8 Demister ................................................................................................................... 66
8.9 Tower ....................................................................................................................... 67
REFERENCES................................................................................................................. 68

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TEAM ID-715461 Overview of the Company

Chapter 1: Overview of the Company

1.1 LARSEN & TOUBRO LIMITED (L&T)

Is a leading Indian multinational conglomerate with diverse business interests spanning

technology, engineering, construction, manufacturing, and financial services.
Headquartered in Mumbai, Maharashtra, L&T is one of the most respected companies in
India's private sector, known for its strong customer-focused approach and commitment to
world-class quality.

• Engineering & Construction: L&T is renowned for its expertise in infrastructure

development, including roads, bridges, airports, and urban transit systems. The
company has played a pivotal role in numerous landmark projects across India and
globally.

• Hydrocarbon: Through its subsidiary, L&T Energy Hydrocarbon Engineering

Ltd., the company provides comprehensive solutions in the hydrocarbon sector,
including onshore and offshore projects, modular fabrication, and construction
services.

• Power: L&T is involved in the design, engineering, and construction of power

plants, including thermal, nuclear, and renewable energy projects.

• Defence: The company manufactures a wide range of defence equipment and

systems, contributing significantly to India's defence capabilities.

• Heavy Engineering: L&T specializes in the design and manufacture of critical

equipment and systems for various industries, including petrochemicals, refineries,
and fertilizers.

• Information Technology: Through its subsidiaries, LTIMindtree and L&T

Technology Services, the company offers IT services and solutions, including
digital transformation, engineering services, and technology consulting.

• Financial Services: L&T provides a range of financial products and services,

including infrastructure finance, general insurance, and asset management.

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Global Presence
L&T operates in over 30 countries, with manufacturing
facilities and offices worldwide. The company's global
supply chain and integrated capabilities enable it to deliver
complex projects and products, fostering long-term
progress and economic growth.
Figure 1.1 L&T Logo

Innovation and Sustainability

L&T is committed to innovation and sustainability, continuously seeking better ways of

engineering to meet emerging challenges. The company emphasizes corporate governance,
environmental stewardship, and social responsibility, ensuring sustainable development in
all its operations.

Notable Projects

• Statue of Unity: The world's tallest statue, located in Gujarat, India.

• Delhi Metro: Significant contributions to the construction of the Delhi Metro.

• Mumbai Coastal Road Project: A major infrastructure project aimed at improving

Mumbai's coastal connectivity.

Leadership

L&T is led by a team of experienced professionals, with Mr. S. N. Subrahmanyan serving

as the Chairman and Managing Director. The leadership team ensures that the company
remains at the forefront of the industry, driving growth and innovation.

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1.2 L&T-CHIYODA LIMITED (LTC)

Is a premier engineering, manufacturing, and construction company formed through a joint

venture between Larsen & Toubro Limited (L&T) and Chiyoda Corporation, Japan.
Chiyoda Corporation is a world-renowned engineering company with over five decades of
experience in the hydrocarbon and related fields. LTC was incorporated on November 19,
1994, and commenced operations in February 1995. LTC serves both national and
international clients, leveraging the strengths of its parent companies.

The company offers international-grade engineering and project management services,

utilizing integrated engineering concepts supported by state-of-the-art computer hardware
and software facilities operating in a networking environment. Dedicated to positive
engineering, LTC employs advanced plant modelling in electronic media to creatively
respond to clients' needs. During the detailed engineering stage, the actual plant is
'visualized' to a very close reality within the engineering office. This approach results in
high efficiency and accuracy in engineering and ease of construction. LTC specializes in
engineering for fast-track EPC (Engineering, Procurement, and Construction) projects of
varying complexities, consistently demonstrating its adaptability and expertise. The
company's commitment to innovation and excellence ensures that it remains a trusted
partner in the hydrocarbon industry.

1.3 Plant and Piping Engineering Department

The Plant and Piping Engineering Department at L&T-Chiyoda Limited (LTC) is an

interconnected department with its activities divided into the following key areas:

Flexibility Analysis

• Stress Analysis of Critical Lines: Ensuring the integrity of piping systems under
various operational conditions.

• Supports for the Piping System: Designing and implementing supports to maintain
system stability.

• Evaluation of Piping Forces and Moments for Nozzle Design: Assessing the impact
of forces and moments on nozzle connections.

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• Estimating the Design Loads: Calculating the loads that the piping system will
encounter.

• Optimization of Piping Design: Enhancing the design for efficiency and reliability.

Material

• Preparation of PMS/VMS Material Take Off (MTO): Creating detailed lists of

materials required for projects.

• Material Take Off: Quantifying the materials needed for construction.

• Floating Material Requisition: Procuring necessary materials through requisition

processes.

• Calculation of Pipe Thickness: Determining the appropriate thickness for pipes

based on operational requirements.

Layout

• Equipment Layout: Planning the arrangement of equipment within the plant.

• Civil Information Drawing: Providing detailed drawings for civil engineering

requirements.

• Nozzle Orientation Plans: Designing the orientation of nozzles for optimal

performance.

• P&ID (Piping and Instrument Diagram): Creating comprehensive assembly

drawings for piping systems.

• Isometric Drawings: Producing isometric drawings to visualize the piping layout in

three dimensions.

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Chapter 2: Piping Systems

2.1 Introduction

The design and engineering of piping systems in India have evolved significantly over the
past two decades. Earlier, methodologies in refineries, petrochemical plants, and fertilizer
industries lacked complexity and precision. However, with industrial growth and
technological advancements, India has become self-sufficient in piping technology,
aligning with global standards.

Piping systems are vital for transporting steam, chemicals, water, and gases under extreme
conditions such as high temperatures and pressures. Previously underestimated, piping is
now recognized as a specialized field requiring expertise in mechanical design, material
science, and structural integrity.

Advancements in computational tools have revolutionized piping design. Traditional

manual methods have been replaced by Computer-Aided Design (CAD), Pipe Stress
Analysis tools like CAESAR II, and 3D modelling applications. These technologies
optimize layouts, simulate real-world conditions, and ensure compliance with ASME,
ANSI, and API standards. Additionally, industries now use modularization, prefabrication,
and automated welding to improve efficiency. Industry 4.0 innovations like IoT-based
monitoring, predictive maintenance, and AI-driven optimization further enhance reliability.

Piping engineers ensure plant safety and efficiency through stress analysis, flexibility
assessment, and adherence to regulations. As projects grow more complex, skilled
engineers are in high demand. Sustainability is also shaping the field, with increasing focus
on green technologies and energy-efficient designs.

The future of piping engineering lies in automation, digitalization, and innovative solutions.
Embracing these advancements will lead to safer, more efficient, and sustainable piping
systems that meet modern industry needs.

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Figure 2.1 Piping System

2.2 Pipe

• A pipe is a pressure-tight cylindrical conduit used to transport fluids, gases, or

slurries in various industrial and commercial applications.
• Classification of pipes is based on their manufacturing methods, ensuring they are
suitable for different pressures and environmental conditions.

2.2.1 Welded Pipes

• Electric Resistance Weld (ERW)

• Furnace Butt Welded
• Electric Fusion Welded
• Double Submerged Arc Welded
• Spiral Welded
• Due to their cost-effectiveness, welded pipes are extensively utilized across various
industries.

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2.2.2 Seamless Pipes

• Manufactured without a welded seam, these pipes provide high strength and
uniformity, making them suitable for high-pressure applications.
• ASTM standards define the selection criteria for seamless pipes, ensuring quality
and reliability in diverse working conditions.

2.2.3 Pipe Ends

• The type of pipe end varies based on material compatibility and joint requirements,
ensuring secure and efficient connections.

Table 2.1 Pipe Ends

Type of End Application

Beveled Ends Ideal for butt welding, ensuring strong, leak-proof joints

Plain Ends Suitable for fillet welding or mechanical joining techniques

Designed for threaded connections, allowing easy assembly and

Screwed Ends
disassembly

Flanged Ends Used for bolted connections, simplifying maintenance and modifications

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2.3 Difference Between Pipe and Tube

Table 2.2 Pipe and Tube

Aspect Pipe Tube

Typically larger in diameter, measured by Smaller in diameter, measured by

Shape & Size
nominal pipe size (NPS) outside diameter (OD)

Thickness Defined by schedule (SCH) Defined by gauge

Used in precision and structural

Strength Designed for high-pressure applications
applications

Common in structural frameworks

Applications Suitable for fluid transportation
and instrumentation

Available in both welded and seamless Predominantly seamless for precision

Manufacturing
forms uses

Figure 2.1 Pipe and Tube

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Chapter 3: Material
3.1 Introduction

Selecting the appropriate piping material for refinery and petrochemical plants is a critical
process that requires collaboration between corrosion, piping, and process engineers.
Beyond ensuring material compatibility with the operating environment, factors such as
availability, cost-effectiveness, and mechanical properties must also be evaluated.

Industrial materials play a key role in manufacturing durable machinery and equipment for
both industrial and consumer applications. When specifying pipes and valves, several
important considerations must be addressed, including the availability of the alloy in the
required size and thickness, its economic feasibility, and its suitability for the intended
application.

Steel pipes, commonly used in industrial settings, are primarily made of carbon steel. Seam-
welded steel pipes are fabricated from plates, whereas seamless pipes are produced using
dies. Additionally, these pipes are available in different finishes, with ‘black’ (plain or mill
finish) and galvanized coatings being the most widely used.

3.1.1 Selection Of Material

● Correctly selected steel pipe offers the strength and durability required for the
application.
● The selected pipe must withstand the conditions of use, especially pressure,
temperature, and corrosion conditions.
● These requirements are met by selecting a pipe made to an appropriate standard.
● The design should meet the requirements of the relevant code.
● The material used shall be by the latest revision of the Standards.
● If ASTM materials are used, then the materials adopted by ASME/ANSI should
be preferred.

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Figure 3.1 Types of Materials

3.2 Codes & Standards

The design of piping systems requires careful selection of construction materials and
detailed material specifications, both of which rely on a thorough understanding of relevant
codes and standards. Standardization helps streamline processes, reduce costs, and
eliminate inconsistencies that may arise due to unnecessary variations in system
components and procedures.

Industry standards are established by professional societies, committees, and trade

organizations to ensure consistency and reliability in design and manufacturing. A code is
essentially a standard that has been officially recognized and adopted by regulatory
authorities to enhance public and industrial safety. Many of the organizations responsible
for developing standards also create codes and recommended engineering practices,
ensuring uniformity and adherence to best practices across the industry.

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3.2.1 Code
A code is a set of general rules or systematic procedures for the design, fabrication,
installation, and inspection of piping systems. It is developed in a structured manner to
ensure it can be adopted by legal authorities and enforced as law.

3.2.2 Standards
Standards are documents developed by professional groups or committees based on
established engineering best practices. They outline mandatory requirements and serve as
guidelines for design, fabrication, and inspection. However, users are responsible for their
correct application, as compliance with a standard does not exempt them from legal
obligations.

Some of the major organizations responsible for developing standards include:

Figure 3.2 Standards

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Material standards are mixes of performance and prescriptive elements. Performance

elements are those that are directly aimed at the needs of the designers, such as the
mechanical and physical properties of the material. Prescriptive elements are for checking
the result.

Generally, Chemical & Plant companies basically work on B31.3 which indicates the
process piping. ASTM (American Society for Testing & Material) describes various codes
for various pipes, valves, flange, etc. Various codes are given below:

3.3 MATERIAL DEPARTMENT ACTIVITY

➔ Purchasing

➔ Inventory Control

➔ Material Requirement Planning

➔ Material Selection

➔ Procurement

➔ Value Engineering

➔ Production Planning

➔ Forecasting

➔ Standardization

➔ Quality Control

➔ Material Planning & Control

➔ Efficiency

➔ Production Control

➔ Inventory Planning & Control

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3.4 SELECTING MATERIAL

➔ Correctly selected steel pipe offers the strength and durability required for the
application.

➔ The selected pipe must withstand the conditions of use, especially pressure, temperature
and corrosion conditions.

➔ These requirements are met by selecting pipe made to an appropriate standard.

➔ The design should meet the requirements of the relevant code.

➔ The material used shall be in accordance with the latest revision of the Standards.

➔ If ASTM materials are used, then the materials adopted by ASME/ANSI should be
preferred.

The selection of material should follow the norms below:

1. Carbon steel shall be used up to 425 C.

2. Low temperature steel shall be used below 20 C.

3. Alloy carbon steel shall be used above 425 C.

3.5 CODES AND STANDARDS FOR PIPE MATERIAL

➔ American Standards

➔ British Standards

➔ Indian Standards

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3.5.1 AMERICAN STANDARD

▪ The American National Standard Institute (ANSI)

▪ The American society of Testing and Materials (ASTM)

▪ The American society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME)

3.6 Material Selection of Piping Components

➔ The selection of piping elements requires the knowledge of corrosion properties,

strength and engineering characteristics, relative cost and availability.

➔ The essential mechanical properties while selection is:

1. Yield strength

2. Ultimate strength

3. Percentage elongation

4. Impact strength

5. Creep rupture strength

6. Fatigue endurance strength

➔ The Piping design criteria originates from the line list, which specifies design conditions
with respect to pressure and temperature.

➔ In absence of this data, the piping engineer refers to the predefined basic data.

In Material Selection major parts are divided into three sections:

1. P & ID No.

2. PMS

3. Datasheet

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3.7 P & ID No.

P&ID stands for "Piping and instrumentation diagram." It is a very important industrial
diagram representing the exact working of the processes in an industrial plant. It uses
specific P&ID symbols to visually show the processes, the equipment, and their connection
and relationship with each other.

P&ID diagrams are made with specific and standard shapes and symbols. As this diagram
covers many diagrams as the variety in industries is very vast, many symbols are required.
These diagrams provide a map for the engineering system's design which is later helpful in
problem identification and solving. The most popular instruments are actuators, equipment,
flow elements, instrumentation, piping fittings, valves, and more.

3.7.1 P&ID Name Representation

P&IDs, or Piping and Instrumentation Diagrams to give them their full name, are schematic
representations of pipelines, equipment, instrumentation, and control systems found in
process environments such as Oil Refineries, Chemical Plants, Paper Mills, and Cement
Plants, etc.

The first letter of the code identifies the parameters that are being controlled or monitored
for example Flow, Temperature, Level or Pressure.

The next letter is used to define the type of control device being used, for example,
Transmitter, Valve or Controller.

The number refers to the logical numerator.

3.7.2 Piping and Instrumentation Diagram(P&ID)

The piping or connection lines on the P&ID also tell us about the instrument, for example,
a solid line would indicate the interconnection is via pipework whereas dotted line would
indicate electrical connection

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Figure 3.3 P&ID

3.7.3 P&ID Symbols

P&ID symbols are categorised according to their functions and industrial uses. The major
categories are Piping, instrumentation, pumps, valves, vessels, heat exchangers,
compressors, and equipment.

P&ID symbols are industry-standard symbols, including instruments, equipment, heat

exchangers, vessels, pipe, motors, and interconnecting lines.

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Figure 3.4 P&ID Symbols

3.7.4 Piping Isometric Drawing

Once the three-dimensional (3D) model has been established in piping design software like
PDS, PDMS, or SP3D, Piping Designers/Engineers need to convey that information to the
yard for fabrication and the site for Construction. The transferred information must have to
be enough for the fabricator with the vision of what is to be fabricated and how the piping
should relate to other elements, with exact dimensions and a complete build/Bill of
materials (BOM).

• So, piping isometrics are directly used for the following situations: For Construction
Services, for marking up deviation during site modifications/ as-building, for
reference as Stress Analysis model built up and the final stress mark up for updating
stress requirements.
• An isometric Drawing is a two-dimensional (2D) drawing that represents the 3D
piping system.

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• It is not drawn to the scale, but it is proportionate with the exact dimensions
represented.
• Pipes are shown in the same size. The actual sizes are notified in the Bill of Material,
tagging, call-out, or notes.
• A piping isometric drawing provides all the required information like: Pipeline
Number, Continuation isometric number, Flow direction, piping dimensions, Piping
joint types, weld types, Flange and valve types, Equipment connection details,
Piping and Component descriptions with size, quantity, and material codes.
• Piping Isometric drawings are popular because of their simplicity yet efficiency to
convey complex information.
• In earlier days, Isometric drawings were hand-drawn. With the innovation and
advancement of the digital age, isometrics are drawn by AutoCAD/MicroStation
software. In recent days, 3D models could automatically extract Isometric with a
single click of a mouse.

Figure 3.5 Piping Isometric Drawing

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3.8 PMS (Piping Material Specification)

The PMS is a document prepared during the design phase of any project. It provides the
appropriate selection, specification & material grade of pipe & piping components for a
given service.

PMS is the key document which governs the whole plant process.

PMS is one of the most important documents in piping work. To prepare appropriate PMS.
Below Steps should be followed that are presented in this course:

I. Overview of ASME B31.3 (process piping codes & standards)

II. Review of process department

III. Process service summary

IV. Review of piping design criteria

V. Design conditions

VI. Review of pressure/mechanical design of process piping

VII. Pipe wall thickness Calculation

VIII. Piping class numbering

IX. Technique of materials selection in PMS document preparation

X. Case study: step by step PMS document sample preparation within attendances.

XI. Branch connection tables and other attachment documents.

Figure 3.6 PMS Sheet

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3.9 MTO (Material Take-Off)

The piping MTO or material take-off is a list of all the piping items required to purchase to
fabricate and construct the design to complete the demand of the project. This list includes
all piping items like a pipe, piping fittings, valves, flanges, blind flange, spacer & blank,
gasket, fasteners, and the special parts like a strainer, steam trap, flame arrester, rupture
disc, bellow, sight glass, hoses, sample cooler, etc.

The material take-off sheet contains a list of all the materials required to complete the
project. This list does not include any assets, such as equipment, machinery, and tools.
These assets will also be required to complete the job of the project. MTO is prepared line-
wise.

3.9.1 Information in a Material Take-off Sheet

• Line number.
• Name of the piping items.
• Main size.
• Reducing size.
• Short code of the items.
• Piping class/spec.
• End/Face type.
• Thickness/Rating
• Material type.
• Dimensional Standard.
• Item type.
• Quantity/Length
• Weight
• Remark (for writing important notes related to piping items)

Figure 3.7 Sample material take - off sheet

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3.9.2 Sequence of the piping items within MTO sheet

1. Pipe/Spool

2. Fittings/component

3. Flange

4. Gasket

5. Fasteners

6. Spacer & Blanks

7. Valve

8. Special part

3.10 BOM (Bill of Material)

➔ A bill of materials or product structure is a list of the raw materials, sub-assemblies,

intermediate assemblies, sub-Components, parts, and the quantities of each needed to
manufacture an end product.

➔ A bill of materials (BOM) is a comprehensive inventory of the raw materials, assemblies,

subassemblies, parts and components, as well as the quantities of each needed to
manufacture a product. In a nutshell, it is the complete list of all the items that are required
to build a product.

➔ The BOM contains the list of all the components required to fabricate and construct the
line. Piping Isometric provides the list of BOM for a particular line.

➔ The piping bill of material is not used for purchasing. It is used to provide the required
material from the warehouse to the fabricator for the construction of the piping system as
per the isometric drawing.

➔ BOM is a document used at the site during the construction phase.

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TEAM ID-715461 Piping Elements

Chapter 4: Piping Elements

4.1 Piping Elements

• In any process industry, one of the fundamental requirements is the efficient

transportation of materials, primarily in liquid form, to ensure smooth operation and
functionality.
• Tubular structures known as pipes serve as connectors between various instruments
or devices, forming a comprehensive network essential for industrial processes.
• The piping system comprises pipes, valves, and fittings that collectively facilitate
material flow while ensuring operational safety and reliability.
• A piping element encompasses any material or component essential for designing
and installing a piping system, contributing to its overall integrity and efficiency.
• Key components of piping systems include:
1. Pipes
2. Fittings
3. Flanges
4. Gaskets
5. Bolting
6. Valves
7. Specialties
• Compliance with industry codes and standards is crucial for piping elements to
maintain safety and regulatory adherence.
• Piping specifications detail each component meticulously, categorizing them into
different piping classes based on material selection, pressure rating, and operational
conditions.
• Designers determine the suitable piping class by considering factors such as
temperature, pressure, and the type of transported fluid.

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4.2 Material Selection of Piping Components

• The selection of piping elements necessitates a thorough understanding of corrosion

resistance, strength, cost, availability, and engineering properties to ensure optimal
performance and longevity.
• Some critical mechanical properties considered in material selection include:
1. Yield strength
2. Ultimate strength
3. Percentage elongation
4. Impact strength
5. Creep rupture strength
6. Fatigue endurance strength
• Piping design criteria are derived from the line list, which outlines pressure and
temperature conditions to guide material selection.
• In cases where design data is unavailable, piping engineers refer to predefined basic
data and industry standards for accurate decision-making.

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4.3 Pipe Fittings

Figure 4.1 Pipe Fittings

• Pipe fittings serve multiple functions, including altering flow direction, connecting
different pipe sizes, and ensuring a seamless pipeline network.

4.3.1 Types of Fittings

1. Elbows: Facilitate a directional change of 45° or 90°, ensuring smooth fluid flow.

Figure 4.2 Caps

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2. Returns: Enable a 180° direction change, commonly used in heat exchangers for
efficient heat transfer.

Figure 4.3 Returns

3. Tees: Create branch connections in low-pressure services, making them essential
for distribution systems.

Figure 4.4 Tees

4. Crosses: Available in straight and these fittings facilitate multi-directional flow.

Figure 4.5 Crosses

5. Reducers: Available in concentric and eccentric variations, they ensure a smooth

transition between different pipe diameters.

• Concentric: this is when the centre line of both the larger and the smaller
pipe is coincident.

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• Eccentric: this is when one of the outside surfaces is to be maintained in

line.

Figure 4.6 Reducers

(1) Concentric (2) Eccentric
6. CAP: It usually welded to the pipe end or mounted on the external thread of the
pipe end to cover the pipe fittings to close the pipeline.

Figure 4.7 Caps

4.4 Flanges

• Flanges enable easy joint dismantling for equipment, valves, and specialties,
simplifying maintenance and modifications.
• Classification of flanges is based on:
1. Pipe attachment: Slip-on, socket weld, threaded, welding neck, etc.
2. Facing type: Flat face, raised face, ring-type joint, ensuring proper sealing.
3. Face finish: Smooth, serrated, or spiral finishes, affecting gasket
compatibility.
4. Material type: Available in carbon steel, stainless steel, and alloy steel to
ensure chemical compatibility.

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Figure 4.8 Flanges

4.5 Gaskets

• Gaskets provide an essential sealing function between flange joints, preventing

leaks and ensuring safe operation.
• Common types include full-face, ring-type, and metal-jacketed gaskets, each
serving specific purposes.

Figure 4.9 Gaskets

4.6 Bolting

• The choice of bolting depends on pressure and temperature conditions, maintaining

joint integrity.

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• For low-pressure applications, hexagonal-headed bolts with nuts are widely used
due to their ease of assembly.

Figure 4.10 Bolting

4.7 Special Fittings

Special fittings such as Weldolet, Sockolet, Threadolet, Elbolet, Sweepolet, Nipolet, and
Latrolet are used for branch connections and reinforcement.

Figure 4.11 Special Fittings

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4.8 Pipe Supports

Pipe supports are used to absorbs system weight, reduce longitudinal pipe stress, reduce
pipe sag., reduce end point reaction loads, and control or direct thermal movement due to
thermal expansion or imposed loads.

Figure 4.12 Pipe Supports

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4.9 Plant Layout

Plant layout design means efficiently placing equipment, piping, instrumentation, and other
manufacturing supports and facilities with proper planning during the design stage to create
the most effective plant layout. It is directly related to project costs as well. The most
efficient plant layout has less overall project cost and the most utilization of all resources.

The main objective of efficient plant layout design is to design and construct the plant in an
economic fashion that meets all the process requirements and client specifications while
operating in a safe reliable manner.

4.9.1 Overall Plot Plan

The overall plot plan is basically an arrangement drawing that shows the equipment and
supporting facilities (roads, rail tracks, pipe racks, structures, Sewers) that are required for
the process facility within a battery limit area.

Figure 4.13 Overall Plot Plan

(Courtesy of book “Certificate course on Piping Engineering” by IIT Bombay)

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4.9.2 Unit Plot Plan (Equipment Layout)

Equipment layout shows location and placement of all equipment in a process or utility area
along with various types of access and maintenance areas.

Figure 4.14 Unit Plot Plan

(Courtesy of book “Certificate course on Piping Engineering” by IIT Bombay)

4.9.3 Battery Limit(B/L)

It is dividing boundary between two project areas of responsibility. There are two types of
Battery limits in a refinery or process plant. They are called ISBL or Inside battery limitand
OSBL or outside battery limit. Both ISBL and OSBL are common terms used in the design
and operation of a refinery or process plant.

1. ISBL stands for Inside Battery Limits. It refers to the area within the physical
boundary of the plant where the primary process equipment is located. The ISBL
includes all process units, equipment, and facilities required to produce the final
product, such as reactors, distillation columns, pumps, and compressors.
2. OSBL stands for Outside Battery Limits. It refers to the area outside the physical
boundary of the plant where the secondary process equipment and facilities are
located. The OSBL includes all utility systems required for the operation of the
plant, such as water treatment plants, power generation units, storage tanks, and
loading facilities.

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4.9.4 Pipe Rack

A pipe rack is the main artery of a processing unit. It connects all equipment with lines that
cannot run through adjacent areas. Because it is in the middle of most plants, the pipe rack
must be erected first, before it becomes obstructed by rows of equipment. Pipe racks carry
process, and utility piping, and include instrument and electrical cable trays, as well as
equipment mounted over all of these.

Figure 4.15 Pipe Rack

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TEAM ID-715461 Valves in Piping Systems

Chapter 5: Valves in Piping Systems

• Valves constitute 8-10% of a piping system’s capital expenditure, playing a crucial

role in controlling fluid flow.
• Their primary functions include:
o ON/OFF flow control
o Throttling to regulate flow
o Prevention of backflow
o Pressure modulation
o Pressure relief in critical conditions

5.1 Valve Classifications

5.1.1 Based on Function

Table 5.1 Funtion Of Valves

Type Examples

Isolation Gate, ball, plug, diaphragm, butterfly

Regulation Globe, needle, butterfly, diaphragm

Non-Return Check, float

Special-Purpose Multi-port, pinch, diaphragm, knife gate

5.1.2 Based on End Connection

1. Screwed Ends

2. Socket Weld Ends

3. Flanged Ends

4. Butt Weld Ends

5. Socketed Ends

6. Water type Ends

7. Buttress Ends

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5.2 Components of Valves

1. Body – Main structure housing all internal components.

2. Bonnet – Covers the body and allows maintenance access.

3. Trim – Internal parts like disc, seat, stem, and sleeves.

4. Disc (Closure Element) – Controls fluid flow by opening or closing.

5. Seat – Provides sealing surface to prevent leakage.

6. Stem – Connects the actuator/handwheel to the disc.

7. Actuator (Handwheel/Lever) – Controls valve movement (manual or automatic).

8. Packing & Gaskets – Prevent fluid leakage at joints.

9. Spring (in Some Valves) – Assists in automatic closing (e.g., check valves).

5.3 Types of Valves

Figure 5.1 Types of Valves

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5.3.1 Gate Valves - Structure, Advantages & Limitations

Figure 5.2 Gate Valves

Gate Valve Structure & Advantages

• Provides minimal flow resistance, making it highly efficient for fluid transportation.
• Available in diverse sizes and pressure ratings to accommodate different
applications.
• Cost-effective and extensively used in industrial pipelines for isolation purposes.

Limitations

• Bulkier and heavier than other stop valves, requiring adequate space for installation.
• Requires significant stroke length for operation, making frequent manual use less
practical.
• Unsuitable for precise flow control or solid-laden fluids.

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5.3.2 Globe Valves - Functionality and Usage

Figure 5.3 Globe Valves

Functionality

Globe valves control flow by moving a disk perpendicular to the seat, allowing precise
throttling and effective shut-off.

Usage

Water & Steam Systems – HVAC, boilers, power plants

Oil & Gas – Refining, flow regulation

Chemical & Pharma – Corrosive fluid handling

High-Pressure Applications – Reliable sealing in extreme conditions

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5.3.3 Butterfly Valves - Basic Design and Applications

Figure 5.4 Butterfly Valves

A butterfly valve is a quarter-turn valve with a rotating disc that controls fluid flow. It
consists of a body, disc, stem, seat, and actuator. The disc rotates to open or close the valve,
allowing efficient flow regulation.

Types

1. Concentric – Rubber-lined, general-purpose.

2. Double Offset – Reduced wear, high-performance.

3. Triple Offset – Metal-seated, high-pressure & temperature.

Applications

• Water & wastewater – Flow control in pipelines.

• HVAC systems – Regulates air & water flow.

• Chemical industry – Handles corrosive fluids.

• Power plants – Used in steam systems.

• Marine – Controls ballast & bilge systems.

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5.3.4 Ball Valves - Working Mechanism

Figure 5.5 Ball Valves

Working Mechanism

A ball valve is a quarter-turn valve that controls fluid flow using a spherical ball with a
hole (bore) through its center. When the handle or actuator rotates the ball 90 degrees, the
hole aligns with the pipeline to allow flow (open position). Rotating it back blocks the
passage (closed position).

Key Components:

• Body: Outer casing made of metal or plastic.

• Ball: Spherical component with a bore that controls flow.

• Stem: Connects the actuator or handle to the ball.

• Seat: Sealing material (PTFE, metal, or elastomer) ensuring leak-proof operation.

• Actuator: Manual (lever), pneumatic, or electric.

Ball valves are widely used due to their durability, tight sealing, and ease of operation,
making them essential in various industries.

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5.3.5 Check Valves

Check Valves

Check valves are automatic valves that allow fluid to flow in one direction and prevent
backflow. They operate without manual intervention, using differential pressure to open or
close.

When selecting a check valve, consider the following:

• Flow Rate & Pressure: Choose a valve that matches system pressure and flow
conditions.

• Material Compatibility: Ensure the valve material (stainless steel, cast iron, PVC)
is suitable for the fluid type.

• Installation Position: Some check valves require horizontal or vertical mounting.

• Operating Environment: Consider temperature, pressure, and potential for

corrosion.

• Water Hammer Prevention: Select valves like dual plate or soft-seated swing check
valves to minimize water hammer effects.

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5.4 Safety and Pressure-Relief Valves

Figure 5.6 Pressure Relief Valves

Safety and pressure-relief valves are designed to protect equipment and pipelines from
overpressure by automatically releasing excess pressure when it exceeds a set limit.

Types of Safety & Pressure-Relief Valves

1. Safety Valve – Opens rapidly (pop action) to release pressure, commonly used in
steam, gas, and air systems.

2. Pressure-Relief Valve – Opens gradually (modulating action) as pressure increases,

used in liquid systems.

3. Pilot-Operated Relief Valve – Uses a pilot valve to control the main valve opening
for precise pressure control.

4. Spring-Loaded Relief Valve – Uses a spring mechanism to open at a pre-set

pressure.

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Selection Criteria

• Set Pressure: The pressure level at which the valve activates.

• Flow Capacity: Must handle required discharge volume.

• Material Compatibility: Should withstand process fluid conditions.

• Operating Environment: Consider temperature, corrosion, and mounting position.

• Code Compliance: Must adhere to safety regulations like ASME, API, or ISO
standards.

Applications

• Boilers & Pressure Vessels – Prevents explosion risks.

• Oil & Gas Industry – Protects pipelines and storage tanks.

• Chemical Processing Plants – Ensures safe handling of hazardous substances.

• Water Systems – Regulates excess pressure in pumps and pipelines.

Safety and pressure-relief valves are critical for preventing system failures, ensuring
equipment protection, and maintaining operational safety.

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TEAM ID-715461 Stresses and Loads in Piping Systems

Chapter 6: Stresses and Loads in Piping Systems

Piping Systems work under different temperature and pressure conditions which place lot
of stress on its various components. Systems must be thoroughly analyzed using the latest
Stress Analysis Software and supported in such a manner that no detrimental stress occurs
in the system, which can cause system failure.

6.1 Why is Stress analysis required?

• To Ensure that the stresses in the

piping components are within the
allowable limits.
• To Calculate & Ensure Nozzle
Loadings on the connected
equipment.
• To Calculate & Ensure pipe
displacements.
• To Calculate & Ensure Loads and
Moments on the supporting
structures.
• To Ensure leakage proof flange
joints.
• To limit the deflections meeting
requirements like sag, etc.
• Checking of System natural
frequencies etc.
• To find out unintentional
disengagement of pipe from
support.
• To solve dynamic problems in
piping, such as those due to
mechanical vibration, acoustic
vibration, fluid hammer, pulsation,
transient flow, and relief valve Figure 6.1 Sample photo of Stresses in
discharge. Piping System

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Objectives of Stress Analysis: Stress Analysis piping & pipeline system need to be
performed to get ensured the following objectives.

Structural Integrity:

• Design adequacy for the associated parameters like pressure,

temperature, velocity, types of flow (transient/ steady), nature of
flow (liquid/Gas/Mix/Steam) with flowing fluid.
• Failure against external loading like wind, seismic, soil settlement,
equipment vibration etc.
• Design for code compliance.
Operational Integrity:

• Limiting nozzle loads of the connected equipment within allowable

limits by manufacturers or standards like (API 610, API 617, the
Hydraulic Institute, etc.)
• Avoiding leakage of joints.
• Limiting sagging
• Limiting displacement of Pipe for interference checks with adjacent
lines
Optimal Design:

• Avoiding excessive flexibility, minimum pipe load for pipe support

design and high loads on supporting structures.
• Aim towards a cost-effective design for both piping and structure.

6.2 Loads on Piping System

Piping subjects to different types of loads during its design life which develops stresses in
the pipe.

6.2.1 Different types of loading in the piping systems are as follows

1. Gravity Load:

a. Empty weight (Weight no content): Self weight of pipe and its fitting.
b. Water filled Weight: Water filled the weight of pipe and its fitting including
insulation.
c. Weight Load (Weight with content): Process fluid filled the weight of pipe
and fitting including insulation.

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2. Pressure Load: Loads on the piping system due to pressure. This can be internal or
external pressure acting in piping.

3. Thermal Load: Loads due to change in Temperature from installation to operating

condition.

4. Wind Load: Loads due to wind velocity on the piping system.

5. Slug Load: Piping system experiences slug load due to flowing two phase flow in the
pipe.

6. Uniform Load:

a. Snow Load: Weight effect due to icing on the piping system.

b. Buoyancy Force: Load due to buoyancy effect on fully or partially
submerged piping systems.
c. Earthquake Load: Load due to earth shaking on the piping system.
7. Wave Load: Loads due to waves on the piping system

a. Marine Waves: Load effect on fully or partially submerged subsea pipeline

due to marine waves
b. Seismic Waves: Load effect on buried pipelines due to seismic waves
c. Pressure Waves: Load in the piping system due to travelling pressure wave
(fluid hammer effect).
6.2.2 Categorization of loads
Stresses are generated in a system or subject due to internal force so the forces in the piping
system are broadly categorized into two parts.

1. Primary Load: Primary Load are usually force driven (gravity, pressure, spring
force, reaction force, fluid hammer etc.) having followed characteristics:
• Primary loads are typically not cyclical in nature.
• Primary load is not self-limiting (i.e. Once plastic deformation begins it
continuously unabated until force equilibrium is achieved or until failure of
the cross-section results.
• Excessive primary load causes gross plastic deformation and rupture.
Failure may occur with a single application of the load.

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2. Secondary Load: Secondary Loads are usually displacement driven (thermal

expansion, imposed anchor movement, settlement, vibration etc.) having followed
characteristic:
• Secondary load is self-limiting (i.e. Loads tend to dissipate as the system
deforms through yielding or deflection).
• Secondary loads are typically cyclic in nature (except settlement).
• A single application of the load never produces failure. Rather catastrophic
failure can occur after some (usually high) number of applications of the
load.
6.2.3 Classification of Loads Based on load application
1. Static Loads: The static loads or forces are loads that do not change in size, position
or direction with time.
a. Deadweight: self-weight of the pipe including fluid, fittings and its
associated components.
b. Pressure: Internal pressure in pipe & external pressure on pipe.
2. Dynamic Load: The dynamic loads or forces are loads that do change in size,
position or direction with time. For a piping system, the dynamics loads are defined
and considered as follows:
a. Random: Seismic, Wind, Wave.
b. Harmonic: Vibration due to connected equipment, Pulsation.
c. Impulse: PSV Discharge reaction force, Fluid Hammer.
3. Cyclic Load: The load which is repeated over a time. The load may be static or
dynamic and may be a combination of both.
a. Thermal Expansion & Contraction
b. Vibration due to Occasional loading
c. Pressure variation within the Piping system
d. Motion wave
e. Due to Flow-induced Vibration

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6.3 Stresses in Pipe

6.3.1 Axial Stress

Axial stress is in the direction of the axis of the pipe. It is due to axial force and longitudinal
pressure force.

1. Axial force

Axial force is a force acting in the direction of axis of pipe. This is mainly due to
concentrated loads or distributed loads, etc.,

Where, Fax is the axial force

Am is the metal cross-section area.

2. Longitudinal pressure force

Longitudinal pressure force is due to internal pressure. Friction between the fluid and the
pipe is the source of the force and try to pull the pipe in the direction of the fluid flow. Axial
stresses are induced in the pipe as the pipe resists this axial pull.

Where P is the design pressure

Do is the outer diameter of the pipe

Di is the inner diameter of the pipe

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6.3.2 Bending Stress

Bending load makes the pipe to bend; it is the combination of in-plane and out of plane
moments.

Where, Sb is Bending Stress

M is Bending Moment

Z is Section Modulus of Pipe

6.3.3 Torsion Stress

Torsion Stress is generated due to torsion moment.

Where, Mt is Torsion Moment

Z is Section Modulus of Pipe

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6.3.4 Code Stress

For Sustained Case: Code Stress in a sustained case is a function of longitudinal pressure
stress, stress due to axial force and stress due to bending load.

SL = SLa + SLp + Sb

For Expansion Case: Code Stress in an expansion case is a function of stress due to bending
load and torsion stress

Where, Sa is the axial stress

Sb is the bending stress

St is the torsion stress

6.3.5 Code Stress Ratio

It is ratio of Code Stress to Allowable Stress. Values of Allowable Stress are taken from
ASME B31.3 Process Piping Code.

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Chapter 7: Piping calculations ASME B31.3

7.1 THICKNESS CALCULATIONS FOR PIPE

• Initially thickness is calculated based on internal gauge pressure and then it is verified
by different methods for different conditions.
• The ambient conditions play a major role in determining the pipe thickness. Some of
them are.
1. Cooling Effects on Pressure: because of excessive cooling vacuum can be created,
thus pipe should be able to withstand the excessive pressure.
2. Fluid Expansion Effects
3. Atmospheric Icing (when design minimum temp is below 0`c)
4. Low Ambient Temperature
• Some dynamic effects which the pipe needs to sustain are:
1. Impact
2. Wind
3. Earthquake
5. Vibration
6. Discharge Reactions
• Various methods used for verification of the pipe thickness are as follows.
• External pressure verification
• Underground thickness calculation
• Thread check
• Bend check
• Hydro test calculation
• Indian boiler regulation (IBR)

7.1.1 Thickness calculation based on internal gauge pressure

• The required thickness of straight sections of pipe shall be determined in accordance
with following equation: tm = t + c
• The minimum thickness, t, for the pipe selected, considering manufacturers minus
tolerance, shall be not less than tm, to make the pipe safe also in the worst condition.

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The equation for thickness for internally pressurized pipe is:

t = PD/2(SEW+PY)

Where:

• c = sum of the mechanical allowances (thread or groove depth) plus corrosion and
erosion allowances. For threaded components, the nominal thread depth (dimension h
of ASME B1.20.1, or equivalent) shall apply. For machined surfaces or grooves where
the tolerance is not specified, the tolerance shall be assumed to be 0.5 mm (0.02 in.) in
addition to the specified depth of the cut.
• D = outside diameter of pipe as listed in tables of standards or specifications or as
measured
• d = inside diameter of pipe. For pressure design calculation, the inside diameter of the
pipe is the maximum value allowable under the purchase specification.
• E = quality factor from Table A-1A or A-1B. It depends on material and the method of
manufacturing.
• P = internal design gage pressure
• S = stress value for material from Table A-1
• T = pipe wall thickness (measured or minimum in accordance with the purchase
specification)
• t = pressure design thickness, as calculated in accordance with para. 304.1.2 of ASME
31.3 for internal pressure or as determined in accordance with para. 304.1.3 of ASME
31.3 for external pressure
• tm = minimum required thickness, including mechanical, corrosion, and erosion
allowances
• W = weld joint strength reduction factor in accordance with para. 302.3.5(e) of ASME
31.

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7.1.2 Case Study For Thickness Calculation And Verification

Following specifications were given for the design of the pipe by Process Licenser.

RATINGS (ASME Material Group 1.1)

Table 7.1 ASME Material Group

Temp(°C) -29 93 149 260 343 371 DIAMETER

PRESSURE 20.03 18.28 16.17 11.95 8.78 7.73 0.5’’ to 24’’
(kg/cm²g)
16.02 14.62 12.94 9.56 7.02 6.18 26’’ to 64’’

To find the thickness ASME B 31.3, the piping process code in table
304.1.1 gives the formula of the thickness.
Tm = T + C
Where T = PD / 2(SE + PY)
Were

P = Internal pressure gauge (kg/mm²g)

D = Outside diameter of pipe (mm)
S = Allowable Stress (kg/mm²)
(Taken from ASME B 31.3 TABLE A-1A)
E = Joint quality factor
(Taken from ASME B 31.3 TABLE A-1B)
W = Weld Joint Reduction Factor
(Taken from ASME B 31.3 TABLE 302.3.5)
Y = Co-efficient factor
(Taken from ASME B 31.3 TABLE 304.1.1)
C1 = Corrosion Allowance
Tm = (PD / 2(SEW + PY) + C1
• Here for 0.5’’ to 24’’ pipe is to be designed on full PT rating as per the ASME 16.5 and
for 24’’ to 64’’ is to be deigned on 80% of full PT rating as per client’s requirement.
• Given pressure and temperature range falls under class 150 as per ASME 16.5.
• Now we will go through a step-by-step process in determining the thickness of the pipe.

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• The calculations are made on the basis of taking P-T reading with material A105 and
allowable stresses of A106(B) or A672 GR B65 class22 depending upon the pipe
diameter.
• P-T rating taken from Table 2-1.1 (Pressure–Temperature Ratings for Group 1.1
Materials); ASME B16.5-2013
• Allowable stresses taken from Table A-1 (Basic Allowable Stresses in Tension for
Metals); ASME B31.3-2014

RATING 150#
MATERIAL CARBON STEEL
CORROSION ALLOWANCE 1.5mm
PIPE CLASS A1A

STEP 1:
• For all the above temperatures find the allowable stress value from table A-1 in ASME
B31.3
• Now calculate the P/SE ratio for each of the above combinations.
• The combination, for which P/S ratio is maximum, indicates the worst extreme
condition.

SR. PRESSURE STRESS P / SE TEMP(C) MATERIAL

NO. (kg/mm²g) (N/mm²)
1. 2203.3 140613.9 0.015669148 38 A106(B)
2. 1778.7 140613.9 0.012649532 149
3. 965.8 121631.0372 0.007940407 343
4. 850.3 117412.6197 0.007241981 371
5. 1762.2 152566.0987 0.011550403 38 A672 GR
6. 1423.4 144814.6174 0.009829118 149 B65 class22
7. 772.2 121675.961 0.006346365 343
8. 679.8 117412.6197 0.005789838 371

• From the above readings we can say that the worst condition or the condition of
maximum thickness is at 38`c.

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• Therefore, we will use the temperature and pressure at 38`c to find the resultant
thickness of the pipe.

STEP 2:
• Now from Table 302.3.5 in ASME B31.3 based on temp and material select the weld
joint strength reduction factor W.

DIAMETER O.D P STRESS C3 C Tm Total Material

NPS (in) mm (kg/mm²g) (N/mm²) mm mm mm Thickness
tm(mm)
0.5 21.3 10405 112517.58 0.5 2 0.165837016 2.16583702 A106(B)

62 168.3 9582 112517.58 0.5 2 1.310345996 3.310346

24 610 9210 112517.58 0.593 2.09 4.749322981 6.84298835

42 1067 8472 112517.58 0.3 1.8 6.133801115 7.93380111 A672 GR

56 1422 7452 112517.58 0.3 1.8 8.174569058 9.97456906 B65

64 1626 5800 112517.58 0.3 1.8 9.347292045 11.147292 class22

STEP 3:
• Now from table A1-A or A1-B in ASME B31.3 select the weld quality factor E based
on material specification.
• Here is the given material specification
E=1
STEP 4:
• Now from Table 304.1.1 in ASME B31.3 select the Y coefficient based on material and
temperature.
• Here for given case
Y = 0.4
STEP 5:
• Now put all the selected values given equation for given outside dia D :

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t = PD/2(SEW+PY)

STEP 6:
• Now add the corrosion allowance and milling tolerance in the calculated to get tm
• Here
C.A. = 1.5 mm (As per given in PMS), And milling tolerance is 12.5%
• We get the thickness of pipe at 38`c as seen below:
• Some values which are constant for all diameters are:
• E=1 (quality factor)
• Y=0.4 (coefficient)
• W= 1 (Weld Joint factor)
• C1=0.6 (corrosion allowance)
• C2=0 (thread allowance)
• C3= mill tolerance
• Overall c= c1+c2+c3
• Total thickness= tm +c
• P= internal pressure (kg/mm2g)
• S= Allowable stresses (s) (kg/mm2)

STEP 7:
• Now we will select the standard thickness with respect to the total thickness found out.
• Usually the procured thickness is very high with respect to the standard thickness
because of various reasons. Some of these reasons are discussed later in the report

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Table 7.2 Procured Thickness without allowance

Sr. O.D Tm Total Procured Procured Material

No. (mm) (mm) Thickness Thickness Thickness
(mm) (mm) without
allowance
1. 21.3 0.165837016 2.16583702 3.73 1.73 A106(B)
2. 168.3 1.310345996 3.310346 7.11 5.11
3. 610 4.749322981 6.84298835 8.74 6.646334627

4. 1067 6.133801115 7.93380111 12.7 10.9 A672

5. 1422 8.174569058 9.97456906 14.27 12.47 GRB65
6. 1626 9.347292045 11.147292 17.48 15.68 class22

• We can see that the difference between procured thickness and the total thickness
increases with an increase in diameter. This is because with an increase in dia the stress
caused due to various effects increases significantly.
• Some of these factors which affect the thickness are:
• External pressure verification
• Underground thickness calculation
• Thread check
• Bend check
• Hydro test calculation
• Indian boiler regulation (IBR)
• Let’s go through each factor one by one

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7.2 Bend check

The minimum required thickness tm of a bend, after bending, in its finished form, shall be
determined in accordance with following equations.

t = PD/2[(SEW/I) + PY]
Where at the intrados (inside bend radius)
I = (4(R1/D) − 1)/(4(R1/D) − 2)
And at the extrados (outside bend radius)
I = (4(R1/D) + 1)/(4(R1/D) + 2)

At the sidewall on the bend centerline radius, I = 1.0, and where R1 = bend radius of
welding elbow or pipe bend
Thickness variations from the intrados to the extrados and along the length of the bend
shall be gradual.

When pipes are bent on site to achieve curve, it becomes mandatory to check whether the
pipe will be able to sustain the pressure or not because of variation in thickness at intrados
and extrados of the pipe.

Hence thickness at intrados and extrados is calculated as shown below for different
diameters of the pipes and for the different curve radius as per the equation shown above.

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For all the conditions procured thickness after removing allowance at the intrados and
extrados is greater than the actual design thickness. Hence pipes will be able to handle the
design internal pressure. Here, pipe of thickness 6’’ (168.3mm O.D) is checked.

• The check is done at 38`c as it is the point of worst condition or maximum thickness.

Table 7.3 Bend check

Sr. Outside Bend Bend Intra Extra Tm Tm

No. Dia Radius Radius Dos Dos (Intra (Extra
Meter (mm) dos) dos)
(mm) (mm) (mm)
1. 168.3 1D 168.3 1.5 0.833 1.959417 1.09309
2. 168.3 3D 504.9 1.1 0.928571 1.440483 1.217291
3. 168.3 6D 1009.8 1.045455 0.961538 1.369519 1.26025

• If we want to compare it with standard thickness, we will also have to add the various
tolerances to the respective intrados and extrados thickness.
• The tolerance ‘C’ can be obtained from previous data.
• Intrados thickness will always be more than extrados thickness.

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7.3 Leak test or Hydro test

• Prior to initial operation, each piping system shall be leak tested. Each weld and each
piping component, except bolting and individual gaskets to be used during final system
assembly and pressure-relieving devices to be used during operation, shall be
hydrostatically or pneumatically leak tested.

• The hydrostatic test pressure at every point in a metallic piping system shall be as
follows:
1. Not less than 1.25 times the design pressure.
2. When the design temperature is greater than the test temperature, the minimum test
pressure, at the point under consideration, shall be calculated by following equation.

• Pt = 1.5PST/S
• Where
P = internal design gage pressure
Pt = minimum test gage pressure
S = allowable stress at component design temperature for the prevalent pipe
material; see Appendix K, Table K-1
ST = allowable stress at test temperature for the prevalent pipe material;
see Table K-1

• First we will find the maximum allowable pressure; this is done using the previous
equation of thickness.
• The thickness is taken as procured thickness and the pressure is found out.
• The value of stress is taken as yield strength, as we want to check for pipe failure.
• The values of E, Y, W and C(total allowance) will be same as before.
• The yield strength for both the material comes out to be 246074.3528 (kg/mm2)

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• Using
P= (2*S*E*W*t)/(D-2*t*Y).
• ST(kg/mm2)= 163815.212
• S(N/mm2))= 149247.6103
• ST/S = 1.097606934

Table 7.4 Hydro test

Sr. Dia(NPS) Outside Procured Maximum Material

No. in Diameter Thickness allowed
(mm) without pressure
allowance (kg/mm)

1. 2 60.3 1.73 14451.37587 A106(B)

2. 4 114.3 3.08 13553.93624
3. 6 168.3 5.11 15314.83622
4. 24 610 6.646334627 5409.421714
5. 26 660 7.73 5818.624038 A672 GR
6. 42 1067 10.9 5068.999595 B65 class22
7. 56 1422 12.47 4346.310232
8. 64 1626 15.68 4782.833684

• Maximum pressure which is being used in the industry is 104.05 kg/cm2. Therefore a
minimum safety of at least 2.1 times the pressure used, is ensured.
• Now we will find pressure for hydro test and pneumatic test. This pressure should be
less than the Maximum allowed pressure.
• For hydrostatic:
Pt= 1.5*P*ST/S = 2476.324725
• For Pneumatic
Pt= 1.1*P*ST/S= 2179.165758
• As both the test pressures are less than the maximum allowable pressures at respective
diameters, the pipe is safe

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7.4 External Pressure check

• Value of A taken from Table G, ASME Section 2

• Temperature = 38°C
• Pressure = 17.7bar
• Material = A106(C)
• C1(corrosion allowance) = 1.5mm
• C2(thread allowance) = 0mm
• C3(mill allowance) = 0.5mm

Table 7.5 External pressure check

Sr. Dia Procured L/Do Do/t A B Allowable Design

No. meter Thickness Pressure Pressure
(mm) without (bar) (bar)
allowance
(mm)

1. 60.3 1.73 50 34.85549 0.00661 17248.50 45.49229577 17.7

2. 114.3 3.08 50 37.11039 0.00401 17002.99 42.11992579 17.7

3. 168.3 5.11 50 32.93542 0.00882 17314.80 48.32949112 17.7

• As the Allowable pressure is greater then the design pressure the pipe is safe under
external loading.

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7.5 Thread Check

• When threads are required on the pipe, pipe should be designed accordingly, and the
height of the threads should be added to the designed thickness and then pipe
specifications should be given for the procurement.
• Here we have followed the reverse process.
• We can obtain the standard pitch for the given diameter of the pipe from ANSI B1.20.1.
• The relationship between height of the thread and pitch can be given as,
▪ h=0.866025p
• If thickness after removing allowances and thread height from the procured thickness
is higher than the designed thickness, then threads are allowed to be produced on that
pipe, otherwise threads should be avoided.
• Sample calculations for thread check are shown below.
• Extra thickness left = Procured thickness – h – Original thickness
• Note: all the above thickness are without any allowances
• Here for 1.5’’and 6” dia. pipe thickness after removing allowances and thread height
from procured pipe thickness is higher than the designed thickness. Hence threads are
allowed to be produced on the pipe.
• But for pipe diameters 2’’in pipe thickness after removing allowances and thread height
from procured pipe thickness is smaller than the designed thickness. Hence threads are
not allowed to be produced on these pipes.
•
Table 7.6 Thread check

O.D Thread Pitch H=0.866025 Procured Tm Extra

(mm) per P Thickness (mm) thickness
inch without
allowance
(mm)
60.3 - 11.5 2.2086 1.9127 1.73 0.469482255 0.652267

114.3 8 3.175 2.7496 3.08 1.310345996 1.05002

168.3 8 3.175 2.7496 5.11 0.376052951 1.29116

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TEAM ID-715461 Legend

Chapter 8: Legend
A legend simply put is a chart with all the symbols used in an individual diagram. It could
be a mechanical, P&ID, electrical symbol legend, or other types of diagrams. This is an
invaluable tool because it simply is not possible to remember every single symbol used in
our diagrams.

8.1 Legend for Line

8.1.1 How to name a line

Figure 8.1 Legend of naming a line

8.1.2 Designation of Line

Figure 8.2 Legend of line for instrument

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8.1.3 Type of Line and Continuity used

Figure 8.3 Legend of type of line

8.2 Valve

Figure 8.4 Legend of Valve

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8.3 Special Equipment

Figure 8.5 Special Equipment

8.4 Control System

Figure 8.6 Legend of Control Equipment

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8.5 Vessels

Figure 8.7 Legend of Vessels

8.6 Furnaces

Figure 8.8 Legend of Furnaces

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8.7 Pump

Figure 8.9 Legend of Pump

8.8 Demister

Figure 8.10 Legend of Demister

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8.9 Tower

Figure 8.11 Legend of Tower

• Legend plays an important role in identification of various equipment and parts of

the model as to identify the instruments and lines in the P&ID
• The provide vital Information about the process and the equipment like size of
equipment, material of equipment nozzle orientation of the vessel and instrument
tags which provide instruments information and the data that can be collected from
the pipe as well as from the type of data that is collected.
• There is legend which Provided basic line structure like the drain of the pipes and
some different circuits for supply of gases like nitrogen, hydrogen, etc.

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TEAM ID-715461 REFERENCES

REFERENCES

1. L&T Energy Hydrocarbon Engineering PPT’s

2. ASME, “Process Piping,” American Society of Mechanical Engineers, New York,

Standard No. ASME B31.3.

3. BSc Engineer Hamed Motlagh “Piping Design Engineering”, OxfordCert Universal.

4. Prof. A. S. Moharir, (2004) “Certificate Course on Piping Engineering”, Organized by

IIT Bombay.

5. Guidance of Mentor

6. “General Principles for Plant Layout” by L&T.

7. Mohinder L. Nayyar “Piping Handbook” 7th Ed. ,McGraw-Hill.

8. Sam Kannappam “Introduction to Pipe Stress Analysis”, John Wiley & Sons.

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