Republic of the Philippines

Mindanao State University at Naawan

College of Education and Social Sciences
Department of Social Sciences and Humanities
9023 Poblacion, Naawan, Misamis Oriental

PHILOSOPHY 1
ARGUMENTATION IN CONTEMPORARY
SOCIETY
A Module

Prepared by:
Pat Ray M. Dagapioso

CONTENTS
Introduction to Logic..........................................................................................................................4
Explore ..........................................................................................................................................4
Enrichment ....................................................................................................................................6
Evaluate.........................................................................................................................................6
Terms and Propositions......................................................................................................................7
Explore ..........................................................................................................................................7
Enrichment ....................................................................................................................................9
Evaluation....................................................................................................................................10
Categorical Propositions...................................................................................................................12
Explore ........................................................................................................................................12
Enrichment ..................................................................................................................................17
Evaluate.......................................................................................................................................18
Translating Ordinary Propositions ....................................................................................................19
Explore ........................................................................................................................................19
Enrichment ..................................................................................................................................22
Evaluate.......................................................................................................................................23
Opposite Propositions......................................................................................................................25
Explore ........................................................................................................................................25
Enrichment ..................................................................................................................................31
Evaluate.......................................................................................................................................31
Equivalent Propositions ...................................................................................................................32
Explore ........................................................................................................................................32
Enrichment ..................................................................................................................................36
Evaluate.......................................................................................................................................36
Arguments and Categorical Syllogisms..............................................................................................38
Explore ........................................................................................................................................38
Enrichment ..................................................................................................................................40
Evaluate.......................................................................................................................................40
Syllogistic Rules and Fallacies...........................................................................................................42
Explore ........................................................................................................................................42
Enrichment ..................................................................................................................................47
Evaluate.......................................................................................................................................48

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Moods, Figures, and Soundness of Syllogisms...................................................................................49
Explore ........................................................................................................................................49
Enrichment ..................................................................................................................................52
Evaluate.......................................................................................................................................52
Hypothetical Propositions and Syllogisms.........................................................................................54
Explore ........................................................................................................................................54
Enrichment ..................................................................................................................................62
Evaluate.......................................................................................................................................62
References.......................................................................................................................................65
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INTRODUCTION TO LOGIC

At the end of this chapter, you should be able to:

1. Discuss briefly the definition of logic.
2. Explain why logic is classified under philosophy.
3. Familiarize the history of logic with the philosophers and their respective contributions.
4. Elaborate the importance of logic to students, professionals, and life.
Aristotle and the Computer

Explore
1. What is logic?
a. Definition
i. Logic is defined as the science and art of correct thinking.
ii. By this definition, logic is both an end in itself and a means.
iii. As an end, logic means as an object of study.
iv. It seeks to attain correct thinking or reasoning.
v. As a means, logic is both a science and an art.
vi. Logic is a science because:

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1. It is a theoretical discipline which provides us with the knowledge
of the principles, laws, and methods of logic itself.
2. It employs a body of data (i.e., terms and propositions) that are
needed in the formulation of an argument.
3. It aims at arriving at the validity of every argument.
vii. Logic as an art means skills, ability or craft.
 viii. As such logic requires a practical application of the science of logic to our
everyday affairs.
b. Logic as a Philosophical Discipline
i. The study of logic is classified as one of the many branches of philosophy.
ii. It is part of the greater studies of philosophy because of two reasons: 1. It
involves both reciprocal process of theory and practice.
2. It is a tool in understanding the many philosophical questions in
life.
c. History of Logic
i. Aristotle (384-322 BC)
1. He is considered as the Father of Logic
2. He was the first to devise the systematic criteria for analyzing and
evaluating arguments known as syllogistic logic.
ii. Chrysippus (279-226 BC)
1. He treated every proposition as either true or false an developed
rules for determining the truth or falsity or compound
propositions from the truth or falsity of their components.
iii. Galen (129-199 AD)
1. He eveloped the theory of the compound categorical syllogism
iv. Peter Abelard (1079-1142)
1. He originated the theory of universals that traced the universal
character of general terms to concepts in the mind rather than to
‘natures’ exsiting outside of the mind.
v. William of Occam (1285-1349)
1. He conducted an exhaustive study of the forms of valid and
invalid syllogisms and contributed to the development of a meta
language such as words, terms, propositions, and so on.
vi. Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646-1716)
1. He attempted to develop a symbolic language or calculus that
could be used to settle all forms of disputes whether they be in
theology, philosophy, or international relations.
vii. John Stuart Mill (1806-1873)
1. His main contribution is the method of induction.
viii. Ludwig Wittgenstein (1889-1951)

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1. His main works explores the relation between language and the
world, that there is a direct logical correspondence between the
configurations of simple objects in the world, thoughts in the
mind, and words in language.
ix. Stephen Toulmin (1922-2009)
 1. His work encouraged him to consider the shortcomings of formal
logic as both a descriptive and a prescriptive argumentation tool
as such his works have shifted towards the informal, applied, and
rhetorical logics.

Enrichment

For further enrichment, try to answer these questions on our class discussions.

1. Discuss the traditional definition of logic.

2. Why logic is part of the greater family of philosophical studies?
3. What is the importance of logic to students, professionals, and life?

Evaluate

Instruction: Write the correct answer on the space provided at the end of the statement.

1. Who is considered as the father of logic? ______________

2. How is logic being defined? _________________________
3. As a theoretical discipline, logic is considered as an? _____
4. What made logic as an art? _________________________
5. He prioritized his works on informal logic? _____________

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TERMS AND PROPOSITIONS

At the end of this chapter, you should be able to:

 1. Explain the significance of terms in the study of logic.
2. Discuss the relationship between words, ideas, and terms.
3. Distinguish comprehension from extension.
4. Illustrate through examples the different variations of the quality and quantity of terms.
5. Explain the inverse relationship of comprehension and extension.

Socrates before his death.

Explore
2. Words, Ideas, Terms
a. Word:
i. These are basic units of language and is composed of different letters.
b. Idea
i. These could be concepts or notions.
ii. These are intellectual representations or images of the thing in the real
world.
iii. It is abstract, immaterial and intelligible.

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c. Term
i. This is a word or group of words that signify an idea in the mind and the
 object it represents.
ii. Its characteristics are:
1. Word or group of words.
2. Conventional sign.
a. Basically, it is the verbal symbol of the idea.
3. It is categorical.
a. It denotes some sense of category or class of objects.
3. Comprehension and Extension of Terms
a. Two elements of terms
i. Comprehension, and
ii. Extension
b. Comprehension
i. This means the meaning or the quality of the term.
ii. There are 3 different ways of expressing the meaning of a word:
1. Univocal
2. Equivocal
3. Analogous
a. Univocal
i. A term is univocal if the meaning is still the same
when it is predicated to different objects or
individuals.
ii. Example: anime shows: Naruto, Bleach, Doraemon,
Dragon Ball
b. Equivocal
i. A term is said to be equivocal if the meaning is
changed when it is predicated to different objects
or individuals.
ii. Example: cross – means a symbol of the Crucifix for
Christian religions; also means to be able to pass
through certain places; and also means someone
had encountered a difficult person.
c. Analogous
i. These are terms of which the meaning is partly the
same or partly different.
ii. Example: head.
1. Head of the family.
2. Head of a man.
c. Extension
i. This refers to the objects, quantity or number of the term.

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 ii. The quantity of terms can be categorized as:
1. Singular
2. Particular
3. Universal
4. Collective
iii. Singular
1. This applies to a specific or definite individual member of a class
or a group.
2. This could be:
a. A. proper names
b. B. pronouns such as – this, that
c. C. article – ‘the’
iv. Particular
1. This applies to some portion of a class.
2. This includes: words with ‘some’, ‘few’, ‘several, ‘many’
v. Universal
1. This applies to all members of a class without exception.
2. Sometimes it requires a quantifier: all or no, every, each,
everyone.
vi. Collective
1. This term can be used under singular, particular and universal.
2. This applies to all members of a class and not to tis individual
member.
3. Example: family, some families, all families.
4. Opposition of Terms
a. Terms can be contradictory or contrary
b. Contradictory Terms
i. This means that terms are absolutely opposed to each other.
ii. Example: living and non-things.
c. Contrary Terms
i. This means that terms are opposed to each other since they represent
two extremes in a particular order or class of nature or royalty.
ii. Example: black and green; tall and short.

Enrichment
1. Which of these are words, ideas, or terms:
a. Without b. Books c. As g. Neither
d. Subjects h. The youth of today
e. Class officers
f. More
 9|Page
i. Not j. Mixed marriages 2. Which of these are univocal, equivocal, or
analogous?
a. The mouse enters the piano. He uses a mouse to highlight a word.
b. The Bible is a revelation. Qu’ran is also a revelation.
c. Cotton is light. Jesus Christ is the light of the world.
d. Princess Diana is the mother of Princes William and Harry. Lea Salonga is a
Disney Princess.
e. Emilio Jacinto is one of the Philippines’ finest heroes. Mariah Carey had a hit
song called ‘Hero’.
f. The end of studying nursing is to go abroad. Death is the end of life.
g. Dave is a responsible student. He is responsible for class funds.
3. Identify whether these are singular, particular, universal, and collective:
a. Few number of women are directors of blockbuster films.
b. Philippine presidents are natural-born citizens.
c. Christians are believers of God.
d. All justices voted for the legitimacy of Arroyo’s government.
e. Minor planet Biyo is named after a Filipino scientist.
f. Some fruits are rich in iron and other minerals.
g. Forest is a dense growth of trees in a given area.
4. Identify which has greater comprehension, and has greater extension:
a. Sepak Takraw – Games – Southeast Asian Games
b. Fruits – Plants – Apples
c. Artworks – Visual Arts – Paintings
d. Schools – Ateneo – Sectarian
e. Murder – Crimes – Offenses
f. Mobile Legends – Internet Games – Software
g. Senators – Lawmakers – Manny Pacquiao
5. How are terms used in the statement - contradictory or contrary terms? a. In the
Philippines, a hit television program would either be a soap opera or a variety
show.
b. It could be 18 or 21, as the legal age in any country.
c. God is either loving or merciful.
d. The accused is either innocent or guilty of a crime.
e. The school programs are either accredited or unaccredited.
f. A patient’s surgery could either be successful or unsuccessful.
g. In politics, groups are neither formal or informal.

Evaluation
A. Give the quantity of the subject terms as either singular, particular, universal or
collective.

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a. Hidilyn Diaz won the first gold in this year’s Asian Games in Indonesia.
b. A house is a skyscraper.
c. Around a thousand flights have been disrupted when Xiamen Airlines crashed in
the runway of NAIA.
d. A community in Naawan had expressed support for federalism.
e. Each teacher in the College of Education and Social Sciences is required to attend
the convocation.
f. A portion of the islands in West Philippine Sea is occupied by China. B.
Identify the quality of terms as either univocal, equivocal or analogous. a. A
poodle is a dog. A dog has heightened sense of smel..
b. The sign said ‘fine for parking here’, and since it is fine, I parked here. c. A
match is used to start a fire. Dingdong Dantes and Marian River are a good
match.
d. A pen is for writing. An animal is enclosed in a pen.
e. His foot steps on the ashes at the foot of the mountain.
f. A kilo of cotton and a kilo of nails.
g. Giving money to charity is the right thing to do. So charities have a right to our
money.
h. A man or a woman can do good things. Dogs are eternally good.
C. Which has greater comprehension, which has greater extension.
Write ‘C – (term)’ for greater comprehension. Write ‘E – (term)’ for greater extension.
Example: C – Lebron James. E – Sports Personalities.
a. Newspapers – Media – Philippine Daily Inquirer
b. Grace Poe – Presidentiables – Candidates
c. Groups – Teacher’s Unions – MSUN Faculty Union
d. San Isidro Labrador Church in Naawan – Sites of Worship – Places
e. Rodrigo Duterte – Mayor – Elected Officials
f. Ang Probinsyano – Longest tv shows – Television Programs
g. Teachers – Professionals – Substitute Lecturers
h. Fishery Board – Comptency Requirements – Licensure Examination
D. Identify whether contrary or contradictory
a. Newspapers – Media – Philippine Daily Inquirer
b. Grace Poe – Presidentiables – Candidates
c. Groups – Teacher’s Unions – MSUN Faculty Union
d. San Isidro Labrador Church in Naawan – Sites of Worship – Places
e. Rodrigo Duterte – Mayor – Elected Officials
f. Ang Probinsyano – Longest tv shows – Television Programs
 g. Teachers – Professionals – Substitute Lecturers
h. Fishery Board – Comptency Requirements – Licensure Examination

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CATEGORICAL PROPOSITIONS

At the end of this chapter, you should be able to:

1. Illustrate through examples the four elements of a standard form categorical
proposition.
2. Differentiate the qualities and quantities of proposition.
3. Explain the rule on how to determine the quantity of the predicate including predicate
terms that are definitions.
4. Identify and represent in letter symbols the four different types of standard and
categorical proposition.

Plato contemplating.
Explore
5. Judgment and Proposition
a. Judgment is a mental activity that requires two subject matters to be compared.

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b. Steps in making judgment
i. Comprehension of concepts – the mind must understand the two
concepts of which judgment has to be made.
ii. Comparison of concepts – the mind should proceed to compare these two
concepts.
iii. Pronouncement – the mind should pronounce either an agreement or
disagreement between two concepts.
c. Proposition
i. Proposition is a statement of fact which is either true or false.
ii. As a statement of fact it declares an information about circumstances
that exist or events that have occurred.
iii. A proposition can be either true or false.
iv. And propositions have to be always expressed in declarative sentences.
6. Types of Propositions
a. There are two types of propositions:
i. Categorical Propositions and Hypothetical Propositions
ii. Categorical Propositions
1. These propositions contain one subject term and one predicate
term.
2. II. These propositions assert that some or all of the referents of
the subject term are included in (affirmative) or excluded
(negative) from the class designated by the predicate term.
iii. These propositions are multiple propositions as they involve two or more
subject and predicate terms.
iv. These propositions assert the dependence of one proposition on another
proposition.
7. Standard and Non-Standard Categorical Propositions
a. Elements of a Standard Form Categorical Proposition
i. These are the elements of a standard form categorical proposition
1. Quantifier
2. Subject Term
3. Copula
4. Predicate Term
ii. Quantifier
 1. A quantifier is a word placed before a subject term.
2. The quantifier designates the quantity of the subject term.
3. This signifies that either the proposition is universal or particular.
4. Three standard quantifiers include:
5. All – universal propositions
6. Some – particular propositions
7. No – universal propositions

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8. As the quantifier denotes the quantities of the proposition, it
denotes whether the proposition is universal or particular. a.
Universal proposition
i. Has a universal subject term.
ii. It means that all members of the subject class are
totally included in or totally excluded from the
predicate class.
iii. Singular propositions are considered to be a
universal proposition.
iv. Example:
1. All schools are learning institutions.
2. No Filipinos are Americans.
3. Sec. Bong Go is the guest of honor of the
celebration of the MSU founding
anniversary.
b. Particular Proposition
i. These propositions have a particular subject term.
ii. These means that some members of the subject
class are either partially included in or excluded
from the predicate class.
iii. Example:
1. Some politicians are Cebuanos.
2. Some Cebuanos are not politicians.
iii. Subject Term
1. This is the term that comes immediately after the quantifier. 2.
This denotes the topic of the conversation or the proposition. 3. The
quantity of the subject term is determined by the quantifier,
and also determines the quantity of the entire proposition.
4. Example
a. All team names of the MSUN employees sports festival are
Marvel characters.
b. No Naawan Mayor is a non-Naawan resident.
 c. Some water bottles are glass bottles.
d. Some Senators are not mutineers.
iv. Copula
1. This is the term that refers to the linking verb.
2. It serves to connect between the subject term and the predicate
term.
3. Examples:
a. Affirmative: is, are, was, were
b. Negative: is not, are not, was not, were not

14 | P a g e
4. The quality of a categorical proposition can be affirmative and
negative.
a. Affirmative Proposition
i. This uses the copula ‘is’ or ‘are’
ii. Example: That horse is the winner.
b. Negative Proposition
i. This proposition uses the copula ‘is not’ or ‘are
not’.
ii. Example: That horse is not the winner.
v. Predicate Term
1. The quality of the proposition has something to do with the
quantity of the predicate term.
a. If the proposition is affirmative, the quantity of the
predicate term is particular.
b. If the proposition is negative, the quantity of the predicate
term is universal.
8. Elements of a Standard Categorical Proposition
9. Four Standard from Categorical Proposition

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10. Summary

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Enrichment
1. Are these propositions or non-propositions?
a. The issue on censorship has always been controversial.
b. Some politicians are Cebuanos.
c. Some Cebuanos are not politicians.
d. Exercise your right of suffrage.
e. By faith and love.
f. Oh my gosh!
g. The Philippines became independent in 1947.
h. Ferdinand Marcos died in Manila.
i. Are all sports dangerous?
j. Honesty is the best policy.
k. Are the diagnoses correct?
l. Will someone please instruct the other class to be quiet.
2. Identify each proposition as either categorical or hypothetical
a. Unless death penalty is imposed, heinous crimes will go on.
b. No Christian marriages are polygamous.
c. Neither painting nor drawing is a three-dimensional art
d. All nurses are role models in the hospitals.
e. All graduates are intelligent students.
f. Foreign debt could our country’s greatest or least problematic issue of today. 3.
Determine whether the propositions are A, E, I, O. Determine also whether the quality of
the propositions are affirmative or negative. Determine also whether the quantity of the
propositions is universal or particular. Determine also the quantity of both the predicate
and subject terms.

17 | P a g e
a. All plunder cases are public crimes.
b. Some candies are chocolates.
c. No waterfalls are seas.
d. Vice President Leni Robredo is from Naga City.
e. Some mothers are not women who gave birth.
f. All pianos are musical instruments.
g. No Christian marriages are polygamous.
h. Mindanao State University is one of the top schools for BS Fisheries in the
Philippines.
i. Some male tennis players are not non-feminists.
j. Some non-logical questions are unrealistic.

Evaluate
A. Are these propositions or non-propositions?
 a. Who is the class valedictorian?
b. The school will be built on a hill.
c. Give me a thousand smiles.
d. My parents keep telling me that I should make good grades so I can get a job or
go to college.
e. The monster is attacking!
B. (1) Give the quantity of the subject and the predicate terms of the propositions. (2)
Identify the letter symbols, the quantity, the quality of the categorical propositions.
a. Hidilyn Diaz won the first gold for the Philippines in the recent Asian Games. b. No
Duterte supporters are Dilawan supporters.
c. Some schools are non-accredited institutions.
d. Some Filipino street foods are not exotic foods.
e. All OFW’s are modern-day slaves.
f. No cheap cars are cars which are fuel efficient.
g. No Philippine business are foreign-owned.
h. Some parents are not non-supportive.
i. Some Philippine islands are only visible during high tides.
j. A call center agent is a person who works in the Business Processes Outsourcing
Industry.

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TRANSLATING ORDINARY PROPOSITIONS

At the end of this chapter, you should be able to:

1. Highlight the significance of translating ordinary propositions in the science or
argumentation.
2. Review the structure of the standard form categorical propositions.
3. Understand and illustrate through examples each of the nine guidelines in translating
ordinary sentences into the standard form categorical propositions.
Young Brit arguing in a youth parliament.

Explore
11. Guidelines in translating ordinary propositions
a. There are 9 basic guidelines in translating ordinary propositions:
i. Singular Propositions
ii. Indefinite Propositions
iii. Propositions and Adjectives
iv. Propositions with Non-Standard Verbs
v. Affirmative Propositions with Non-Standard Quantifiers
vi. Negative Propositions without Standard Quantifiers
vii. Compound Statements
viii. Exceptive Propositions
ix. Exclusive Propositions
b. Singular Propositions

19 | P a g e
i. These propositions have subject terms that are single individuals. ii.
These could be proper names, or any names that starts with the article
‘the’.
iii. In order for this propositions to be come standard forms, we have to
treat singular propositions as universal propositions – either A or E. iv.
Example:
1. President Gloria Arroyo is the third most powerful woman in the
 world in 2005. – A
2. SM Aura is not a non-high end mall. – E.
c. Indefinite Propositions
i. These are propositions that have no definite sign of quantity attached to
the subject.
ii. The rule for this is to translate these propositions according to the
context or the sense of the statement.
iii. Example:
1. Phones are examples of mobile technology.
– All phones are examples of mobile technology – A
2. Samsung phones are flip-flop phones.
- Some Samsung phones are flip-flop phones. – I
3. iPhones are not Huawei phones.
- No iPhones are Huawei phones. – E
d. Propositions with Adjectives
i. In order for the proposition to be categorical, the terms used in the
propositions must denote a class of objects to be quantified as universal
or particular.
ii. For propositions that have adjectives that designate only attributes, it is
proposer to couple adjectives with nouns to make the predicate term
more explicit and quantifiable.
iii. Example:
1. Some laptops are powerful.
- Some laptops are powerful computers.
2. James Reid is handsome. James Reid is a handsome man.
e. Propositions with Non-standard verbs
i. Standard categorical proposition requires the use of a verb ‘be’ or a
copula – is, is not, are, are not .
ii. But some propositions are non-standard.
iii. To translate, we must identify the verb-phrases and change them into
noun phrases in order to designate a group or a class.
iv. Example:
1. Moira de la Torre sings ‘Malaya’.
- Moira de la Torre is the singer of the song ‘Malaya’.

20 | P a g e
2. Jayeel Cornelio authors the World Religion from Rex Book Store. -
Jayeel Cornelio is the author of the book, World Religion from
Rex Book Store.
f. Affirmative Propositions with Non-standard quantifiers
i. There are propositions that use non-standard quantifiers.
 ii. Some of these quantifiers are: each, every, everything, everyone,
everybody, everywhere.
iii. These quantifiers are transposed into the quantifier ‘all’.
iv. Example:
1. Every Filipino is now experiencing the effects of inflation
- All Filipinos are the people who are experiencing the effects of
inflation.
v. When the word ‘not’ is attached to the indefinite pronouns such as every
– ‘not every’, the statement becomes a particular negative proposition. vi.
Example:
1. Not every friend stays with you in the end.
2. - Some friends are not the people who stay with you in the end. vii.
For pronouns that are relative, such as whoever, wherever and whatever can
that the quantifier ‘all’.
viii. But it should be coupled with their relative words such as persons, places
and objects.
ix. Example:
1. 1. Whoever is the winner of the lottery is the luckiest person on
earth.
- All winners of the lottery are the luckiest persons on earth.
2. 2. Whatever elements that compose the flag of Turkey is very
symbolic.
- All elements that compose the flag of Turkey are very symbolic
elements.
3. 3. Wherever there is Jollibee, there is happiness.
- All places that there is Jollibee are places that has happiness.
x. There are propositions that starts with ‘there are’
xi. Examples:
1. 1. There are affordable clothes at Uniqlo.
- Some clothes are affordable clothes at Uniqlo.
g. Negative Propositions with Non-standard quantifiers
i. The indefinite pronouns ‘nothing’, ‘none’, or ‘no one’ should be replaced
by the standard quantifier ‘no’.
ii. Example:
1. None of the damned are happy.
– No person who is damned is a happy person.

21 | P a g e
h. Compound Statements
i. These are multiple statements which are composed of two or more single
statements.
 ii. In order to translate, one statement must serve as the subject term and
other serves as the predicate term.
iii. Example:
1. If it’s a Babolat tennis racquet, then it produces superb topspin.
- All Babolat tennis racquets are racquets that produce superb
topspin.
2. 2. If it’s a 1.0 in the class record, then it is an excellent grade.
- All 1.0 grades are excellent grades.
i. Exceptive Propositions
i. These are multiple propositions which make two or more assertions
rather than one.
ii. In order to translate, the subject term must be transposed into its
contradictory form for A propositions and its original form for E
propositions.
iii. Example:
1. All except the foreign students will be accepted into the Political
Science program.
2. - All non-foreign students are students who are accepted in the
Political Science program.
3. - No foreign students are students who are accepted in the
Political Science program.
j. Exclusive Propositions
i. These are propositions that have subject terms preceded by the words
‘only’ and ‘none but’.
ii. In order to translate these, it should be observed that:
1. drop the cue words,
2. reverse the order of the subject and the predicate terms, and
3. add the quantifier all.
iii. Example:
1. 1. Only Belo touches my skin.
- All products that touches my skin are Belo products.
2. 2. None but life savers are doctors.
- All doctors are life savers.

Enrichment
A. Translate the following into standard categorical propositions
a. Retired Major General Jovito Palparan abducted and killed two University of the
Philippines students.

22 | P a g e
b. Kapampangans love to cook good food.
 c. A Senator is a lawmaker.
d. Nothing lawless is lawful.
e. None but the deaf organization will consider a complaint against Mocha Uson. f.
All leaders except the autocrats can claim they respect human rights. g. If he or she
is a level 20 or above ROS player, then he or she can complete harder missions.
h. Many Tulong Dunong scholars would lose scholarships next year.
i. There are some shabu laboratories in Cebu City.
j. When the international human rights groups condemn Cambodia about their
human rights record, the Cambodian government retaliated.
k. Loan programs are readily available for the masses.
l. Only the Pope is the highest official of the Catholic Church.
m. Wherever there are bomb threats, people are advised not to go near in those
places.
n. Disaster victims need help.
o. Not every person who consume prohibited drugs are necessarily bad persons.
p. Whomever is a good Samaritan will be rewarded in one form or another. q. All
except the small-scale mining in the Cordilleras are allowed.

Evaluate
A. Translate the following into standard categorical propositions
a. Imelda wants Cory exiled into an island.
b. Few Filipino families do not receive an award.
c. Nobody who is a loyalist is an opponent.
d. Artworks are expensive.
e. An earthquake kills 10,000 lives.
f. A man with high EQ is the best leader.
g. The whale is a mammal.
h. Only elected persons are governors.
i. Chinese are Buddhists.
j. All except the regular employee will be terminated.
k. Several labor groups will participate in the May 1 strike.
l. Ten soldiers become rebels.
m. Only priests are bishops.
n. Not all Muslims visit Mecca.
o. If all men are mortal, then they are not perfect creatures.
p. World leaders praised the Philippines for a bloodless revolution.
q. Every refugee is a person outside his country of nationality.
r. Few students participated in the Logic workshop.
s. Doctors specialize neurology.

23 | P a g e
t. There are laboratory chemicals that explode.
24 | P a g e
 OPPOSITE PROPOSITIONS

At the end of this chapter, you should be able to:

1. Distinguish between mediate and immediate inference.
2. Explain each of the types of oppositional relations.
3. Apply the rules of each type governing the identification of the truth-values of the
opposites.

Presidential candidates in 2016 debating against each other.

Explore
12. Inference
a. Inference is a way of relating and treating each proposition with other
propositions.
b. There are two ways of relating propositions:
i. immediate – two propositions and
ii. mediate – three or more propositions.
c. Opposition of proposition is known as the ‘traditional square of opposition’ in
which a square is used to diagram the four different ways in which each of the
four categorical propositions are logically related or opposed to each of the
others
 25 | P a g e
d. The objective of this process is to get into the logical relationship or
interdependence of propositional truth-values in either: a. compatibility (both
true, both false), or b. incompatibility (true or false, vice-versa).
13. Immediate Inference
a. Immediate inference involves the production of a new proposition directly
related with the preceding propositions.
b. The truth-value of this new emerging proposition implies the truth of the
previous propositions.
c. There are only two propositions.
d. There is no middle proposition.
e. The second proposition is either the opposite or equivalent proposition. f. The
second proposition has the same or different truth-value or meaning as the given.
14. Requisites for Opposition
a. Both propositions must have the same subject and predicate terms. b. There
must be a change in either quantity or quality or both in the opposite
proposition.
c. That a truth-value of the opposite proposition is determined in relation to the
assigned truth-value of the given proposition.
15. Oppositional Relations
a. The four oppositional relations are:
i. contradiction,
ii. contrariety
iii. sub-contrariety
iv. sub-alternation
16. Contradiction
a. This is the opposition between two propositions that differ both in quantity and
quality.
b. The two sets of opposition are: A and O, and E and I.
c. Example:
i. All super typhoons are destructive natural phenomena. – A
Some super typhoons are not destructive natural phenomena. – O
ii. No new released iPhones are non-expensive. – E
Some new released iPhones are non-expensive. – I
17. Contrariety
a. This opposition features two universal propositions that differ in quality.
b. Contrarieties are between: A and E.
c. Example:
 i. All lower courts are under the supervision of the Supreme Court. – A
ii. No lower courts are under the supervision of the Supreme Court. – E 18.
Sub-contrariety

26 | P a g e
a. This opposition is about the two particular propositions that differs in qualities.
b. Sub-contrarieties talk about the relationship between: I and O.
c. Example:
i. Some imported rice are produce that came from Asia. – I
ii. Some imported rice are not produce that came from Asia. - O
19. Sub-alternation
a. This opposition is about the relationship of propositions that differs in quantity
but it features the same quality.
b. Sub-alternation features these relationships: A and I, and E and O.
c. Example:
i. All donuts are pastries. – A
Some donuts are pastries. – I
ii. No Samsung phones are Vivo phones. – E
Some Samsung phones are not Vivo phones. – O
20. RULES OF LOGICAL OPPOSTION
a. Rules on Contradiction
i. Rule 1.A Contradictories cannot be true at the same time. If the given is
true, the opposite is false.
1. If A is true, O is false.
2. If O is true, A is false.
3. If E is true, I is false.
4. If I is true, E is false.
5. Examples:
a. All researches are rigorous bodies of work. True
Some research are not rigorous bodies of work. False.
b. No bamboo trees are mangrove trees. True
Some bamboo trees are mangrove trees. False
c. Some graduation valedictorians are successful business
entrepreneurs. True
No graduation valedictorians are successful business
entrepreneurs. False
d. Some ecosystems are not resistant to the effects of
environmental deterioration. True
All ecosystems are resistant to the effects of
environmental deterioration. False
ii. Rule 1.B Contradictories cannot be false at the same time. If the given is
 false, the opposite is true.
1. If A is false, O is true.
2. If E is false, I is true.
3. If O is false, A is true.
4. If I is false, E is true.

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5. Examples:
a. All coastal barangays are barangays which have bountiful
marine resources. False
Some coastal barangays are not barangays which have
bountiful marine resources. True
b. No economic activities are activities that empower the
poorest sectors of the society. False
Some economic activities are activities that empower the
poorest sectors of the society. True
c. Some PNP officials are AFP officials. False
No PNP officials are AFP officials. True
d. Some chocolate cookies are not pastries. False
All chocolate cookies are pastries. True
b. Rules on Sub-alternation
i. Rule 2.A The truth of the universal involves the truth of the particular. If
the universal is true, then, the particular is also true.
1. If A is true, I must also be true.
2. If E is true, O must also be true.
3. Examples:
a. 1. All researchers are specialists in their respective fields.
True
1. Some researchers are specialists in their respective
fields. True
b. 2. No seagrass species are corals. True
2. Some seagrass species are not corals. True
iii. Rule 2.B The truth of the particular does not necessarily involve the truth
of the universal. If particular is true, then the universal is undetermined,
undecided or doubtful.
1. If I is true, A need not be true and is undetermined.
2. If O is true, E need not be true and is undetermined.
3. Examples:
a. Some amphibians are turtles. True
All amphibians are turtles. Doubtful
b. Some students of MSU Naawan are not SMFT students.
 True
No students of MSU Naawan are SMFT students. Doubtful
iv. Rule 2.C The falsity of the particular involves the falsity of the universal. If
particular is false, then the universal is also false.
1. If I is false, A is also false.
2. If O is false, E is also false.
3. Examples:

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a. Some municipalities in Misamis Oriental are located in
Bukidnon. False
All municipalities in Misamis Oriental are located in
Bukidnon. False
b. Some Holy Popes are not leaders of the Catholic Church.
False
No Holy Popes are leaders of the Catholic Church. False
v. Rule 2.D The falsity of the universal does not necessarily involve the falsity
of the particular. If the universal is false, then the particular is
undetermined, undecided or doubtful.
1. If A is false, I need not be false and is undetermined.
2. If E is false, O need not be false and is undetermined.
3. Examples:
a. All genetic modifications of plants are unsuccessful. False
Some genetic modifications of plants are unsuccessful.
Doubtful
b. No anti-gay laws are unfair and inhumane laws. False
Some anti-gay laws are not unfair and inhumane laws.
Doubtful
d. Rules on Contrariety.
i. Rule 3.A Contraries cannot be true at the same time. If one is true, the
other is false.
1. If A is true, E is false.
2. If E is true, A is false
3. Examples:
a. All destructive human activities are dangerous to the
natural environment. True
No destructive human activities are dangerous to the
natural environment. False
b. No population increase is a population decrease. True
All populations increases are population decreases. False
ii. Rule 3.B Contraries may be false at the same time. If one is false, then the
 other is undetermined, undecided or doubtful.
1. If A is false, E is undetermined.
2. If E is false, A is undetermined.
3. Examples
a. All national symbols are foreign creations. False
No national symbols are foreign creations. Doubtful
b. No elephants are animals. False
All elephants are animals. Doubtful
e. Rules on Sub-Contrariety

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i. Rule 4.A Sub-contraries cannot be false at the same time. If given is false,
the opposite is true.
1. If I is false, then O is true.
2. If O is false, then I is true.
3. Examples:
a. Some super typhoons are non-destructive. False
Some super typhoons are not non-destructive. True
b. Some fighting games are not violent. False
Some fighting games are violent. True
ii. Rule 4.B Sub-contraries may be true at the same time. IF the given is true,
the opposite is undetermined, undecided or doubtful.
1. If I is true, O is doubtful.
2. If O is true, I is doubtful.
3. Examples:
a. Some holidays are religious holidays. True
Some holidays are not religious holidays. Doubtful
b. Some motivational books are very helpful. True
Some motivational books are not very helpful. Doubtful
21. Table of Truth Values
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Enrichment
1. Change the given propositions into their opposites as either a, e, i or o. 2. Indicate the
name of the logical relation that holds between the members of the pair of categorical
statements
3. Identify their corresponding truth-value in relation to the given proposition.

A. No terrorists are patriots. True

B. All hospitals are medical institutions. True
C. Some families are convention delegates. True
D. Some cabinet members are not politicians. True
E. No animal rights are human rights. False
F. All candidates are professionals. False
G. Some professionals are illiterates. False
H. Some clinical instructors are not graduates. False

Evaluate
1. Change the given propositions into their opposites as either a, e, i or o. 2. Indicate the
name of the logical relation that holds between the members of the pair of categorical
statements
3. Identify their corresponding truth-value in relation to the given proposition.
 A. All boxers are sportspersons. True
B. Some flowers are orchids. True
C. Some bags are not wearable items. True
D. No Nike shoes are Adidas shoes. True
E. All senators are district representatives. False
F. Some presidential campaigns are inexpensive campaigns. False
G. Some college instructors are not non-graduates. False
H. No turtles are capable of using their flippers as tools. False

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EQUIVALENT PROPOSITIONS

At the end of this chapter, you should be able to:

1. Discuss the importance of equivalent propositions in the formulation of an argument.
2. Illustrate through examples the different main forms of eduction or equivalent
propositions.
Peter Abelard harnessing his treatises on philosophy and logic.

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22. Eduction
a. Eduction is a process of immediate inference whereby, from any proposition
taken as true, a proposition is derived from it though it differs in subject,
predicate or both.

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23. Three Equivalent Propositions
a. The three equivalent propositions are:
i. Obversion
ii. Conversion
iii. Contraposition
24. Obversion
a. Origin: Latin – ‘ob’ means before or toward and ‘vertere’ to turn
 b. This form of eduction involves a change in the quality of the proposition and
changing the predicate term to its contradictory or complementary form. c.
There are two propositions that are involved in the process of obversion: i.
Obvertend – the given or the original proposition
ii. Obverse – the new or equivalent proposition.
d. Process of obversion:
i. Rule 1. Retain the subject and the quantity of the proposition.
ii. Rule 2. Change the quality of the proposition.
iii. Rule 3. Substitute the predicate by its contradictory or complementary
forms.
iv. Note: Thus, A, E, I, O propositions can be obverted into E, A, O, I
respectively.
e. Example:
i. Obvertend: All MSU campuses are happy that MSU-IIT is one of the top
500 schools in QS Asia rankings. True
ii. Rule 1. Retain the subject and the quantity of the proposition.
iii. All MSU campuses are happy that MSU-IIT is one of the top 500 schools in
QS Asia rankings.
iv. Rule 2. Change the quality of the proposition.
v. No MSU campuses are happy that MSU-IIT is one of the top 500 schools
in QS Asia rankings.
vi. Rule 3. Substitute the predicate by its contradictory/complementary
term.
vii. No MSU campuses are unhappy that MSU-IIT is one of the top 500
schools in QS Asia rankings.
viii. Obverse: No MSU campuses are unhappy that MSU-IIT is one of the top
500 schools in QS Asia rankings. True
25. Conversion
a. Origin: Latin – ‘convertere’ which means to turn
b. This process of eduction involves only the switching of the subject term and the
predicate term.
c. It involves two propositions:
i. Convertend – the given or original proposition.
ii. Converse – the equivalent proposition.

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d. The process of conversion involves:
i. Rule 1. Interchange the subject and the predicate terms.
ii. Rule 2. Retain the quality of the proposition.
iii. Rule 3. Do not extend any term. Which means terms should not be
increased, YET it can be decreased.
iv. Variation:
 v. A. Simple Conversion: I and E propositions. A to A propositions (only for
definitional A propositions)
vi. B. Partial Conversions: A to I propositions.
vii. There is no available converse for O propositions.
e. Example:
i. Convertend: Some Salmons are users of Earth’s magnetic fields for
navigation. True.
ii. Rule 1. Interchange the subject and the predicate terms.
iii. Some users of Earth’s magnetic fields for navigation are Salmons.
iv. Rule 2. Retain the quality of the proposition.
v. Some users of Earth’s magnetic fields for navigation are Salmons.
vi. Rule 3. Do not extend any term.
vii. Some users of Earth’s magnetic fields for navigation are Salmons.
viii. Converse: Some users of Earth’s magnetic fields for navigation are
Salmons. True
f. Example – Simple Conversion for A (definitional propositions): i.
Convertend: All piranhas are omnivorous fish from the family
Serrasalmidae that usually have tricuspid teeth. True.
ii. Rule 1. Interchange the subject and the predicate terms.
iii. All omnivorous fish from the family Serrasalmidae that usually have
tricuspid teeth are piranhas.
iv. Rule 2. Retain the quality of the proposition.
v. All omnivorous fish from the family Serrasalmidae that usually have
tricuspid teeth are piranhas
vi. Rule 3. Do not extend any term.
vii. All omnivorous fish from the family Serrasalmidae that usually have
tricuspid teeth are piranhas
viii. Converse: All omnivorous fish from the family Serrasalmidae that usually
have tricuspid teeth are piranhas. True
g. Example: Partial Conversion for A (non-definitional propositions) i. Convertend:
All BTS songs are songs about young people’s place in the society. True.
ii. Rule 1. Interchange the subject and the predicate terms.
iii. All songs about young people’s place in the society are BTS songs.

34 | P a g e
iv. Rule 2. Change the quality of the proposition into its corresponding sub
altern.
v. Some songs about young people’s place in the society are BTS songs.
vi. Rule 3. Do not extend any term.
vii. Some songs about young people’s place in the society are BTS songs. viii.
Converse: Some songs about young people’s place in the society are BTS
 songs. True
26. Contraposition
a. Origin: ‘contra’ which means against and ‘ponere’ which means to place. b. This
involves the switching of the subject term and the predicate term (leaving the
quality and quantity unaltered) and changing the subject predicate terms into its
complementary forms.
c. This involves two propositions:
i. Contraponend – the given or original proposition.
ii. Contrapositive – the new proposition.
d. The process of contraposition involves:
i. This process involves these rules:
ii. Rule 1. Interchange the subject and the predicate terms.
iii. Rule 2. Substitute the new subject and predicate terms with their
contradictory or complementary terms.
iv. Rule 3. Retain the quantity and quality of the proposition.
v. Variation:
vi. A. Simple contraposition: A to A, O to O
vii. B. Partial contraposition: E to O
viii. No available I contraposition.
e. Example A:
i. Contraponend: All social media platforms are platforms that invade
privacy. True
ii. Rule 1. Interchange the subject and the predicate terms.
iii. All platforms that invade privacy are social media platforms.
iv. Rule 2. Substitute the new subject and predicate terms with their
contradictory or complementary forms.
v. All non-platforms that invade privacy are non-social media platforms.
vi. Rule 3. Retain the quantity and quality of proposition.
vii. All non-platforms that invade privacy are non-social media platforms.
viii. Contrapositive: All non-platforms that invade privacy are non-social
media platforms. True
f. Example B:
i. Contraponend: No European country is receptive country to migrants.
True
ii. Rule 1. Interchange the subject and the predicate terms.

35 | P a g e
iii. No receptive country to migrants is a European country.
iv. Rule 2. Substitute the new subject and predicate terms with their
contradictory or complementary forms.
v. No unreceptive country to migrants is a non-European country.
 vi. Rule 3. Retain the quality but change quantity of proposition.
vii. Some unreceptive country to migrants are not non-European countries.
viii. Contrapositive: Some unreceptive country to migrants are not non
European countries. True
27. Summary:

Enrichment
Translate each proposition to its corresponding obverse, converse and contrapositive.
A. All giant animals are megafaunas. True
B. All designer babies are created in test tubes. True
C. Some praying mantes are insects that feed on fish. True
D. No fishes are creatures that are immune to more acidic oceans. True
E. Some fishes are not sociable animals. True

Evaluate
Translate each proposition to its corresponding obverse, converse and contrapositive.

A. All royals are descendants of former kings and queens. True

B. No typhoons are non-destructive natural disasters.
C. Some Shawn Mendes’s songs are love songs.

36 | P a g e
D. Some bacteria are not bioluminescent.
E. Some dietary supplements are harmful to the body.
F. Some scientists are not specialists in molecular biology.
G. No KathNiel movie is a JaDine movie.
H. All dandelion seeds are seeds that are capable of flight called the ‘separated vortex
ring’.

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ARGUMENTS AND CATEGORICAL SYLLOGISMS
At the end of this chapter, you should be able to:
1. Define argument and discuss the important considerations as to its nature and
structure.
2. Distinguish the two types of propositions.
3. Identify the structural parts of a standard form categorical syllogism. 4. Show
examples that point out the significance of eduction in categorical syllogism. 5.
Differentiate and illustrate in examples the four principles governing categorical
syllogism.

Gottfried Leibniz credited as the father of symbolic logic.

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28. Arguments
a. An argument is defined as a ‘verbal expression of mediate inference.’ b.
An argument is a group of three or more propositions one of which is a
conclusion and the others are premises.
c. An argument has two basic elements:
i. Premise. The part of an argument which serves as the reasons or
evidence for accepting or believing a certain claim.
ii. Conclusion. The part of an argument which serves as the claim or the
main point which one tries to prove.

38 | P a g e
d. An argument is a set of propositions.
e. An argument has an inferential claim. This means that the premise and the
 conclusion has a direct logical connection.
29. Types of Arguments
a. Deductive Argument
i. This inference involves universal propositions as premises and particular
propositions drawn as conclusion.
ii. This inference involves a conclusion and a premise that has absolute
necessity or 100% validity.
iii. Example:
1. All men are rational animals. Pedro is a man. Therefore, Pedro is a
rational animal.
b. Inductive Argument
i. This inference involves particular propositions as premises and universal
propositions as conclusion.
ii. This inference involves the drawing of conclusion with less than 100%
probability.
iii. But this is not always true.
iv. Example:
1. Pedro is a man and is a rational being. Juan is a man and is a
rational being. Geronimo is a man and is a rational being.
Probably, all men are rational being.
30. How to Identify Arguments?
a. Identify the main claim or the conclusion.
i. The conclusion must answer, ‘what claim or assertion is he making’?
ii. Look out for indicators such as ‘therefore’, ‘in conclusion’, ‘thus’, and
others.
b. Identify the reasons that support the claim of the argument.
i. The premise answers the question, ’why is he/she is making that claim’?
c. Evaluate the inferential claim of an argument.
31. Categorical Syllogism
a. A syllogism is a deductive argument in which a conclusion is inferred from two
premises.
b. A categorical syllogism involves three propositions, with three terms that are
used twice in the syllogism.
c. A standard-form categorical syllogisms include standard-form categorical
propositions (A, E, I, O).
d. Example:
i. All sectarian schools are private schools. (premise)
ii. Ateneo de Manila is a sectarian school. (premise)
iii. Therefore, Ateneo de Manila is a private school. (conclusion)

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e. A categorical syllogism contains three terms. These are:
 i. Major Term. This is the predicate of the conclusion and is also found in
one of the premises.
ii. Minor Term. This is the subject of the conclusion and is also found in one
of the premises.
iii. Middle Term. This term is found in both the premises and provides a
linkage between two premises.
f. A categorical syllogism contains three propositions. These are:
i. Major Premise. This is constituted by the predicate of the conclusion and
the middle term.
ii. Minor Premise. This is constituted by the subject of the conclusion and
the middle term.
iii. Conclusion. This proposition is constituted by the minor and major terms.
g. To illustrate:
i. All men are mortal beings. (Major Premise)
ii. Coco Martin is a man. (Minor Premise)
iii. Therefore, Coco Martin is a mortal being. (Conclusion)
iv. Major Term – mortal being
v. Minor Term – Coco Martin
vi. Middle Term – men/man

Enrichment
Create categorical syllogisms using these themes.
A. Politics
B. MSU at Naawan
C. Entertainment
D. Relationship
E. Environment

Evaluate
Supply the missing terms in each of the propositions to complete the structure of the syllogism.
A. No __________ is an American. Americans are persons who allow divorce. Therefore, no
_________ are Filipinos.
B. All ____________ are quality and fast laptops. ___________ has a quality and fast
computer. Therefore, John has an ACER laptop.
C. All members of the debating club are eloquent speakers. Some women are eloquent
speakers. Therefore, some ___________ are ____________.
D. All ______________ are places of worship. Some places of worship are the
_______________. Therefore, some private rooms are churches.
 40 | P a g e
E. Some _____________ are popular candidates. All senatoriables are financially stable
persons. Therefore, some financially stable persons are ____________. F. All those who
have faith are virtuous. Some moral people do not have faith. Therefore, some
___________ are ______________.
G. Some _____________ are not registered voters. All registered voters are persons aged
18 and above. Therefore, some ___________ are not citizens.
H. No Marxist advocates private property. All ______________ advocate private property.
Therefore, no conservatives are _________________.
I. All highest-paid professionals are rich people. All show business personalities are
________________. Therefore, all ________________ are rich people. J. Some Asian
nations are supporters of America. No _____________ are Asian nations. Therefore,
some oil-producing countries are not ______________.
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SYLLOGISTIC RULES AND FALLACIES

At the end of this chapter, you should be able to:

1. Discuss the content and various implications of each rule.
2. Test the validity of each syllogism in accordance with these rules.
3. Know the different formal fallacies involved in each rule violation.
What are fallacies?

Explore
32. Syllogistic Rules and Fallacies
a. The syllogistic rules are the standards to be used in proving the validity of an
argument or a syllogism.
b. These rules are interdependent on one another so that any violation of the rules
renders the syllogism invalid.
c. Every violation of a rule has a corresponding fallacy.
d. These fallacies are known as ‘formal fallacies’ which focuses on the various
structural defects of the arguments.
33. Rule 1
a. There must only be three terms in the entire syllogism, each of which must occur
twice and must be used exactly in the same meaning throughout the argument. b.
First, the terms must only be three: major, minor and middle.
c. The same terms must be used univocally.

42 | P a g e
d. Synonymous terms are also treated as one term.
e. These terms must be repeated twice in the whole syllogism.
f. If this rule is violated, the fallacy committed is:
i. Fallacy of excessive terms – a syllogism with more than three terms. ii.
Fallacy of inadequate terms – a syllogism with less than three terms. iii.
Fallacy of equivocation – a syllogism that has the same term, but is used
 equivocally.
g. Example:
i. All senatorial candidates are college educated.
All college educated persons are law-abiding citizens.
Therefore, all law-abiding citizens are wonderful creations of God.

Validity: Invalid
Fallacy: Fallacy of Excessive Terms
Terms: law-abiding citizens, wonderful creations of God, senatorial
candidates, college educated persons
ii. All actors are paid professionals.
All paid professionals are actors.
Therefore, a paid professional is an actor.
Validity: Invalid
Fallacy: Fallacy of Inadequate Terms
Terms: actors, paid professionals
iii. Some bubbles are globules usually gas in a liquid.
The economy during Aquino’s administration is a bubble.
Therefore, the economy during Aquino’s administration are globules
usually gas in a liquid.

Validity: Invalid
Fallacy/ies: Fallacy of equivocation, Fallacy of excessive terms
Terms: bubbles (physical and economic), globules usually gas in a liquid,
economy during Aquino’s administration
34. Rule 2
a. The middle term must be universal in at least one of the premises.
b. This rule talks about the quantity of the middle term.
c. This means that at least one middle term must be universal to be at least valid.
d. This is because if middle terms are both particular, they are counted as two
terms.
e. Thus, it incurs a violation.
f. The fallacy committed for this violation is called:
i. Fallacy of the particular middle.
g. Example:

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i. Some political science journals are low-quality journals.
Some low-quality journals are paid journals.
Therefore, some paid journals are political science journals.
 Validity: Invalid
Fallacy/ies: Fallacy of the particular middle
35. Rule 3
a. The major and minor terms must be universal in the premises if they are
universal in the conclusion.
b. This rule tells us that if in the conclusion, any of the term is universal in quantity
they must also be universal in the premise.
c. This rule is directly linked to the idea that the conclusion of a valid argument
cannot assert beyond what its premises warrant.
d. Two fallacies are associated with the violation of this rule:
i. Fallacy of illicit major – this fallacy is committed when the major term in
the conclusion is universal but particular in the major premise.
ii. Fallacy of illicit minor – this fallacy is committed when the minor term in
the conclusion is universal but is particular in the minor premise.
e. Example:
i. All scholarships are privileges.
Some privileges are hard-earned pieces of work.
Therefore, some scholarships are hard-earned pieces of work.

Validity: Invalid
Fallacy: Fallacy of Illicit Major
ii. All coffee products are caffeine-induced products.
Some caffeine-induced products are stimulants.
Therefore, all stimulants are coffee products. .
Validity: Invalid
Fallacy: Fallacy of Illicit minor.
36. Rule 4
a. There must be at least one affirmative premise.
b. This rule focuses on the quality of the premises.
c. This rule requires that at least one of the premises must be affirmative. d. The
implication of this rule is that in this circumstance, if both premises are negative
then the middle term is excluded totally or partly from the minor and major
terms.
e. A possible fallacy that can be committed from this rule is:
i. Fallacy of exclusive premises – in this fallacy the middle term excludes
the minor and major terms from each other, thus disconnecting them
from inferring a logical relationship.

44 | P a g e
f. Example:
 i. No members of the judiciary are non-law graduates.
Some non-law graduates are not deans of colleges of law.
Therefore, some members of the judiciary are not deans of colleges of
law.

Validity: Invalid
Fallacy: Fallacy of Excessive Premises
37. Rule 5
a. There must be at least one universal premise.
b. This rule centers on the quantity of the premises.
c. The requirement is that at least one of the premises must be universal.
d. A violation of this rule incurs a violation of:
i. Fallacy of particular premise – this fallacy is incurred when there are two
particular premises.
e. Example:
i. Some teachers are not paid well.
Some non-well paid professionals are deserving of salary increases.
Therefore, some teachers are deserving of salary increases.

Validity: Invalid
Fallacy: Fallacy of Particular Premises
38. Rule 6
a. The conclusion is particular if one of the premises is particular and it is negative
if one of the premises is negative.
b. This rule focuses on the conclusion of the syllogism.
c. Firstly, the quantity of the conclusion must be particular only is one of the
premises is particular.
d. Secondly, the quality of the conclusion must be negative is one of the premises is
negative.
e. A violation of this rule incurs violations such as:
i. Fallacy of drawing universal conclusion from particular premise– this
fallacy is incurred when the conclusion is universal if one of the premises
is particular.
ii. Fallacy of drawing an affirmative conclusion from a negative premise –
this fallacy is incurred when the conclusion is positive, yet one of the
premises is negative.
iii. Fallacy of drawing a negative conclusion from affirmative premises –
this fallacy is committed when the conclusion is negative, yet all the
premises are positive.
f. Example:
 45 | P a g e
i. All senatoriables from the Liberal Party are non-senatoriables from the
Hugpong Pagbabago.
Some non-senatoriables from the Hugpong Pagbabago are included in
the magic 12.
Therefore, all senatoriables from the Liberal Party are included in the
magic 12.

Validity: Invalid
Fallacy: Fallacy of Drawing Universal Conclusion From a Particular
Premise
ii. No artificial intelligence are capable of recognizing galaxies.
Some machines that are capable of recognizing galaxies are not highly
sophisticated machines.
Therefore, some artificial intelligence are highly sophisticated machines.
Validity: Invalid
Fallacy: Fallacy of Drawing an Affirmative Conclusion from a Negative
Premise
iii. All men who committed sexual assaults are punishable for 20 year
imprisonment.
Some heinous crimes are punishable for 20 year imprisonment.
Therefore, no men who committed sexual assaults are committing
heinous crimes.

Validity: Invalid
Fallacy: Fallacy of Drawing Universal Conclusion From a Particular
Premise
39. Summary:
 46 | P a g e

Enrichment
Middle Terms: A. Write the middle term. B. Quantity of the middle term in the major premise. C.
Quantity of the middle term in the minor premise.
Minor Terms: A. Write the minor term. B. Quantity of the minor term in the conclusion. C.
Quantity of the minor term in the premise.
Major Terms: A. Write the major term. B. Quantity of the major term in the conclusion. C.
Quantity of the major term in the premise.
Validity: A. Is this valid or invalid? B. If invalid, what rule is being violated? C. What fallacy
committed?
A. All Nissan cars are non-Toyota cars. No Hyundai cars are Toyota cars. Therefore, some
Nissan cars are Volkswagen cars.
B. No public officials are exempted from filing their Statements of Assets, Liabilities and
Net Worth. Some private officials are exempted from filing their Statements of Assets,
Liabilities and Net Worth. Therefore, some public officials are private officials.
C. All forest covers are protected by law. All forest covers are natural resources. Therefore,
all natural resources are protected by law.
D. Some illegal activities are ethically wrong. Some ethically wrong activities are sanctioned
by law. Therefore, all illegal activities are sanctioned by law.

47 | P a g e
E. Some companies are not religious taxpayers. Some unreligious persons are non
companies. Therefore, all companies are non-companies.

Evaluate
Evaluate each syllogism as either valid or invalid.
If invalid, give the rule violated.
Provide the fallacy committed.
A. Some CNN broadcasters are graduates of mass communication. Some graduates of mass
communication are Filipinos. Therefore, some Filipinos are CNN broadcasters. B. All
chocolate products are good for the health. Hershey’s chocolate bar is a chocolate product.
Therefore, Hershey’s chocolate bar is good for the health.
C. Some proteins are naturally existing molecules in the body. All naturally existing
molecules in the body are helpful in preventing diseases. Therefore, some proteins are
not helpful against obesity.
D. No ghosts are real beings. A poltergeist is a ghost. Therefore, all poltergeists are real
beings.
E. All prisons are places of reform for criminals. No places of reform for criminals are
inhumane places. Therefore, no prisons are inhumane places.
F. Some social media sites are platforms for communication. Some platforms for
communication are dating apps. Therefore, all dating apps are social media sites. G. All
human lives are precious and dignified. Some precious and dignified lives are protected by
human rights. Therefore, some human lives are protected by human rights. H. Novak
Djokovic is a grand slam tennis champion. Some grand slam tennis champions are reliable
humanitarians. Therefore, Novak Djokovic is a reliable humanitarian. I. Some snakes are not
poisonous. Some poisonous animals are not deadly. Therefore, some snakes are not deadly.
J. Baseball is a sport that uses a bat. Bats are carriers of rabies. Therefore, baseball is a
 carrier of rabies.
K. All people who study Ancient Egypt are Egyptologists. Some Egyptologists are not
professional archaeologists. Therefore, some people who study Ancient Egypt are not
professional archaelogists.
L. Some Game of Thrones’s characters are multidimensional. Some multidimensional
characters are full of extensive backstories. Therefore, all Game of Thrones’s characters
are full of extensive backstories.
M. Some graves are not meant to be not disturbed. Some things that meant to be not
disturbed are not sacred. Therefore, no graves are sacred.
N. Coco is one of the movies that have twist endings. The Fifth Sense is one of the movies
that have twist endings. Therefore, Coco is The Fifth Sense.

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MOODS, FIGURES, AND SOUNDNESS OF SYLLOGISMS

At the end of this chapter, you should be able to:

1. Define the mood and the figure of a syllogism.
2. Explain the principles and procedures in determining the mood and the figure of a
syllogism.
3. Construct a syllogism according to a given mood and figure.
4. Test the validity of a syllogism in a given mood and figure.
Logic as practiced in the wild.

Explore
40. Moods of Syllogism
a. The mood of a syllogism refers to the order of propositions.
b. This order is determined by the letter symbol of the component propositions:
major premise, minor premise and conclusion.
c. There are total 64 possible arrangements.
d. Example, A:
i. Major premise – A;

49 | P a g e
ii. Minor Premise – O, and
iii. Conclusion – E.
iv. The mood then is AOE.
e. Example, B:
i. All presidents are savvy politicians. - A
ii. Some savvy politicians are incredible manipulators. – I
iii. Therefore, some presidents are incredible manipulators. – I
 iv. The mood is: AII
41. Figures of Syllogism
a. The figure of a categorical syllogism refers to the arrangement of the middle
term in the premises.
b. There are four possible arrangements of the middle term.
c. In this purpose:
i. S – used to represent the subject of the conclusion
ii. P – used to represent the predicate of the conclusion
iii. M – used to represent the middle term
d. First Figure
i. The middle term is the subject in the major premise and the predicate in
the minor premise.
ii. Example:
1. All governmental agencies are funded by government funds. M is P
2. MSU at Naawan is a governmental agency. S is M
3. Therefore, MSU at Naawan is funded by government funds.
Δ, S is P
e. Second Figure
i. The middle term is the predicate in both the major and minor premises.
ii. Example:
1. All convenience stores are stores that sell pre-packaged food.
P is M
2. Some small retail business are stores that sell pre-packaged food.
S is M
3. Therefore, all convenience stores are small retail business.
Δ, S is P
f. Third Figure
i. The middle term is the subject in both the major and minor premises.
ii. Example:
1. All National Artists are acclaimed individuals.
M is P
2. Some National Artists are leaders in their own fields.
M is S

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3. Therefore, some acclaimed individuals are leaders in their own
fields. Δ, S is P
g. Fourth Figure
i. The middle term is the predicate in the major premise and the subject in
the minor.
ii. Example:
 1. All dictators are power-hungry politicians. P is M
2. All power-hungry politicians are corrupt. M is S
3. Therefore, all dictators are corrupt. Δ, S is P
42. Soundness of Syllogism
a. A sound argument is both valid in form and contains true propositions.
b. Both conditions must be present in order for an argument to be sound.
c. If either is missing the argument is unsound.
d. Case 1
i. True Premises, True Conclusion
ii. Example
1. All bridges are industrial constructions. – True
All industrial constructions are constructions that require
engineering. – True
Therefore, all bridges are constructions that require engineering.
– True
Validity: Valid
2. All banks are repositories of money. – True
Some cooperatives are repositories of money. – True
Therefore, some banks are cooperatives. – True
Validity: Invalid
e. Case 2
i. False Premises, False Conclusion
ii. Example:
1. All al Qaeda members are MILF members. – False
All MILF members are MNLF members. – False
Therefore, all al Qaeda members are MNLF members. – False
Validity: Valid
2. All sparrows are birds of prey. – False
All storks are birds of prey. – False
Therefore, all storks are sparrows. – False
Validity: Invalid
f. Case 3
i. True Premises, False Conclusion
ii. Example:
1. All call center agents are adept English speakers. – True

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All English teachers are adept English speakers. – True
Therefore, all call center agents are English teachers. – False
Validity: Invalid
g. Case 4
 i. False Premises, True Conclusion
ii. Example:
1. All herons are non-water based birds. – False
Some herons are non-carnivorous birds. – False
Therefore, some non-water based birds are non-carnivorous
birds. – True
Validity: Valid
2. All invasions are legal under international law. – False
All conquests are legal under international law. – False
Therefore, some invasions are conquests. – True
Validity: Invalid

Enrichment
Determine the mood of the syllogism
Determine the figure of the syllogism
Determine the truth of each proposition
Determine the validity of the argument
Determine whether the soundness of the argument
A. All Ilocanos are Tagalogs. No Cebuanos are Ilocanos. Therefore, no Cebuanos are
Tagalogs.
B. All Philippine legislators are lawmakers with 6 year term. All Senators are Philippine
legislators. Therefore, all Senators are lawmakers with 6 year term.
C. All municipalities are provinces. All nations are provinces. Therefore, all nations are
municipalities.
D. All professionals are literates. Some professionals are nurses. Therefore, some nurses
are literates.
E. All physicians are doctors. All PhD holders are doctors. Therefore, all PhD holders are
physicians.

Evaluate
Determine the mood of the syllogism
Determine the figure of the syllogism
Determine the truth of each proposition
Determine the validity of the argument
Determine whether the soundness of the argument

52 | P a g e
A. All History subjects are behavioural subjects. All English subjects are behavioural
subjects. Therefore, all English subjects are History subjects.
B. All Filipinos are non-Asians. All Bicolanos are non-Asians. Therefore, all Bicolanos are
Filipinos.
C. No loyalists are rebels. Some rebels are military men. Therefore, some military men are
not loyalists.
D. All bachelorettes are unmarried men. All bachelors are bachelorettes. Therefore,
bachelors are unmarried men.
E. All computers are technological devices. All laptops are computers. Therefore, all
laptops are technological devices.

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HYPOTHETICAL PROPOSITIONS AND SYLLOGISMS
At the end of this chapter, you should be able to:
1. Distinguish hypothetical syllogism from categorical syllogism.
2. Enumerate the three types of hypothetical syllogisms.
3. Discuss the structure, laws, moods, and forms of each hypothetical syllogism.

Stephen Toulmin helped popularized informal, applied, and rhetorical logics.

Explore
43. Hypothetical Proposition
a. Hypothesis is defined as a ‘provisional idea whose merit needs evaluation’. b.
Hypothetical logic proceeds from considering different provisional ideas or
assumptions and suggesting a possible correlation between them in order to see
what follows from them.
c. Hypothetical propositions are multiple propositions that express the relation of
dependence between two propositions.
d. Hypothetical propositions are not directly judged as true or false.
e. Its truth or falsity is dependent on the truth or falsity of its component parts.
44. Three Types of Hypothetical Propositions
a. Conditional Propositions
b. Disjunctive Propositions
c. Conjunctive Propositions
45. Conditional Propositions

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a. These are propositions that are composed of ‘if-then’ statements.
 b. It is specifically composed of:
i. Antecedent
1. These are propositions that expresses the condition and is
introduced by the word, ‘if’.
ii. Consequent
1. These propositions are entirely dependent on the materialization
of the condition and is introduced by the word, ‘then’.
c. Example:
i. ‘If a judge convicts a suspect guilty, then the suspect has to serve a jail
sentence.’
ii. ‘If a soldier dies in active duty, then he or she will be declared as a
national hero’.
iii. Antecedents: ‘judge convicts a suspect guilty…’ and ‘soldier dies in
active duty…’
iv. Consequents: ‘…the suspect has to serve a jail sentence.’ and ‘…he or
she will be declared as a national hero.’
d. Forms of conditional propositions:
i. Logical: ‘If all philosophers are thinkers and John is a philosopher, then
John is a thinker’
ii. Definitional: ‘If Carol is anemic, then Carol has a low concentration of
erythrocytes in her blood.’
iii. Causal: If you strike the match, it will light.’
iv. Decisional: ‘If you donate to educational television, then the company
you work for will match the amount.’
46. Disjunctive Propositions
a. These propositions are ‘either-or’ statements.
b. These statements consist of two propositions which exclude each other.
c. The parts of disjunction are known as disjuncts.
d. Disjunctive propositions can be:
i. Proper
ii. Improper.
e. Proper disjunctive propositions include disjuncts that are mutually exclusive
from each other.
i. These propositions include two contradictory terms.
ii. Thus, if one is true the other is false, and if one is false the other is true.
iii. Example:
1. ‘Either a man is polite or impolite’.
f. Improper disjunctive propositions include terms that are not mutually exclusive
from each other.
i. These terms include contrary terms.

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 ii. Example:
1. ‘An attorney is either skilled in criminal or civil cases.’
47. Conjunctive Propositions
a. Conjunctive propositions are conjoined by the word, ‘and’.
b. Its component parts are called the ‘conjuncts’.
c. These conjuncts cannot be true at the same time, but they may be false
together.
d. This follow two rules:
i. If a conjunct is true, then the other is false.
ii. If a conjunct is false, then the other is not necessarily false.
e. Example:
i. The tree between the guard house and the atm cannot be a mahogany
and a mango tree at the same time.’
ii. The two conjuncts are: mahogany and mango trees.
48. Hypothetical Syllogisms
a. Hypothetical syllogism is different from categorical syllogism:
i. First, its structure is different.
1. It can be composed with categorical and hypothetical
propositions.
ii. Second, the relationship between propositions are different.
1. Its relationship is not direct, but instead it is highly dependent.
iii. Third, its validity depends on the moods and laws.
1. As categorical syllogisms depend on rules, but hypothetical
syllogism depends on moods and laws.
iv. Example:
1. If A then B. If B then C. Therefore, If A then C.
If attorneys win cases, then they become more renowned.
If attorney become more renowned then their asking price goes
higher.
Therefore, if attorneys win cases then their asking price goes
higher.
2. If A then B. It is A. Therefore, It is B.
If taxes are fair, then the poor won’t be bothered by budgeting
every month.
The taxes are indeed fair.
Therefore, the poor are not bothered by budgeting every month.
49. Conditional Syllogisms
a. Conditional syllogisms are the ones with major premise as a conditional
proposition, while its minor premise and conclusion are categorical propositions. b.
Two laws governing conditional syllogisms:
 i. The truth of the antecedent, means the truth of the consequent.

56 | P a g e
ii. The falsity of the antecedent, does not necessarily mean the falsity of the
consequent.
iii. The falsity of the consequent, means the falsity of the antecedent. iv.
The truth of the consequent, does not necessarily mean the truth of the
antecedent.
c. Two valid moods of conditional syllogism:
i. Modus Ponens
1. This includes the idea that the truth of the antecedent implies the
truth of the consequent.
ii. Modus Tollens
1. This includes the idea that the falsity of the consequent implies
the falsity of the antecedent.
d. Modus Ponens
i. Accept-Accept Scheme
1. This syllogism means that if the condition in the antecedent is
realized, then the effect in the consequent occurs.
2. Example:
Major premise: If guns are unregulated, then crime rates would go
higher.
Minor premise: Guns are unregulated.
Conclusion: Therefore, crime rates have gone higher.
e. Modus Tollens
i. Reject-Reject Scheme
1. This syllogism means that the consequent does not occur, then
the antecedent has not taken place.
2. Example:
Major premise: If Alicia is an illegal migrant, then she can be
deported.
Minor premise: Alicia is not deported.
Conclusion: Therefore, Alicia is not an illegal migrant.
f. Form 1
i. The antecedent and the consequent may be both affirmative.
1. Modus Ponens
a. If it is A, then it is B. It is A. Therefore, it is B.
b. Example:
i. If political campaigns are expensive, then only the
rich can run for public office.
Political campaigns are expensive.
 Therefore, only the rich are running for public
office.
2. Modus Tollens

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a. If it is A, then it is B. It is not B. Therefore, it is not A.
b. Example:
i. If a religious is a Christian, then he believes in Jesus
Christ.
He does not believe in Jesus Christ.
Therefore, the religious is not a Christian.
g. Form 2
i. The antecedent and the consequent may be both negative.
1. Modus Ponens
a. If it is not A, then it is not B. It is not A. Therefore, it is B.
b. Example:
i. If a tennis player is not Serena Williams, then she is
not a 23 grand slam winning champion.
The tennis player is not Serena Williams.
Therefore, she is not a 23 grand slam winning
champion.
2. Modus Tollens
a. If it is not A, then it is not B. It is B. Therefore, it is A.
b. Example:
i. If it’s not a Jollibee Chicken Joy, then it is not a
chicken from Jollibee.
It is a chicken from Jollibee.
Therefore, it is a Jollibee Chicken Joy.
h. Form 3.
i. The antecedent may be affirmative and the consequent negative.
1. Modus Ponens
a. If it is A, then it is not B. It is A. Therefore, it is not B.
b. Example:
i. If an ABS-CBN soap opera, then it is not a GMA
soap opera.
It is an ABS-CBN soap opera.
Therefore, it is not a GMA soap opera.
2. Modus Tollens
a. If it is A, then it is not B. It is B. Therefore, it is not A.
b. Example:
i. If he is currently the President, then he is not a
 Senator.
He is a senator.
Therefore, he is not currently the President.
i. Form 4.
i. The antecedent may be negative, the consequent affirmative.

58 | P a g e
1. Modus Ponens
a. If it is not A, then it is B. It is not A. Therefore, it is B.
b. Example:
i. If it is not H&M, then it is Uniqlo.
It is not H&M.
Therefore, it is Uniqlo.
2. Modus Tollens
a. If it is not A, then it is B. It is not B. Therefore, it is A.
b. Example:
i. If she is not a Filipino, then she is an American.
She is not an American.
Therefore, she is a Filipino.
j. Invalid Forms
i. Fallacy of Rejecting the Antecedent
1. This fallacy is committed when we reject the antecedent in the
minor premise.
2. Example:
If it’s a Marvel Movie, then it’s also a Disney movie.
It’s not a Marvel Movie.
Therefore, it is not a Disney Movie.
ii. Fallacy of Accepting the Consequent
1. This fallacy is committed when we accept the consequent in the
minor premise.
2. Example:
If it’s a wasabi, then it is a palette cleanser.
It is a palette cleanser.
Therefore, it’s a wasabi.
50. Disjunctive Syllogism
a. This syllogism is one whose major premise is a disjunctive proposition, while its
minor premise and conclusions are categorical propositions.
b. Two kinds of disjunctive syllogism:
i. Proper Disjunctive Syllogisms
ii. Improper Disjunctive Syllogisms
c. Proper Disjunctive Syllogism
 i. Proper disjunction is a syllogism whose major premise is a proper
disjunctive proposition.
ii. Rules: if one is true, the other must be false; and if one is false, the other
must be true.
iii. There are two valid moods:
1. Ponendo Tollens (Accept-Reject)
2. Tollendo Ponens (Reject-Accept)

59 | P a g e
iv. Ponendo Tollens
1. This mood is characterized by this rule: If one disjunct is accepted
in the minor premise, the other disjunct must be rejected in the
conclusion.
2. Example:
Netflix original shows are either critically-acclaimed or
non-critically acclaimed.
Netflix original shows are critically-acclaimed.
Therefore, Netflix original shows are not non-critically
acclaimed.
v. Tollendo Ponens
1. This mood features that if one disjunct is rejected in the minor
premise, the other disjunct must be accepted in the conclusion. 2.
Example:
Manila’s MRT is either functional or non-functional.
Manila’s MRT is not non-functional.
Therefore, Manila’s MRT is functional.
vi. Form 1
1. Both parts may be affirmative
2. Ponendo Tollens
a. It is either A or B. It is A. Therefore, it is not B.
b. Example:
Vice Ganda is either influential or uninfluential.
Vice Ganda is influential.
Therefore, he is not uninfluential.
3. Tollendo Ponens
a. It is either A or B. It is not A. Therefore, it is B.
b. Example:
Venezuela is either a socialist or a non-socialist
country.
Venezuela is not a non-socialist country.
Therefore, it is a socialist country.
vii. Form 2.
1. Both parts may be negative
2. Ponendo Tollens
a. It is either not A or not B. It is not A. Therefore, it is B.
b. Example:
The national news is either not biased or not
unbiased.
The national news is not biased.
Therefore, it is unbiased.

60 | P a g e
3. Tollendo Ponens
a. It is either not A or not B. It is A. Therefore, it is not B.
b. Example:
Boyfriends can be not supportive or not
unsupportive.
They are supportive.
Therefore, they are not unsupportive.
viii. Form 3.
1. The first part may be affirmative, the second may be negative.
2. Ponendo Tollens
a. It is either A or not B. It is A. Therefore, it is B.
b. Example:
Lasagna is either a pasta or not non-noodle dish.
It is a pasta dish.
Therefore, lasagna is a noodle dish.
3. Tollendo Ponens
a. It is either A or not B. It is not A. Therefore, it is not B.
b. Example:
Prince Charming is either a member of the British
royalty or not a member of the British monarchy.
He is not a member of the British royalty.
Therefore, he is not a member of the British
monarchy.
ix. Form 4.
1. The first part may be negative, the second may be affirmative.
2. Ponendo Tollens
a. It is either not A or B. It is not A. Therefore, it is not B.
b. Example:
A plea bargain is either not granted or allowed by
the court.
 It is not granted by the court.
Therefore, it is not allowed by the court.
3. Tollendo Ponens
a. It is either not A or B. It is A. Therefore, it is B.
b. Example:
A suspect could be either not guilty or culpabable of
murder.
The suspect is guilty.
Therefore, the suspect is culpabable of murder.
x. Invalid Forms

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1. Proper Disjunctive Syllogism only allows Ponendo Tollens, while
Tollendo Ponens is invalid and incurs a fallacy.
2. Example:
The top laptop brand in 2018 is either Asus or Acer.
The top laptop brand is not an Asus.
Therefore, it is Acer.
Invalid: Fallacy of Rejecting a Disjunct
51. Conjunctive Syllogism
a. This syllogism features a major premise that is a conjunctive proposition and its
minor premise and conclusion are categorical propositions.
b. One valid mood for conjunctive syllogism: Ponendo Tollens.
c. Example:
i. A public official cannot be a Senator and a District Representative at the
same time.
The public official is indeed a Senator.
Therefore, the public official is not a District Representative.
d. Invalid Forms
i. Tollendo Ponens
ii. Example:
An MSU Naawan student cannot be a BS Fisheries and BS
Agriculture at the same time.
The MSU Naawan student is not a BS Fisheries student.
Therefore, MSU Naawan student is a BS Agriculture student.
Invalid, Fallacy of Rejecting a Conjunct

Enrichment
Determine whether these propositions are conditional, disjunctive proper, disjunctive improper,
or conjunctive.
A. Either the criminal tells the truth or tells lies.
B. If he is a government executive, then he is bound by graft and corruption laws.
C. Typhoon Yolanda did not hit the Philippines and Japan at the same time. D.
Duterte is endorsing or not endorsing Freddie Aguilar as Senator.
E. Either the best Marvel movie in 2018 is Black Panther or the Avengers: Infinity War.
F. The open pit mining in Mindanao is either catastrophic or non-catastrophic.

Evaluate
Determine whether these propositions are conditional, disjunctive proper, disjunctive improper,
or conjunctive.
A. If Imelda Marcos will be imprisoned, then cosmic justice is served against the victims of
Martial Law.

62 | P a g e
B. Charter change can be done either though people’s initiative, constituent assembly, or
constitutional convention.
C. The majority of the 12 Senatoriables in 2018 elections are administration or non
administration candidates.
D. The highest mountain in the world cannot be Mount Everest and K2 at the same time.
E. The best MSU school is either MSU-IIT, MSU-Marawi or MSU Naawan. F. Legal advice
cannot be free or expensive at the same time.

Supply the following syllogisms with their corresponding propositions.

▪ 1. If Rodrigo Duterte is the President of the Philippines, then he is the chief ambassador
of the Philippines.
Modus Ponens
Minor Premise: _________________________________________
Conclusion: _________________________________________ Modus
Tollens
Minor Premise: _________________________________________ Conclusion:
_________________________________________ ▪ 2. If global warming would continue in
the next 50 years, then archipelagic countries are in trouble.
Modus Ponens
Minor Premise: _________________________________________
Conclusion: _________________________________________ Modus
Tollens
Minor Premise: _________________________________________ Conclusion:
_________________________________________ ▪ 3. If Jon Snow is the new king of
Westeros, then he has defeated Cersei in the war. Modus Ponens
Minor Premise: _________________________________________
 Conclusion: _________________________________________ Modus
Tollens
Minor Premise: _________________________________________
Conclusion: _________________________________________ ▪ 4. If
Rihanna is the most bankable popstar today, then she is filthy rich. Modus
Ponens
Minor Premise: _________________________________________
Conclusion: _________________________________________ Modus
Tollens
Minor Premise: _________________________________________
Conclusion: _________________________________________

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Determine whether each disjunctive syllogism as proper or improper.
Determine the mood used (Ponendo Tollens or Tollendo Ponens)
Decide whether valid or invalid.
Determine if the syllogism commits a fallacy.
A. Final grades will be released either by the teachers or by the department. It was
released by the department. Therefore, it is not released by the teachers. B. The
library collections are either sufficient or insufficient. They are not insufficient.
Therefore, they are sufficient.
C. The most expensive part of the computer is either the hardware or the software. The
hardware is more expensive by 20%. Thus, the software is much cheaper. D. Duterte
speeches are either boring or interesting. Duterte speeches are not necessarily boring.
Therefore, his speeches are interesting.
E. MSU Naawan’s performance on 2018 board exams show great improvement or
unimprovement. MSU Naawan’s performance is greatly improving this year. Therefore,
MSU Naawan’s performance is not unimproving.
F. Imelda Marcos cannot be guilty and non-guilty is crimes against misrepresentation.
Imelda is proclaimed guilty. Therefore, Imelda is not non-guilty of crimes against
misrepresentation.
G. The most awarded Oscar winner in history cannot be Meryl Streep or Katharine
Hepburn at the same time. It is not Meryl Streep. Therefore, it is Katharine Hepburn. H.
Naawan couldn’t be a town of Misamis Oriental and Misamis Occidental at the same time.
Naawan is part of Misamis Oriental. Therefore, it is not a municipality of Misamis
Occidental.
I. The most recognizable national store in Naawan cannot be 7/11 and Palawan Pawnshop
at the same time. It is not 7/11 actually. Therefore, it is Palawan Pawnshop. J. MSU
Naawan’s highest yield of farmed fish cannot be bangus or tilapia at the same time. Bangus
is MSUN’s most bountiful harvest in years. Therefore, it is not tilapia.
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REFERENCES

Copi, Irving M. and Carl Cohen. 1997. Introduction to Logic, 10th ed. New Jersey: Prentice Hall,
Inc.
Hinacay, Marionito L. and Maria Belen S.E. Hinacay. 2011. Logic: A Textbook-Workbook for
College Students, 3rd ed. Iligan City: Vitasophia Book Center.
Hurley, Patrick. 2015. A Concise Introduction in Logic. Stanford: Cengage. Jayme, Virginia L.
2001. An Introduction to Logic. Cebu City: ABC Publications. Priest, Graham. 2008. An
Introduction to Non-Classical Logic. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
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