Electronic Devices
Ninth Edition
Floyd
Chapter 1
Introduction to Electronics
SEMI-CONDUCTOR DEVICES-INTRODUCTION
Fig. 1-1: Passive & Active Electronic Components
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THE ATOM
All matter composed of atoms.
What is an atom?
All Atoms (except normal hydrogen) consists
of:
Electrons
Protons
Neutrons
Atomic number ⟹ # of protons in the
nucleus
An atom in Normal State ⟹ Neutral state =
Net charge of zero
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THE PERIODIC TABLE OF THE ELEMENTS-2016
Fig. 1-2: The Periodic Table of Elements -2016 -118 elements
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THE BOHR MODEL
Atoms circles the nucleus only in specific orbits.
Group of orbits correspond to discrete energy
levels called shells.
Each atom has fixed number of shells.
Fixed amount of electrons orbits in each shell
according to the following formula;
2
�� = 2
where
�� = maximum � ℎ
= number of the shell
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VALENCE ELECTRONS
Outermost shell known as valence shell.
Electrons orbiting the valence shell called
valence electrons.
Fig. 1-3: Bohr Diagrams of Silicon (a) and Copper Atoms
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VALENCE ELECTRONS
Valence electrons can break from its atom
when it gains sufficient energy (Ionization
Energy) from an external source.
This is the basis for conduction in materials.
Process of losing an electron is called
ionization.
An escaped electron is known as a free
electron.
An atom that has lost an electron becomes a
positive ion.
An atom that has gain an extra electron
becomes a negative ion.
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MATERIALS USED IN ELECTRONICS
In terms of electrical properties, materials
are classified into 3 groups;
Conductors:
Easily conducts electrical current
Most metals are good conductors
Atoms with loosely bounded valence
electrons
Best conductors are metals such as
copper(Cu-29), Silver(Ag-47), Gold(Au-79)
and Aluminum (Al-13)
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MATERIALS USED IN ELECTRONICS
Insulators:
Material that does not conduct electrical
current under normal conditions.
Valence electrons are tightly bound to
atoms.
Very few free electrons with very high
resistivities.
Most good insulators are compounds,
such as rubber, glass, mica, and quartz.
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MATERIALS USED IN ELECTRONICS
Semiconductors:
Materials whose electrical properties are
between conductors and insulator.
A pure semiconductor (intrinsic) is neither a
good conductor nor a good insulator.
Some single-element semiconductor are:
Antimony(Sb), Arsenic (As), Astatine (At), Boron
(B), Polonium (Po), Tellurium (Te), Silicon (Si) and
Germanium (Ge).
Single-element semiconductors-characterized
by atoms with 4-valence electrons.
Compound semiconductor include:
Gallium Arsenide, Indium Phosphide, Gallium
Nitride, Silicon Carbide, Silicon Germanium, etc.
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MATERIALS USED IN ELECTRONICS
When a free electrons escapes from the
valence band, it will exist in the Conduction
Band.
Fig. 1-4: Energy Diagrams for the Three Types of Materials
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SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIALS
Atomic structure of silicon and Germanium;
Both have four valence electrons
Fig. 1-5: Diagrams of the Silicon and Germanium Atoms
Valence electrons of germanium are at a higher energy
levels than those of silicon.
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SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIALS
Atoms combine to a solid, crystalline material.
The atoms arrange themselves in a symmetrical
pattern.
Atoms within the cystal structure are held together in
covalent bonds.
Fig. 1-6: Illustration of Covalent Bonds in Silicon
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SEMICONDUCTORS:
CONDUCTION ELECTRONS AND HOLES
The energy band diagram of an unexcited atom (no
external energy, such as heat) in a pure silicon crystal
Fig. 1-7: Energy Band Diagram of a Silicon Atom at 0 Kelvin
Condition occurs only at absolute 0 kelvin
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SEMICONDUCTORS:
CONDUCTION ELECTRONS AND HOLES
At room temperature, some valence electrons to break
away and jump into the conduction band.
Fig. 1-8: Creation of Electron-Hole Pair in a Silicon Crystal
For every free electron, a vacancy called a hole is
created.
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ELECTRON AND HOLE CURRENT
Voltage applied across a piece of intrinsic silicon;
Generation of free electrons in the conduction band.
Electrons free to move randomly in the crystal
This type of current is called electron current
Another type of current in the valence band.
Valence electrons can move from one hole to the other.
Fig. 1-9: Creation of Electron-Hole Pair in a Silicon Crystal
Effectively the holes from one place to the other.
This movement of electrons in the valence band produces
a current, called hole current.
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SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIALS
GROUP III, GROUP IV & GROUP V ELEMENTS
Table. 1-1: Group III, Group IV & Group V Semiconductor Elements
GROUP III GROUP IV GROUP V
(Trivalent) (Pentavalent)
Boron (B) Carbon (C) Nitrogen (N)
Aluminum(Al) Silicon (Si) Phosphorus(P)
Gallium (Ga) Germanium (Ge) Arsenic (As)
Indium(In) Tin (Sn) Antimony (Sb)
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SEMICONDUCTORS- N-TYPE AND P-TYPE
Intrinsic silicon and germanium:
Do not conduct current well
Few or limited number of electrons in the conduction
band
In order to enhance current conduction:
Increase the number of free electrons or
hole
By adding impurities: Process called
Doping.
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N-TYPE SEMICONDUCTORS
Addition of pentavalent atoms (antimony) to
intrinsic silicon produces an N-Type Semiconductor.
Each of the 4 valence electrons of each antimony
atom forms a covalent bond with each silicon atom.
Each of the 5th valence electron becomes a
conduction electron because of the absence of
bonding.
Each antimony atom gives up one electron, thus
called donor atom.
A conduction electron created by this doping does
not leave a hole because it is in excess of the
number required to fill the valence band.
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N-TYPE SEMICONDUCTORS
Most of the carriers are electrons (silicon or germanium doped with
pentavalent atoms).
These electrons are called Majority Carriers.
Free (conduction) electron
Si from Sb atom
Si Sb Si
Si
Fig. 1-10: Pentavalent Atom in a Silicon Crystal Structure
There are few holes created when compound semiconductor is excited.
Holes in an n-type material are called Minority Carrier.
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P-TYPE SEMICONDUCTORS
Addition of trivalent atoms (boron) to
intrinsic silicon produces a P-Type
Semiconductor.
Each of the 3 valence electrons of each
boron atom forms a covalent bond with
each silicon atom.
A fourth electron in required to complete
the covalent bonding.
Each antimony atom can take an electron,
thus is called acceptor atom.
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P-TYPE SEMICONDUCTORS
Most of the carriers are holes (silicon or germanium doped with
trivalent atoms).
These holes are called Majority Carriers.
Si
Si B Si
Si
Fig. 1-11: Trivalent Atom in a Silicon Crystal Structure
There are few electrons created when compound semiconductor is
excited.
electrons in an p-type material are called Minority Carrier.
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THE PN JUNCTION
A P- and N- materials together, form a PN Junction or Diode.
Depletion region
p region n region
– +
– +
– +
– +
– +
– +
– +
– +
Fig. 1-12: The PN Junction
Conductions electrons to the p-region and fall into holes.
Filling a hole makes a negative ion and leaves behind a positive ion in
the n-region.
This creates a thin region that is depleted of free charges at the
boundary (Depletion region or Depletion Layer).
The potential difference of the electric field is established across the
depletion region.
This is the voltage required to move an electron across the depletion
region.
This potential difference is called the Barrier Potential.
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