Chapter 7

Entropy

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 Objectives
• Apply the second law of thermodynamics to processes.
• Define a new property called entropy to quantify the second-law effects.
• Establish the increase of entropy principle.
• Calculate the entropy changes that take place during processes for pure
substances, incompressible substances, and ideal gases.
• Examine a special class of idealized processes, called isentropic processes,
and develop the property relations for these processes.
• Derive the reversible steady-flow work relations.
• Develop the isentropic efficiencies for various steady-flow devices.
• Introduce and apply the entropy balance to various systems.

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 Entropy
𝛿𝑄
The system considered in the ර
𝑇
≤0  WC =  QR − dEC
development of the Clausius inequality.
δQ R δQ Q
=  WC = TR − dEC
TR T T
𝛿𝑄
𝑊𝐶 = 𝑇𝑅 ර
𝑇
𝛿𝑄
ර ≤0 Clasius inequality
𝑇

𝛿𝑄
ර =0
𝑇 int rev

Q  Formal definition

dS =   (kJ / K)
 T int rev of entropy

 Q 
2
S = S 2 − S1 =   
1
 T  int rev
The equality in the Clausius inequality holds
for totally or just internally reversible cycles
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 Entropy
The net change in volume (a property)
during a cycle is always zero. Property: A quantity whose
cyclic integral is zero.
Entropy is an extensive
property of a system.
𝛿𝑄
ර =0
𝑇 int rev

ර𝑑𝑉 = 0

The integral of δQ/T along an

irreversible path is not a property.
 dV = ΔV cycle =0
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 Entropy
The entropy change between two specified states is the same whether the process
is reversible or irreversible.

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 Entropy
A Special Case: Internally Reversible Isothermal Heat Transfer
Processes

 δQ  2 2  δQ  1 2
ΔS =    =   =  (δQ)
1
 T int rev 1
 T0 int rev T0 1 int rev

Q
ΔS = (kJ/K)
T0
This equation is particularly useful for determining the entropy changes of
thermal energy reservoirs.

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 The Increase of Entropy Principle
𝛿𝑄 2 δQ 1  δQ 
A cycle composed of a reversible
and an irreversible process.
ර
𝑇
≤0
1 T 2  T int rev
+   0

Q
+ S1 − S 2  0 S 2 − S1   Q
2

2
1 T 1 T
 Q The equality holds for an internally
dS 
T reversible process and the inequality
for an irreversible process.
2 Q
Ssys = S 2 − S1 =  + Sgen
1 T

Sgen = S total = Ssys + Ssurr  0

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Some entropy is generated or created during an irreversible process, and this

generation is due entirely to the presence of irreversibilities.
The entropy generation Sgen is always a positive quantity or zero.
Can the entropy change of a system be negative?
The entropy change of a system can be negative, but the entropy generation cannot.
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 The Increase of Entropy Principle 2

A system and its surroundings form an

The entropy change of an isolated system
is the sum of the entropy changes of its isolated system.
components, and is never less than zero.

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Sisolated  0
Sgen = S total = Ssys + Ssurr  0

> 0 irreversible process Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display.


Sgen = 0 reversible process
< 0 impossible process The increase of entropy principle

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 The Increase of Entropy Principle
Some Remarks about Entropy 1. Processes can occur in a certain
direction only, not in any
The entropy change of a system direction. A process must
can be negative, but the entropy
generation cannot. proceed in the direction that
complies with the increase of
entropy principle, that is, Sgen ≥
0. A process that violates this
principle is impossible.
2. Entropy is a nonconserved
property, and there is no such
thing as the conservation of
entropy principle. Entropy is
conserved during the idealized
reversible processes only and
Sgen = S total = Ssys + Ssurr = 1 kJ/K
increases during all actual
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processes.
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 The Increase of Entropy Principle
Some Remarks about Entropy 1. The performance of engineering
systems is degraded by the
The entropy change of a system
can be negative, but the entropy presence of irreversibilities, and
generation cannot. entropy generation is a measure
of the magnitudes of the
irreversibilities during that
process. It is also used to
establish criteria for the
performance of engineering
devices.
2. in the absence of any heat
transfer, entropy change is due
to irreversibilities only, and their
Sgen = S total = Ssys + Ssurr = 1 kJ/K effect is always to increase
entropy.
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 Example 1
A heat source at 800 K loses 2000 kJ of heat to a sink at (a) 500
K and (b) 750 K. Determine which heat transfer process is more
irreversible.

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 Example 1

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 Example 1

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 Entropy Change of Pure Substances
• Entropy is a property, and thus the value of entropy of a
system is fixed once the state of the system is fixed.
• The entropy change of a substance can be expressed in terms
of other properties. But in general, these relations are too
complicated and are not practical to use for hand calculations.
• Therefore, using a suitable reference state, the entropies of
substances are evaluated from measurable property data
following rather involved computations, and the results are
tabulated in the same manner as the other properties such as v,
u, and h.

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 Entropy Change of Pure Substances
• The entropy values in the property tables are given relative to
an arbitrary reference state.
• In steam tables the entropy of saturated liquid sf at 0.01°C is
assigned the value of zero.
• For refrigerant-134a, the zero value is assigned to saturated
liquid at 40°C.
• The entropy values become negative at temperatures below the
reference value.

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 Entropy Change of Pure Substances
• In steam tables the entropy of saturated liquid sf at 0.01°C is
assigned the value of zero.

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 Entropy Change of Pure Substances
• The entropy values become negative at temperatures below the
reference value.

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 Entropy Change of Pure Substances
Entropy is a property, and thus the value of entropy of a system is fixed once
the state of the system is fixed.

s = s f + xs fg (kJ/kg.K) The entropy of a pure substance is determined

from the tables (like other properties).

s@T , P  S f @ T (kJ/kg.K)

Entropy change

S = ms = m( s 2 − s1 ) (kJ/K)

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 Entropy Change of Pure Substances
Schematic of the T-s diagram for water.

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 Example 2
A rigid tank contains 5 kg of refrigerant-134a initially at 20°C
and 140 kPa. The refrigerant is now cooled while being stirred
until its pressure drops to 100 kPa. Determine the entropy change
of the refrigerant during this process.

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 Example 2
Initial state: T = 20°C, P = 140 kPa.

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 Example 2
Final state: P = 100 kPa, V2 = V1

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 Example 2

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 Thank You

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