SCHOOL OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

BASIC ENGINEERING LABORATORY

MANUAL
 Experiment.1

THREE LOOP ELECTRIC CIRCUIT SIMULATION FOR VOLTAGE AND

CURRENT ANALYSIS

AIM
To simulate a given electric circuit and obtain the various voltages and currents and validate the obtained
results by nodal and mesh analysis.

APPARATUS / COMPONENTS REQUIRED (from OrCAD Capture CIS / PSpice)

Sl. No Part Specification Quantity

330Ω, 270Ω, 390Ω,
1. Resistor (R/Analog) 1 each
220Ω, 180Ω
2. DC voltage source (VDC/Source) - 2
3. Wires - As needed
4. Ground (0/CAPSYM) - 1

THEORY
Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL) states that that in a closed circuit, the algebraic sum of all source
voltages must be equal to the algebraic sum of all the voltage drops. Systematic application of KVL along
with the element V-I relationships yields mesh analysis which is applicable to planar circuits. Mesh
analysis involves finding the loop currents based on KVL equations. From the loop currents, the individual
branch currents and hence the branch voltages can be found.
Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL) states that at any node (junction) in a circuit the algebraic sum of
currents entering and leaving a node at any instant of time must be equal to zero. Systematic application
of KCL along with the element V-I relationships yields nodal analysis which is applicable to any type of
circuit. Nodal analysis involves in finding the node voltages based on KCL equations. From the node
voltages, the branch voltages and hence hence the branch currents can be found.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

PROCEDURE

1. Open OrCAD tool and create new project.

2. Draw the given circuit diagram in the schematic.

3. Go to PSpice menu and create a new simulation profile.

4. In the simulation settings dialog, choose the analysis type as Bias Point and click OK.

5. Run PSpice and then enable bias voltage and current display.

6. Compare the values to the manually calculated values using nodal and mesh analysis.

OBSERVATION

Current direction is assumed to be from left to right for horizontally oriented resistors.
Current direction is assumed to be from top to bottom for vertically oriented resistors.

Amplitude of the input signal: 200 mV

Current through R (mA) Voltage across R (V)

R1
Sl. No
(Ω) Nodal Mesh Nodal Mesh
Simulation Simulation
analysis analysis analysis analysis
1 330
2 220
 3 270
4 180
5 390

Manual calculation

Nodal analysis:

Mesh analysis

RESULT / INFERENCE
 Experiment. 2

ANALYSIS OF A SINGLE PHASE SERIES RL CIRCUIT WITH VARYING

INDUCTANCE

AIM
To analyse a series RL circuit under steady state condition and find the variation of element
voltages, current and power factor for multiple values of inductance.

APPARATUS / COMPONENTS REQUIRED (from OrCAD Capture CIS / PSpice)

Sl. No Part Specification Quantity

1. AC voltage source (VSIN/Source) - 1
2. Inductor (L/Analog) 3.3 mH, 5.5 mH, 15.5 mH 1 each
3. Resistor (R/Analog) 1Ω 1
5. Ground (0/CAPSYM) - 1

THEORY

Under steady state ac conditions, the series inductive circuit presents an impedance (Z) to the
source voltage given by 𝑍 = 𝑅 + 𝑗𝑋𝐿 where 𝑋𝐿 ≜ 𝜔𝐿 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐿. The magnitude of Z is given by |𝑍| =

√𝑅 2 + 𝑋𝐿2 .
The steady state current depends on the source voltage and the impedance and is expressed by the
𝑉𝑅𝑀𝑆
relation 𝐼𝑅𝑀𝑆 = |𝑍|
. The rms voltage across the resistor is computed as 𝑉𝑅,𝑅𝑀𝑆 = 𝐼𝑅𝑀𝑆 𝑅. Similarly the

voltage across the inductor is obtained by 𝑉𝐿,𝑅𝑀𝑆 = 𝐼𝑅𝑀𝑆 𝑋𝐿 .

Any series resistive-inductive circuit under steady state ac condition has the property that the
current phasor always lags the source voltage phasor and the circuit is said to possess a lagging power
factor. The power factor at the source is computed by taking the cosine of the angle difference between
the source voltage and current phasors. The angle difference or the power factor angle is obtained using
𝜔𝐿
the formula tan−1 ( 𝑅 ). From the steady state voltage and current waveforms also, the power factor angle

in radians can be obtained by first calculating the time elapsed between the peak of the voltage waveform
and the immediate next peak of the current waveform. This time when multiplied with the angular
frequency gives the power factor angle.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

Model waveforms

PROCEDURE

(i) Make the connections as per the given circuit in the Pspice schematic.
(ii) In the simulation profile, select the analysis type as Time Domain and in the options, choose
General Settings.
(iii) In the “Run To Time” textbox, enter 1.08 seconds.
(iv) In the “Start saving data after” textbox, enter 1 second.
(v) Place voltage and current probes in the required points in the schematic and click “Run” button.
 (vi) Measure the needed quantities from the plots.
(vii) Re run the simulation for different values of the inductance.

OBSERVATION
R=1Ω VS = 10 sin ωt V

IRMS (A) VL,RMS (V) VR,RMS (V) Source p.f (lagging)

L Computed Computed Computed Computed
(mH) Theoretical from Theoretical from Theoretical from Theoretical from
waveform waveform waveform waveform
3.3 4.9 5.09 4.9 0.69

5.5 3.54 6.12 3.54 0.50

15.5 1.42 6.92 1.42 0.20

Manual calculations:

OBSERVED WAVEFORMS

RESULT / INFERENCE
 Experiment. 3

PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS OF SINGLE PHASE FULL WAVE DIODE

RECTIFIER WITH AND WITHOUT FILTER CAPACITOR

AIM

To analyse the effect of capacitance and load resistance on the DC and ripple component of the output
voltage of a single phase full wave diode rectifier.

APPARATUS / COMPONENTS REQUIRED

Sl. No Part Specification Quantity

1. AC supply 230 VRMS 1
2. Single phase transformer 230 V / 12 V 1
3. Diode 1N4007 4
4. Capacitor 10 µF, 22 µF, 100 µF 1 each
5. Resistor 3.3 kΩ, 4.7 kΩ, 10 kΩ 1 each
6. Digital Storage Oscilloscope - 1
7. Connecting wires - As required

THEORY
It is well known that the full wave diode bridge rectifier converts the alternating voltage both in the positive
as well as the negative half cycle into a unidirectional pulsating waveform. This cannot be referred to a
pure DC. In the process of obtaining a near perfect DC, the first step is the filtering phase. By connecting
a capacitor across the load, the pulsating output voltage gets damped resulting in a more continuous voltage
albeit with some fluctuations – called as the ripples.

The ripple voltage (Vripple) is defined as the difference between the maximum instantaneous output voltage
and the minimum instantaneous voltage at the output. The ripple voltage is related to the peak of the
voltage applied at the input of the bridge rectifier (Vp in volts), the diode forward voltage drop (VD in
volts), the frequency of the input ac supply (f in Hertz), the value of the capacitance (C in farad) and the
value of the load resistance (RL in Ω) by the following relation
 𝑉𝑝 − 2𝑉𝐷
𝑉𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑒 = ( )
2𝑓𝐶𝑅𝐿
where VD ≈ 0.7 V for pn junction diodes.

The average value of the output voltage i.e. its DC component without the filter capacitor is given as

2 (𝑉𝑝 − 𝑉𝐷 )
𝑉𝑂,𝐴𝑉𝐺 =
𝜋

When filter capacitor is used, the average value of the output voltage is given as

𝑉𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑒
𝑉𝑂,𝐴𝑉𝐺 ≈ (𝑉𝑝 − 2𝑉𝐷 ) −
2

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
Model waveforms

Output voltage without filter capacitor

Output voltage with filter capacitor

PROCEDURE

(i) Make the circuit connections as shown in the circuit diagram.

(ii) Apply the input sinusoidal voltage.
(iii) For the first part of the experiment, fix the load resistance. For various values of the
filter capacitance, measure the ripple voltage using the DSO and the average output
voltage using either a DSO or a DC voltmeter.
(iv) For the second part of the experiment, fix the value of the filter capacitance. For
various values of the load resistance, measure the ripple voltage using the DSO and
the average output voltage using either a DSO or a DC voltmeter.

OBSERVATION
RL = 3.3 kΩ

C VO,AVG (V) Vripple (V)

(µF) Theoretical Observed Theoretical Observed
10 13.21 4.72
22 14.50 2.14
100 15.33 0.47
No
10.4 16.97
capacitor

Manual calculations:

C = 22 µF

R VO,AVG (V) Vripple (V)

(kΩ) Theoretical Observed Theoretical Observed
3.3 14.50 2.14
 4.7 14.82 1.51
10 15.22 0.71

Manual calculations:

OBSERVED WAVEFORM

RESULT / INFERENCE
 Experiment .4

WIRELESS POWER TRANSFER THROUGH INDUCTIVE COUPLING

AIM
To demonstrate wireless power transfer through inductive coupling by lighting an LED over a short
distance without a wired connection to a power source.

APPARATUS / COMPONENTS REQUIRED (from OrCAD Capture CIS / PSpice)

Sl. No Part Specification Quantity

1. Inductor ~ 0.4 mH (air cored) 2
2. Resistor 330 Ω, 100 Ω 1 each
3. LED Red and / or Green 1
10 Vp and (100 kHz to
5. Waveform / function generator 1
2MHz)
6. Connecting wires - As required

THEORY
The principle of electromagnetic induction states that whenever there is a change in the magnetic
flux linked with a circuit, an electromotive force (EMF) is induced in that circuit. If the circuit is closed,
this induced EMF will drive an electric current. In this experiment, the emf is induced in a circuit by
changing the strength of the magnetic field and hence the flux linkage in the nearby circuit. The magnitude
𝑑𝜓
of the emf so generated is given by |𝐸| = | 𝑑𝑡 |. For this phenomenon to occur, both the circuits must be

placed nearby so as to achieve proper flux linkage.

Whenever two inductors with inductances L1 and L2 are placed in proximity, a mutual inductance
M comes into picture. The relation between the mutual inductance M and the corresponding inductances
are given by the formula 𝑀 = 𝑘√𝐿1 𝐿2 . Here the term ‘k’ is called as the coefficient of coupling and it can
𝑑𝑖1
take any value from 0 to 1. The mutually induced emf in coil L2 is expressed as 𝑀 . Hence for this
𝑑𝑡

mutually induced emf to be high, M has to be high for which ‘k’ the coefficient of coupling must be high.
In this experiment by moving the second coil, the coupling coefficient is varied which determines
the ON/OFF state of the LED. Also frequency plays a role in the induced emf too. When frequency is too
low, the rate of change of flux becomes too low causing the induced voltage to drop. Also when frequency
is too high, the flux magnitude itself decreases which again causes the induced voltage to drop.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

PROCEDURE

(i) Give connections in the breadboard as per the circuit diagram neglecting the dot
convention in the inductor coils.
(ii) In the function generator select the type of the wave to be sinusoidal.
(iii) Fix a particular frequency of the input voltage in the function generator.
(iv) Bring the second inductor coil nearby the first inductor coil so which causes common
flux linkage.
(v) Test whether the LED is glowing.
(vi) Increase the frequency and repeat steps (iv) and (v).

OBSERVATION

Sl. Input frequency LED state

No (kHz) (ON / OFF)
1. 10
2. 100
3. 200
4. 400
5. 800
6. 1000
 7. 2000

OUTPUT (Snapshot of the experimental setup)

RESULT / INFERENCE
 Experiment .5
Measurement of Power and Power Factor in a single-phase RL
Circuit using 3- voltmeter method

AIM
To measure the power dissipated in a single-phase R-L series circuit and to calculate power
factor of the circuit by 3 voltmeter method.

Apparatus Required

S. No. Name of the apparatus Range / Type Quantity

1−𝜙 AC
1 Transformer supply, 1 No.
230/24/12
2 Inductive Coil 20 mH, 20A 1 No.
3 Multimeter - 1 No.
4 Resistor 100 Ω 1 No.
5 Wires - Few

Theory:

To measure the power and power factor in the AC circuit, wattmeter and power factor meters
are available. While wattmeters and power factor meters provide direct and convenient
measurements, the three voltmeter method offers a more analytical approach that relies on
basic electrical laws like Ohm’s Law and the power formula 𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼 cos 𝜙. It is especially
useful in labs where wattmeter’s may not be available due to cost constraints, or where higher
precision is needed at low power levels.

In this method, a non-inductive resistor (standard resistor) is connected in series with the
unknown load (Inductive coil). The current through the circuit is the same for all series
components. By measuring the voltage drops across the known resistor and the load, and the
total supply voltage, we can determine the current and compute the power and power factor
in the single-phase RL series circuit. Power factor is the cosine of the angle between phase
voltage and current. The maximum value of power factor is unity, i.e. for pure resistive load
and minimum value is zero.ie for pure inductive load (lagging) or pure
capacitive load (leading). For an R-L circuit, the current lags voltage by certain angle, which is
called the power factor angle 𝜃. Three voltmeters measure:
 V1: the total voltage across the series combination (resistor + load),
 V2: the voltage across the standard resistor R
 V3: the voltage across the unknown load (i.e., RL).
 The vector diagram is shown in figure. Current 𝐼 is taken as the reference, V2 in phase with I
( since current through pure resistance- in phase with V,), V3 Leads current I by angle 𝜃, (since
R-L circuit), V1 is the vector sum of V2 and V3.

V3 sinθ
V1
V3
θ

V2 V3 cosθ

𝑉12 = (𝑉2 + 𝑉3 cos 𝜃 )2 + (𝑉3 sin 𝜃)2

𝑉12 = 𝑉22 + 𝑉32 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 + 2𝑉2 𝑉3 cos 𝜃 + 𝑉32 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃
𝑉12 = 𝑉22 + 𝑉32 + 2𝑉2 𝑉3 cos 𝜃
Power factor
𝑉12 − 𝑉22 − 𝑉32
cos 𝜃 =
2𝑉2 𝑉3
Since the resistor is non-inductive, the current 𝐼 in the circuit can be calculated using Ohm’s
Law:
𝑉2
𝐼=
𝑅
𝑉12 = 𝑉22 + 𝑉32 + 2𝐼𝑅𝑉3 cos 𝜃
𝑉12 = 𝑉22 + 𝑉32 + 2𝑅(𝑉3 𝐼 cos 𝜃 )
Power consumed by the load is given by
𝑃 = 𝑉3 𝐼 cos 𝜃
𝑉12 − 𝑉22 − 𝑉32
𝑃=
2𝑅

Circuit:

100 Ω

12 V
V2
1-phase Inductive
AC, 50 Hz, 0V V1 V3
Coil
Supply 20 mH, 20 A

12 V
T1
(230V/24V/12V)
Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram.
2. Set single phase auto Transformer at zero voltage position before switching on the supply.
3. Gradually increase the voltage using the autotransformer till the supply voltmeter reads required
voltage level.
4. Note down the voltage values across supply, non-inductive resistance and inductive coil using
multi-meter.
5. Calculate the power consumed by the inductive coil and calculate power factor.

Observation Table:

Supply
Power
S.No. Voltage V1 (V) V2 (V) V3 (V) Power (W)
Factor
(V)
1 12
2 24

Result:
 Experiment .6

DC-DC Buck Converter based speed control of PMDC Wiper

Motor for Cars

AIM
To design a DC-DC buck converter to control the speed of PMDC wiper motor for cars

Apparatus Required

S. No. Name of the apparatus Range / Type Quantity

1 Signal/ Function generator 1−𝜙 AC supply 1 No.
2 RPS 0 – 30 V 1 No.
3 MOSFET IRF840 1 No.
4 Diode 1N4007 1 No.
5 PMDC 24 V, 100 W 1 No.
6 Resistor 330 Ω 1 No.
6 Breadboard - 1 No.
7 Wires - Few

Theory:

Permanent Magnet DC (PMDC) motors are commonly used in various applications, including the
automotive industry—such as in windshield wipers—due to their simple construction, compact size,
and ability to deliver high torque at low speeds. Speed control of such motors is essential for variable
wiper speeds depending on weather conditions. For a DC motor, speed N is given by:
𝑉 − 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎
𝑁=
𝑘𝜑
where:
 N = Speed (RPM)
 V = Applied armature voltage (Volts)
 𝐼𝑎 = Armature current (Amps)
 𝑅𝑎 = Armature resistance (Ohms)
 𝑘 = Motor constant
 𝜑 = Flux per pole (Weber)

In PMDC Motors, Field flux 𝜑 is constant due to permanent magnets. So, speed control primarily
depends on controlling armature voltage V and armature resistance 𝑅𝑎 .

There are different methods employed to control the speed of PMDC motor such as armature
voltage control, armature resistance control and Pulse Width Modulation (PMW) control, etc.

Buck Converter is a dc-to-dc converter designed to perform the step-down conversion of applied dc input.
A buck converter uses Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) to control the duty cycle of the switch, determining
the average output voltage. The duty cycle determines how long the MOSFET switch is ON during each
switching period.
𝑇𝑂𝑁 𝑇𝑂𝑁
Duty cycle (𝐷) = =
𝑇𝑂𝑁 + 𝑇𝑂𝐹𝐹 𝑇

Basic circuit diagram of buck converter given below.

The buck converter consists of a DC supply or a rectified AC output, two switches i.e. D (diode) and S
(can be semi-controlled or fully controlled power electronics switches like MOSFET), two-pole low-pass
filter (L and C) and a load. The switch S and diode D are connected to a low pass LC filter in order to
reduce the current and voltage ripples which help in generating regulated dc output. This circuit can be
studied in two different modes. The first mode is when the switch S is on while the second mode is when
the switch S is off.

When Switch is ON :
In mode-I, the switch is closed at t = 0. When the switch is turned ON diode becomes reverse biased and
thus it will be in the non-conducting state. The supply current starts flowing through inductor and
capacitor. These two components store energy. The voltage across the capacitor will appear across the
load as shown below.

When Switch is OFF :

The mode-II starts when the switch is opened, in this condition the supply is disconnected from the load
and the inductor will start acting as the source. The energy stored by the inductor in the previous mode
will start releasing with reversed polarity due to which the diode gets forward-biased and the inductor
current flows through the capacitor, load, and diode as shown below.

The current will continue to flow through the load till the current in the inductor falls to zero value. Once
the inductor is discharged completely, the diode gets reverse biased, and the switch is closed again thereby
repeating the cycle.
The net change of current through the inductor in one cycle of supply will be zero. Thus, the output voltage
of the buck converter is given by
𝑉𝑜 = 𝐷𝑉𝑠
From above equation, we can understand that in one cycle of supply, the output voltage totally depends
on the duty cycle. We know that the value of duty cycle D varies between 0 and 1. For this range of D, the
output voltage is lower than the input voltage. Hence in this way the buck converter steps down the input
voltage.

Circuit:
1-phase Signal/
AC 230 V Function
Supply Generator

330 Ω
G

D S
MOSFET
24 V, Voltmeter
RPS
(0-30)V
100 W, M V (0-30)V,
Diode PMDC MC
Motor

Procedure:
1. Connect the elements of circuit in the breadboard as given in the circuit diagram.
2. Connect the circuit to the Regulated Power Supply, turn it on and set the voltage value to 10V.
3. From the signal generator, provide pulse signal to the gate terminal.
4. By varying the duty cycle of the gate pulse, we can observe that voltage at the output and speed of the
motor are changing.
5. Increasing the duty cycle, the voltage increases and speed of the motor increases.
6. Decreasing the duty cycle, the voltage decreases and speed of the motor decreases.

Result:
 Experiment .7

Light intensity control of head lamp of Vehicles

AIM
To design a circuit to vary the intensity of the lamp using Darlington pair of BJT

Apparatus Required

S. No. Name of the apparatus Range / Type Quantity

1 BJT BC547 2 Nos.
2 RPS 0 – 30 V 1 No.
3 Diode 1N4007 1 No.
4 Potentiometer 1 kΩ 1 No.
5 Resistors 330 Ω 3 No.
6 LED - 3 No.
7 Breadboard - 1 No.
8 Wires - Few

Theory:
A Darlington pair is two transistors that act as a single transistor but with a much higher current
gain. This mean that a tiny amount of current from a sensor, micro-controller or similar can be used
to drive a larger load. An example circuit is shown below:

The Darlington Pair can be made from two transistors as shown in the diagram or Darlington Pair
transistors are available where the two transistors are contained within the same package.
Transistors have a characteristic called current gain. This is referred to as its hFE. The amount of
current that can pass through the load in the circuit above when the transistor is turned on is:

Load current = input current x transistor gain (hFE)

The current gain varies for different transistors and can be looked up in the data sheet for the device.
For a normal transistor this would typically be about 100. This would mean that the current
 available to drive the load would be 100 times larger than the input to the transistor. In some
applications the amount of input current available to switch on a transistor is very low. This may
mean that a single transistor may not be able to pass sufficient current required by the load. As
stated earlier this equals the input current x the gain of the transistor (hFE). If it is not possible to
increase the input current then the gain of the transistor will need to be increased. This can be
achieved by using a Darlington Pair.

A Darlington Pair acts as one transistor but with a current gain that equals:

Total current gain (hFE total) = current gain of transistor 1 (hFE t1) x current gain of transistor 2
(hFE t2)

So for example if you had two transistors with a current gain (hFE) = 100:

(hFE total) = 100 x 100

(hFE total) = 10,000

You can see that this gives a vastly increased current gain when compared to a single transistor.
Therefore this will allow a very low input current to switch a much bigger load current.

Normally to turn on a transistor the base input voltage of the transistor will need to be greater than
0.7V. As two transistors are used in a Darlington Pair this value is doubled. Therefore the base
voltage will need to be greater than 0.7V x 2 = 1.4V.

It is also worth noting that the voltage drop across collector and emitter pins of the Darlington Pair
when the turn on will be around 0.9V Therefore if the supply voltage is 5V (as above) the voltage
across the load will be will be around 4.1V (5V – 0.9V)

Circuit:

Darlington
BJT Pair
BJT
1kΩ
Potentiometer
RPS
(0-30)V 330 Ω
LED
Bank
Procedure:
1. Connect the elements of circuit in the breadboard as given in the circuit diagram.
2. Connect the circuit to the Regulated Power Supply, turn it on and set the voltage value to 5V.
3. Now vary the voltage using the variable resistor.
4. Observe the intensity variation in the LED bank.

Result: