MODULE 2 - NERVOUS CO-ORDINATION

SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES 6.1 – 6.5

OVERVIEW: The Nervous System

 It is made up of highly specialised cells called neurones.

 The main functions of the neurones are as follows:
o They act as receptors
o They convert stimuli into electrical impulses/ electrochemical signals
o They transmit electrical impulses over considerable distances
 The nervous system is divided into two (2) parts – the central nervous system (CNS)
which comprises the brain and spinal cord AND the peripheral nervous system (PNS)
which consists of the network of nerves that branch out from the CNS.
 There are two main types of neurones – motor neurone and the sensory neurone (there
is a third type called the relay or intermediate neurone)
 The motor neurone is responsible for transmitting impulses from the CNS to the
effector (effector – a part of the body that brings about a response - which are mainly
muscles or glands).
 The sensory neurone is responsible for transmitting impulses from receptor cells/
sensory nerve endings to the CNS.
 The intermediate or relay neurones are only found in the CNS and are responsible for
transmitting impulses from a sensory neurone to a motor neurone.

H.W. – DRAW, LABEL AND ANNOTATE THE SENSORY AND MOTOR NEURONE
IN THE SPACE BELOW

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STRUCTURE OF A NEURONE

 The cell body of a motor neurone is found within the brain and spinal cord.
 The nucleus of a neurone is always found within the cell body.
 Several thin, cytoplasmic processes exit from the cell body. In a motor neurone, one of
these processes is extremely long and is called the axon.
 The axon conducts impulses away from the cell body; dendrons, however, conduct
impulses towards the cell body.
 Within the cytoplasm of an axon all of the usual organelles are present (i.e. mitochondria,
ribosomes, ER, Golgi apparatus etc.). Extremely large numbers of mitochondria are
found at the tips of the terminal branches of the axon, together with many vesicles
containing chemicals called neurotransmitter substances.
 Specialised cells called Schwann cells wrap themselves around the axon all along its
length. The Schwann cells spiral around, enclosing the axon in many layers of its plasma
membrane. This enclosing sheath is called myelin sheath and it is made up of many lipids
and some proteins.
 In sensory neurones, there is one long dendron and one axon, which is usually shorter
than the dendron.
 The cell bodies of the sensory neurones are located inside structures called Dorsal root
ganglia (located just outside the spinal cord).
 The small uncovered areas of axon between Schwann cells are called nodes of Ranvier.

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WHAT IS A RESTING POTENTIAL AND HOW IS IT MAINTAINED?

N.B. Neurones conduct impulses as electrical signals. These signals are really very brief changes
in the distribution of electrical charge across the plasma membranes, caused by the rapid
movement of Na+ and K+ in and out of the axon.

When the membrane is at rest, a lot of activity still takes place:

o The Na+ and K+ pumps (located in the plasma membrane) constantly pump Na ions out of
the cell and K ions into the cell.
o The Na+/K+ pump removes 3 Na ions from the cell, for every 2 K ions brought into the
cell.
o Sometimes these Na+ and K+ leak back to where they come from by diffusing through
other parts of the plasma membrane. As a result of this, there are more positive ions
outside the axon, compared to inside.
o Additionally, the axon is impermeable to Cl - causing it to become trapped inside the
axon. This also contributes to the relative negative charge inside the axon.
o The difference in the charge on the two sides of the axon membrane is called the resting
potential. It is usually about -70mV on the inside, compared to the outside.

WHAT IS AN ACTION POTENTIAL?

Recall: The membranes of neurones have other protein channels that allow Na + and K+ to pass
through. Some of these channels are voltage- gated channels. This means that they can be opened
or closed depending on the potential difference (p.d.) or voltage across the membrane. These
voltage-gated channels are closed when the axon is at rest.

The following series of events describe an action potential and changes involved:

 The receptor receives a stimulus. This causes the Na voltage gated channels to open.
 The Na+ that have previously been pumped out, now flood back into the cell (through the
channels).
 In a very short space of time, the inside of the axon becomes more positive than the
outside. This occurs because of the positive feedback loop in which more and more Na
gates are opened. The axon membrane is now said to be depolarised.
 The inside of the axon eventually reaches a p.d. of about +40mV, thereby causing the
Na+ channels to close.
 Consequently, the K+ channels open, thereby causing these potassium ions to diffuse out
of the axon.
 This movement causes the positive charge from inside the cell to be removed, so that the
p.d. across the membrane begins to return to normal. This is called repolarisation of the
membrane.
 So many of the potassium ions move out of the axon (due to a delay in the closing of
these gates) that, for a brief moment, the p.d. across the membrane is actually even more
negative than the resting potential. This is called hyperpolarisation.

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  The Na+/K+ pumps are continually working throughout, but since both types of channels
are closed now (i.e. the Na ion and K ion channels), the Na +/K+ pumps can now restore
the resting potential.

TRANSMISSION/ CONDUCTION/ PROPAGATION OF AN ACTION POTENTIAL

 The temporary depolarisation of the membrane where the action potential is located
causes a local circuit to be set up between the depolarised region and the resting region
ahead of it.
 This essentially means that the Na + flow towards the negatively charged region (resting
region) and this slight depolarisation produces an increase in Na permeability in this
region (i.e., more and more Na ion channels open, thereby causing Na + to flood in the
cell). This results in an action potential being set up in this region.
 Repeated depolarisations of immediately adjacent regions result in the action potential
being propagated along the length of the axon as a wave of depolarisation.

WHAT IS THE REFRACTORY PERIOD?

RECALL: An action potential can only be generated ahead of the depolarised region.

This is because the region behind it would still be recovering from the action potential it just had.
Therefore, the distribution of Na+/K+ would not yet be back to normal. It is, therefore, incapable
of producing a new action potential for this short period of time. This is known as the refractory
period (the period of non-conductibility).

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE REFRACTORY PERIOD

 This period (of about 4-8ms) limits the number of impulses that can pass along the axon
within a particular time frame.
 The refractory period ensures that impulses travel in only one direction. That is, from an
active region to a resting region.

THRESHOLD POTENTIALS

 Action potentials will only be generated if the depolarisation of the axon membrane
reaches a value called the threshold potential. This value is usually between -50 to -
60mV.
 If the depolarisation is less than this, then nothing happens. If, however, it is more than
this value, then an action potential is generated.
 This is known as the all or nothing response.

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HOW DO ACTION POTENTIALS CARRY INFORMATION?

It is important to remember the following features of an action potential:

 Action potentials are always the same size (has a peak value of about 30-40 mV).
 A weak stimulus will generate the same size action potential as a small stimulus.
 Either an action potential is generated or not, depending on whether or not the
depolarisation causes the membrane potential difference (p.d.) to reach the threshold
potential or not.
 The only difference between an action potential generated by a strong stimulus and one
generated by a weak stimulus, is the frequency of the action potentials.
 Based on a higher frequency of action potentials, the brain would interpret it to mean a
‘strong stimulus’.
 Another factor – the number of neurones being stimulated would be interpreted by the
brain. i.e., a strong stimulus would stimulate a large number of neurones compared to a
weak one.

SYNAPSES

o Where two neurones meet, they do not quite touch. There is a very small gap about
20nm, which is called the synaptic cleft.
o The parts of the two neurones near to the cleft is known as the pre-synaptic membrane
and the post-synaptic membrane.
o The synaptic cleft, together with the pre- and post-synaptic membranes, are collectively
called the synapse.

DIAGRAMMATIC REPRESENTATION OF A TYPICAL SYNAPSE

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SYNAPTIC TRANSMISSION

Action potentials (as electrical signals) cannot cross a synapse. The signal, therefore, has to be
converted to a chemical one, by means of a neurotransmitter substance.

There are several different types of neurotransmitter substances, however, we will focus on
Acetylcholine (ACh). Synapses which utilise ACh are known as cholinergic synapses.

The following summarises how a message is sent across a cholinergic synapse: (Refer to Figure
9.16, pg. 188 of Recommended Text)

1. Action potential arrives just prior to pre-synaptic membrane (depolarisation occurs).

2. Depolarisation of the pre-synaptic membrane causes calcium channels (Ca 2+) to open (in
addition to Na+ channels).
3. Ca2+ flood into the cytoplasm of the neurone.
4. This influx of Ca2+ causes vesicles containing ACh to move towards and fuse with the
pre-synaptic membrane. The ACh is, therefore, emptied into the cleft.
5. ACh diffuses very quickly across the cleft (less than 0.5ms).
6. ACh binds to receptor proteins on the post-synaptic membrane (since these proteins have
a complementary shape to the ACh molecule). This protein subsequently changes shape,
thereby causing Na+ channels to open on the post-synaptic membrane.
7. Na+ flood into the cytoplasm of the post-synaptic neurone, thereby re-starting the action
potential.
8. The ACh does not remain bound to the receptors – an enzyme found in the cleft
(acetylcholinesterase) splits ACh into acetyl and choline.
9. Choline goes back to the pre-synaptic membrane, where it combines with Acetyl CoA to
re-form ACh (energy intensive process).

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NEUROMUSCULAR JUNCTION

o Refers to the point at which a motor neurone meets a muscle fibre.

o There are many such junctions along the muscle. Rapid muscle contraction is usually
essential for the survival of the organism, hence the need for several such junctions along
a muscle.
o When the impulse reaches a neuromuscular junction, the same aforementioned series of
reactions take place, leading to Na + depolarising the membrane, causing the muscle fibres
to contract.

ROLE OF SYNAPSES

1. Ensures one-way transmission of impulses.

2. They act as ‘junctions’ where several different neurones converge. Consequently, there
are a variety of different possible pathways for impulses to be brought together.
3. They assist in memory and learning – when new information is acquired and this
information is frequently repeated, new synapses form in the brain, linking the
information to other existing pathways in the brain. If a message is frequently passed
from one neurone to another, the ‘strength’ of the synapse is said to increase. That is, the
better the synapse becomes at transmitting that message. Once this happens frequently,
long-term memory develops. We are therefore able to recall previous experiences easier.

FACTORS AFFECTING SPEED OF CONDUCTION

1. Presence of a myelin sheath – myelin acts as an electrical insulator. Action potentials are,
therefore, set up and propagated at the nodes of Ranvier. Action potentials are said to
‘jump’ from node to node in a process called saltatory conduction. The speed of
conduction in this way is up to 50 times greater than that of unmyelinated neurones.
2. Temperature – as temperature increases, so too does the rate of conduction. However,
above the optimum temperature, membrane proteins become denatured and conduction
will cease.
3. Diameter of the axon – the wider the diameter, the faster the rate of transmission.

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