MA6812 Advanced
Materials Engineering
CORROSION
and
WEAR FAILURES
AY2024-25 (S1) Sunil C. Joshi
Inputs taken from WWW resources for enriching this presentation are gratefully acknowledged
(Not to be circulated without permission)
Corrosion ???
Corrosion is the degradation of a material by reaction with its
environments. All corrosion processes have electrochemical
reactions as their basis.
Corrosion resistant
metals & alloys
Copper, Zinc, Aluminum,
Lead, Stainless steel,
Nickel, Chromium
(KGB, p672)
Pump
impeller
(Not to be circulated without permission)
Types of corrosion
(1) General or Uniform corrosion
(2) Pitting corrosion
(3) Crevice corrosion
(4) Galvanic corrosion
(5) Stress corrosion cracking (SCC)
(6) Intergranular corrosion (IGC)
(7) Dealloying (selective leaching)
(8) Corrosive wear
(9) Hydrogen damage
(Not to be circulated without permission)
General or uniform corrosion
Characterized by more or less uniform attack over an
entire exposed surface, with only minimal variations in
the depth of the damage.
It does not result in unexpected failure.
Occurrence and rate of attack can be predicted from lab
tests (depth of attack per unit surface area per unit
time).
e.g. rusting of steel, tarnishing of silver
(Not to be circulated without permission)
General or uniform corrosion
(PAT, Remnant of a steel container
p651)
immersed in fresh water for an
extended time
Prevention:
• Changing the environment
composition, concentration, pH
and temperature.
• Adding an inhibitor.
• Coatings and electroplated
finishes.
(Not to be circulated without permission)
Pitting corrosion
A form of localized corrosion. e.g. stainless steels pit in salt
water.
The attack is confined to numerous small cavities (pits) on the
metal surface.
Occurs when a small area of a metal surface becomes anodic
with respect to the rest of the surface.
Pitting is one of the most difficult to detect and insidious
forms of corrosion. Pits often get overlooked.
(Not to be circulated without permission)
Pitting corrosion
Possible causes – Top view
Local in-homogeneity on
the metal surface,
Mechanical or chemical
rupture of a protective
oxide coating.
Materials susceptible: Cross-section Pitting
stainless steels and corrosion in
aluminum alloys. martensitic
steel
(PAT, p657)
(Not to be circulated without permission)
Pitting corrosion
Occurs most frequently in solutions of near neutral pH,
containing chloride, bromide or hypochlorite ions. It
occurs more in stagnant solutions than in moving
solutions.
Best protection - select a material with adequate pitting
resistance or rather to avoid metals that are prone to
pitting.
e.g. avoid using stainless steels in salt water.
(Not to be circulated without permission)
Crevice corrosion
Corrosion attack associated with confined spaces or
crevices formed by certain mechanical configurations,
such as tapped joints, gasket interfaces, tubular sleeves,
and such overlapping components.
The crevices must be close fitting, with only a few
thousandths of an inch gap.
Like pitting, crevice corrosion can be very destructive,
since the damage is very localized.
(Not to be circulated without permission)
Crevice corrosion
Any layer of solid matter or deposit on the surface of a
metal can cause crevice corrosion.
(KGB, p672)
Condenser tubes in power-generation
equipment cooled with seawater -
formation of solid deposits on the tube
wall.
Rivetted or bolted joints.
Breaks in protective coatings on
corrosive chemicals containers.
Poor car-door design.
(Not to be circulated without permission)
Crevice corrosion
The most effective method for minimizing crevice
corrosion is the elimination of the crevice itself.
Achieved by -
1. design changes (welded butt joints in lieu of
bolted lap joints),
2. using non-permeable gaskets or seals,
3. periodic removal and cleaning of sediment
and debris from surfaces,
4. insuring adequate adhesion of coatings.
(Not to be circulated without permission)
Galvanic corrosion
When two dissimilar metals are in electrical contact in
an electrolyte, the less noble metal (anode) is attacked.
(PAT, p654)
Results from existence of
the potential difference Aluminum body
between 2 metals, which
causes a flow of current
between them via an
electrical contact.
Stainless
Corroded Al steel pin
(Not to be circulated without permission)
Galvanic corrosion
Contributing factor: Whenever a large cathode is coupled
with a small anode, the current densities increase at the
anode, that is, the corrosion rate increases.
Prevention:
Select, in the design stage, materials close together in the
galvanic series.
If the use of dissimilar metals cannot be avoided, keep the
anode large in relation to the cathode, or electrically insulate
the members of the couple.
(Not to be circulated without permission)
Galvanic corrosion
Metal groups in the order of decreasing Galvanic activity
Anodic/
least
noble
Cathodic
/most
noble
Connecting different metals within a group
is desirable. Materials of one group suffer
galvanic attack when in contact with
materials of any other group.
(Not to be circulated without permission)
Stress corrosion cracking
Sustained tensile stress (applied or residual), and chemical
attack combine to initiate and propagate fracture known
as SCC in a metal part.
There is, in general, a threshold stress below which the SCC is
unlikely to occur.
Threshold stress depends on temperature, composition and
metallurgical structure of the alloy and on the type of the
environment.
Depending upon metal-environment combination, SCC may
occur at 10% to 70% of the yield strength.
(Not to be circulated without permission)
Stress corrosion cracking
High purity metals are
less susceptible. Metals
with a smaller grain size
are more resistant. In
some metals, SCC follows
crystallographic planes.
(KGB, p674)
Stainless steel mixing blade
(Not to be circulated without permission)
Stress corrosion cracking
Susceptible Damaging ions or substances Temperature
Alloys
Austenitic Chloride containing solutions Room
stainless steel
Carbon Steel Caustic solutions 1OO0C
Copper alloys Aerated aqueous NH3 and Room
ammonium salts in aqueous
solutions
Copper alloys SO2 gas with moisture Room
HSLA steel Gaseous chlorine or H2S gas Room
(Not to be circulated without permission)
Stress corrosion cracking
SCC can be minimized -
(1)by reducing the applied stress (by increasing thickness of
the section, or by lowering the load), or the effective tensile
stress (by surface treatments), or the residual stress (by
stress-relief annealing).
(2) by avoiding the susceptible material-environment
combination. This is often the most expedient solution. Since
control of the environment is difficult, substitution of a
susceptible alloy by more resistant alloy is often practiced.
(Not to be circulated without permission)
Practice MCQs
1. Effect of general corrosion observed in steel can be minimized by –
(a) Changing pH and temperature of the liquid in the vicinity of
the object.
(b) Reducing pH of the liquid in the vicinity of the object.
(c) Increasing salt content of the liquid in the vicinity of the
object.
(d) Increasing temperature of the liquid in the vicinity of the
object.
2. Galvanic corrosion can be minimized by selecting –
(a) Large cathodic metal compared to the anodic metal in
contact.
(b) Less noble metal as anode.
(c) Non-water liquids as a contact media.
(d) Large anodic metal compared to the cathodic metal in
contact.
(Not to be circulated without permission)
Inter granular corrosion or attack
Grain boundaries in metals are
attacked at a much greater rate
than the bulk material. Cause is
usually alloy segregation at grain
boundaries.
Susceptible alloys - stainless steels,
some high-strength aluminum
Sensitization in alloys, copper alloys, nickel alloys
austenitic stainless and titanium alloys.
steel
(Not to be circulated without permission)
Sensitization of stainless
steels
[Cr3C2, Cr7C3, and Cr23C6]
When austenitic stainless steels are heated in the range of 400 to
8500C, chromium carbides tend to form in the grain boundaries. It
depletes the matrix material of chromium and its corrosion resistance
drops. The chromium-depleted grain boundary regions then start
corroding.
Susceptibility may be minimized by -
1. Annealing at 1050 -11000C and immediate water quenching.
2. Using extra-low-carbon grade stainless steels.
3. Using type 347 or 321 grade stainless steels which
contain Ti, Nb, etc., to combine with the carbon
in the steel.
Most commonly encountered
example of IGA
(Not to be circulated without permission)
De-alloying
Selective leaching or dissolution: One constituent of a metal
alloy is preferentially removed from the alloy.
The net damage is a
mechanical failure
because the
remaining metal is
weak and spongy.
Graphitization
(PAT, p659)
(Not to be circulated without permission)
De-alloying
Alloy Environment Element removed
Brasses Many waters, especially Zinc (de-zincification)
under stagnant conditions
Gray iron Soils, many waters Iron (graphitization)
Aluminum Hydrofluoric acid, acids Aluminum
bronzes containing chloride ions
Copper High heat flux and low water Nickel
nickels velocity (in refinery
condenser tubes)
De-zincification is tackled by using red brasses (Cu> 85%, rest Zn). Yellow
brasses containing small amounts of As(Arsenic), Sb(Antimony) or
P(phosphorus) also provide immunity. In severely corrosive environments,
change to copper-nickel alloys.
(Not to be circulated without permission)
Corrosive wear
Includes the types of corrosion that require mechanical
action to occur (material deterioration due to the joint
action of corrosion and mechanical action).
Different forms:
a) Liquid impingement
b) Liquid erosion
c) Slurry erosion
d) Cavitation
e) Fretting
(Not to be circulated without permission)
Liquid impingement
Frequently occurs in bends or turns of tubes or pipes.
Generally shows up as deep, clean horseshoe-shaped pits with
deep undercut ends pointed in the direction of fluid flow.
Can also occur due to partial blockage of a tube. Any obstruction
can cause the main flow of liquid deflect against the tube wall.
The impinging liquid can rapidly cause perforation.
Steam or hot gases can also
cause this effect.
Remedy: Streamlining of bends,
Flared tubing etc.
(Not to be circulated without permission)
Liquid erosion
Similar to impingement except that the liquid/ fluid flow is
parallel to the surface.
The liquid causes removal of the protective surface film and
exposes new reactive surfaces.
Often characterized by grooves or waves in the metal
surface in a direction of fluid flow. Nearly all flowing
corrosive media can cause such attacks.
Remedy: Lower the fluid velocity. Increase the pipe
diameter. Most metals have a fluid velocity tolerance level,
so select an appropriate metal.
(Not to be circulated without permission)
Slurry erosion
Abrasive particles dispersed in a slurry cause metal removal.
The presence of abrasive particles makes the removal of
protective surface film more easy and the process proceeds
at an energetic pace.
The best way for handling abrasive slurries is to use ceramics
and elastomers. (Ceramics are hard enough to resist the
abrasive action. Elastomers deform to resist the cutting
action of sharp abrasive particles).
(Not to be circulated
without permission)
Cavitation
Material removal by the action of imploding bubbles.
Occurs when relative motion between a metal surface and a liquid
causes vapour bubbles to appear. When the bubbles collapse, the
surrounding fluid rushes to fill the void with tremendous energy with
consequential tearing away of metal.
Often seen in turbulent flow areas in pumps and liquid propulsion
systems.
Remedy: Choose materials that have tenacious passive films, high
hardness and high strength. e.g. Titanium alloys, austenitic stainless
steels, cobalt-based and some nickel-based alloys etc.
(Not to be circulated without permission)
Fretting corrosion
Material deterioration by the relative oscillatory motion of
small amplitude (20 - 100 µm) between two solid surfaces in
a corrosive environment.
Oscillatory movement of very small amplitude fatigue off the local
bonding between surface asperities (microscopic projections) and form
wear debris, which oxidizes to form a reactive product with the
environment.
Commonly occurs under bearings, gears, hubs pressed onto shafts etc.,
and on vibrating machine components.
Effective way to prevent is to prevent movement of parts that are butted
together.
(F-16 Fighters: Corrosion of tin-plated electrical
connector pins mated with gold-plated sockets.
Subtle, not visible. Appears to have been
(Not to be circulated implicated in at least six F-16 crashes)
without permission)
Hydrogen damage (embrittlement)
(PAT, p661) Results from the presence of excessive
amounts of hydrogen in metals, in
combination with residual or applied
tensile stress.
Sources of hydrogen -
Water vapours reacting at high
temperatures with the liquid iron, scrap
used to charge the furnace, the slag
ingredients, during electroplating.
SCC in high
strength steel
Removal of hydrogen - Age the material at 125-
200°C. Restores ductility.
(Not to be circulated without permission) NL
