CAIE A2 LEVEL CHEMISTRY
A2 Level Inorganic Chemistry dxy , dxz and dyz have d-orbitals in between axis
dx2 −y2 and dz 2 have d-orbitals along axis
1. Chemistry of Transition dz 2 is formed by the merging of dx2 −z 2 and dy2 −z 2
Elements 1.3. Physical Properties
Transition element: a d-block element that forms one
or more stable ions with incomplete d orbitals
1.1. Electronic Configurations
Element Electronic Config. Oxidation States
Sc, scandium [Ar] 3d1 4s2 +3
Ti, titanium [Ar] 3d2 4s2 +3, +4
V, vanadium [Ar] 3d3 4s2 +2, +3, +4, +5
Cr, chromium [Ar] 3d5 4s1 +3, +6
Mn, manganese [Ar] 3d5 4s2 +2, +4, +6, +7
Fe, iron [Ar] 3d6 4s2 +2, +3
Co, cobalt [Ar] 3d7 4s2 +2, +3
Ni, nickel [Ar] 3d8 4s2 +2
Cu, copper [Ar] 3d10 4s1 +1, +2
Zn, zinc [Ar] 3d10 4s2 +2
1.4. Variable Oxidation States
Scandium and Zinc are not transition metals because: Small energy difference between 4s and 3d so electrons
Sc3+ has no e− s in the d-orbital from both subshells can be removed to form a variety of
Zn2+ contains a full d-orbital oxidation states
Chromium and copper have anomalous configurations All transition metal exhibit two or more oxidation states
Cr: 4s electron demoted to half-fill 3d shell Most common oxidation state +2 when 2e− s from 4s lost
Cu: 4s electron demoted to full-fill 3d shell Transition elements show highest oxidation states when
creating a more stable configuration. they combine with O or F (most electro-ve)
When electrons added, fill 4s before 3d When transition elements form compounds with high
When electrons removed, remove from 4s before 3d oxidation states above +4, they form large oxyanions and
are covalent (acidic oxides) e.g. CrO4− or MnO4−
1.2. d-Orbitals
When transition elements in lower oxidation states they
form ionic compounds (basic oxides)
1.5. Complexes
WWW.ZNOTES.ORG Copyright © 2025 ZNotes Education & Foundation. All Rights Reserved. This document is
authorised for personal use only by Aadil at Scholastica Mirpur on 25/07/25.
CAIE A2 LEVEL CHEMISTRY
Complex: is an ion or molecule formed by a central Forms 6 coordinate bonds
metal atom/ion surrounded by one or more ligands 4 from oxygen
A complex consists of: 2 from nitrogen
Central transition metal ion (+ve) that can accept e
−s
1.7. Writing Names of Complexes
Ligand (-ve): a species that contains a lone pair of e−
s that forms a dative bond to a central metal To represent coordination number
atom/ion For monodentate ligands, use prefixes mono-, di-,
Coordination no.: number of coordinate or dative tri-, tetra-, hexa-
bonds to the central metal atom/ion For bi and polydentate ligands, use prefixes mono-,
Different metal ions show different coordination number bis-, tris-, tetrakis-, pentakis-
with same ligands Name the ligands
Transition metals form complexes because If neutral and -ve ligands present, first name -ve
Ion are small in size so they have a strong electric ligand
field around them which attract e--rich ligands If ligands all neutral/-ve or contain more than one of
They have empty 4s and 4p orbitals that are each, name in alphabetical order
hybridised and can accept e− Anions Neutral Ligands
Fluoro (F− ), Chloro (Cl− ) Amine (NH3 )
1.6. Ligands Cyano (CN− )
Hydroxo (OH− )
Aqua (H2 O)
Monodentate ligands: forms only one coordinate bond Name central metal ion
with central metal ion (donates one pair of e-s) If complex ion +ve/neutral – use normal name
Anions Neutral Ligands
If complex ion –ve, use name ending –ate; special:
Halide ions F-, Cl-, Br-, I- Water H2O Iron = Ferrate
Sulphide
Nitrite
S2-
NO22-
Ammonia
Carbonyl
NH3
CO
Lead = Plumbate
Hydroxide OH- Copper = Cuprate
Cyanide CN- Oxidation no. of metal ion in Roman numeral and ‘ion’
Thiocyanate SCN-
Bidentate ligands: forms 2 coordinate bonds with
central metal ion (donates 2 pairs of e-s per molecule)
1.8. Writing Formulae of Complexes
Metal ion written first followed by ligand
Place charge on formula in square brackets
Total charge on complex = sum of charge on metal
ions and charge on ligand
H2N – CH2 – CH2 – NH2 -O – CO – CO – O-
If ligands all neutral, charge on complex = charge on
Ethylene diamine (en) Oxalate ion
(neutral) (oxalato-) metal ion
1.9. Shapes of Complexes
WWW.ZNOTES.ORG Copyright © 2025 ZNotes Education & Foundation. All Rights Reserved. This document is
authorised for personal use only by Aadil at Scholastica Mirpur on 25/07/25.
CAIE A2 LEVEL CHEMISTRY
Reaction with Ammonia Solution
1.10. Stereoisomerism Small amount of ammonia
Geometric isomerism (cis-trans)
Pt(NH3)2Cl2
Initially, ammonia acts as a base and hydrogen ions are
pulled off the hexaaqua ion as above.
Excess ammonia
cis-platin trans-platin
Cis-platin is an anticancer drug that acts by binding to
DNA in cancer cells, preventing cell division
Ammonia replaces water as a ligand
Only 4 of the 6 water molecules replaced
Optical isomerism
Reaction with Chloride Ions
[N i (N H2 C H2 C H2 N H2 )3 ]
6 water molecules replaced by 4 chloride ions
1.13. Ligand Exchange and Stability
Constant
Ligand exchange: a more powerful ligand will substitute
1.11. Common Complexes a less powerful ligand from a cation of the complex and
this can produce a change in colour and shape
Ligand Cu(II) Co(II)
H2O [Cu(H2O)6]2+ [Co(H2O)6]2+ Strength of Different Ligands:
NH3 (drops) Cu(H2O)4(OH)2 Co(H2O)4(OH)2
NH3 (excess) [Cu(NH3)4(H2O)2]2+ [Co(NH3)6]2+
EDTA > S- > CN- > I- > S2O32- > Br- > NH3 > Cl- > H2O
OH- Cu(H2O)4(OH)2 Co(H2O)4(OH)2
Cl- [CuCl4]2- [CoCl4]2-
Exchange of ligands can be explained in terms of
1.12. Copper Chemistry completing equilibria of forward & backward reaction
Equilibrium position lies towards more stable complex
Reaction with Hydroxide Ions Adding excess weak ligand can shift equilibrium
backward and form weaker complex
Stability constant, Kstab: the equilibrium constant for
the formation of the complex ion in a solvent from its
constituent ions or molecules
Water not included in Kstab expression because
Not ligand exchange; hydroxide ions remove hydrogen concentration almost constant
ions from water ligand
This is a precipitation reaction e.g. [Cu(H2O)6]2+ + 4Cl- ⇌ [CuCl4]2- + 6H2O
2−
[[CuCl4 ] ]
Kstab =
4
[[Cu(H2 O)6 ]2+ [Cl− ]
Units = mol-4 dm12
WWW.ZNOTES.ORG Copyright © 2025 ZNotes Education & Foundation. All Rights Reserved. This document is
authorised for personal use only by Aadil at Scholastica Mirpur on 25/07/25.
CAIE A2 LEVEL CHEMISTRY
Stability constants are used to compare stability of any
two ligands
The greater the Kstab value, the more stable the complex
Kstab values may be given on log10 scale as values large
Stability constants for complexes with bi/polydentate
ligands very high
1.14. Colour of Complexes
The five d-orbitals in isolated transition metal atoms/ions
are degenerate; all at the same energy
Coordinate bonding from ligands cause five d-orbitals to
split into two sets of non-degenerate orbitals at ΔE
For octahedral complexes, ligands approach along axis
and increases repulsion with dx2 −y2 and dz 2 orbital
causing them to be at higher energy
e.g. an octahedral complex of Cu2+
Electrons from lower energy orbitals absorbed energy
equal to ΔE from light and are excited to a higher
energy level orbital
Wavelengths of light equivalent to ΔE are absorbed and
the rest are transmitted.
Wavelengths transmitted merged together correspond
to the complementary colour of the solution observed
Conditions for complex to be coloured:
At least one d-orbital must be occupied by an e-
At least one d-orbital must not be fully occupied
Hence, some compounds of d-block metals colourless:
All Sc compounds colourless because [Ar] 3d0
All Zn compound colourless because [Ar] 3d10
Factors that determine colour of complex (which affects
the splitting of d-orbitals):
Magnitude of ΔE
Strength of ligands
Oxidation state of metal ion
Geometry of complex
Colour Spectrum
wavelength increases frequency and energy increases
R O Y G B I V
Large ΔE = light absorbed from blue = complex red-ish
Small ΔE = light absorbed from red = complex blue-ish
WWW.ZNOTES.ORG Copyright © 2025 ZNotes Education & Foundation. All Rights Reserved. This document is
authorised for personal use only by Aadil at Scholastica Mirpur on 25/07/25.
