religious texts (Egyptian, Aztecs – Native

History of Communication
American, Chinese,)
GLOBAL CONTEXT
6. Writings
1. Human Voice
As time passed, early developed writings
Human communication dated the origin emerged divided into three: syllabic,
of first human speech way back 100,000 alphabetic, and logographic, wherein
BCE. logographic is the oldest among them
from the Bronze Age, these writings such
2. Carvings as clay tokens found in original Sumerian
Symbols were developed 30,000 years writing intended to represent commodities
ago in paleolithic caves such as cave equivalent in its value or price, the first
paintings etched with animal blood. known account keeping records to have
Afterward, linguistics developed through existed.
drawing and writing in different symbols In the middle bronze age of Egypt, the
during the time of Ancient Greece and alphabet we know today was originally
Egypt similarly. called abjads as the pure alphabet. Egypt
3. Petroglyphs made the papyrus or parchment paper we
know today became popular for letters.
Further, petroglyphs arose as carved into Originally made by Tsai’Lun a Chinese
rock surfaces from 20,000 years intervals court official
for Homo Sapiens to make advancements
(located in Oceania and Africa) which is How does communication play a role in
main purpose is to be mnemonic their its history? Well-depicting human lives,
lives during hunter-gatherer times. unnatural phenomena and living
conditions has made humans capable of
4. Pictograms sharing the past through word-of-mouth
or storytelling in future generations
Pictograms, on the other hand, are made
creating forms of literary pieces, cultural
out of symbols that orderly illustrate an
beliefs, formation of businesses, the early
event that embodies the current living of
mode of writing, and interaction of
humans in ancient times, with these, the
community or its members to the society,
cuneiform and hieroglyphs were inspired
As technology evolves, birds are trained
to develop as topographic writing
to deliver letters or scrolls in a far
systems.
distance, mirrors, flags, and other
5. Ideograms weapons used as signal officially
symbolizing war and occupation in the
Meanwhile, ideograms are perceived to be colonial age.
abstract and more graphical in
representing an idea, primarily used in In the 15th to 16th Centuries,
communication formed both verbal and
limited written communication due to the the fax machine or electric printing
existence of the printing press invented by telegraph that records messages through
Bi Sheng and Wang Chen dynasties in writing on paper for business purposes.
China. As well as Ts'ai Lun, a court
official, invented a paper made by using Shortly in wide access to mobile and
cellular phones for many people used in
rags (textile waste) as the raw material
everyday life by Ring and Young in 1947.
with which to make paper, so as the
woodblock printing texts. Until computers were invented by Charles
Babbage along with the internet also
7. Printing Press
developed for access in the World Wide
During 1476, the printing press was Web as a form of virtual communication,
started at England by William Caxton. noted the date January 1, 1983 as its
birthday
Sign languages were early adapted in the
17th century for communicating among 9. The Internet (Social Media and
people with disability mainly tactile sign WWW)
language, while braille started in the year
Early social media dating back to the late
1824. Similarly, the newspaper began in
90’s and early 2000s such as Facebook,
the 1690s as a form of information source.
Friendster, Photobucket, MySpace,
8. Telephone/Technology Skype, and Flickr now used as content
and educational platforms for many but
The telegraph and letter had evolved the risk of scams and cybersecurity in
especially in the discovery of paper by a human miscommunication imposes a
Japanese inventor which made written threat with its usage.
communication easier.
As the pandemic occurred, online classes
Morse code is one of the unique forms of or virtual meetings became more relevant
communication in making private and due to the worldwide impact of disease on
discreet communication by decoding and educational, economic, and health
encrypting messages. Then the great security to avoid social contact.
Alexander Graham Bell – the Father of
Modern communication - invented the Etymology of Communication
telephone accidentally until the  from the Latin words: Cum which
phonograph emerged. means “with” and Munus which
means “service, duty, office”.
Radio and television were a product of the When combined, Cum Munus
modern industrial revolution and the early means “performing an office
rise of journalism and mass/public with”.
communication initially aired in 1920 for  After Cum Munus, it became
radio in Boston, and in 1947 for television Communis which means “joint,
broadcasts, which were still used by two”.
monochromatic at that time. As well as
  Communico to Communicacio To understand this important difference,
 As proof of how dynamic we must take two steps backward and
language is, it became understand ‘What is Communication?’
Communicare which means “to and ‘What is the Purpose of
share, to divide with”. Communication?’
 Centuries passed, and the concept
Remember, there is no such thing as an
of communication has changed
Ordinary Communication. The Purpose of
dramatically. From the previous
three Latin terms, it became Communication is to satisfy some of our
Comunicaccion – a French term needs or those of others. This gives us a
that bears the meaning of scope to define accurately what could be
communication as defined today. described as Effective Communication.

What is Communication? As a result of our Communication, if our

needs or others’ needs are satisfied, well,
Communication has four key terms to it could be classified as Effective
fully understand; Process, Systems, Communication!
Symbols, and Meaning (Wood, 2012).
Process implies continuity, while system On the other hand, if our Communication
suggests that it is oneself to another or fails to satisfy any such need, it is
from a source to a receiver wherein these ineffective. It could only be described as
parts are interrelated and affect one Defective Communication because we
another. Symbols, on the other hand as have wasted the Words, Time, and Energy
language or indicated by spoken or of both parties.
written words and facial expressions, Purposive Communication
gestures, and voice qualities embedded
term as messages by Palta Ober and is about writing, speaking, and presenting
Newman. Lastly, the heart of to different audiences and for various
communication is the meaning itself. purposes. There are at least 6 distinct
types of communication: non-verbal,
According to the famous linguist G.G. verbal-oral-face-to-face, verbal-oral-
Brown, “communication is a transfer of distance, verbal-written, formal, and
information from one person to another, informal types of communication. It is
whether or not it elicits confidence. But somehow a totality of the different ways
the information transferred must be of communicating that includes writing,
understandable to the receiver”. speaking, and presenting to different
audiences. In other words, it is a course
Collins Dictionary “Communication
that would help us to convey more of the
refers to the systems and processes that
message to our listeners/readers and
are used to communicate or broadcast
receivers. It is a vital skill to learn.
information, especially using electricity
or radio waves” Different Models of Communication
1. Linear or Transmission Model

is an assumption-based communication
transmitted straightforwardly from sender
to receiver only (there is no feedback)
indicating only a one-way process.

a. Berlo’s Model

It presumes that communication transpires c. Harold Laswell’s Verbal Model (1948)

within the four components and each
Implies that communication can be
component is affected by each factor
understood by answering the five
(McComack, 2014). These are called
questions such as; Who? Says What?
simply SMCR (Sender-Message-Channel-
What channel? To whom? With what
Receiver). It has the concept of the sender
effect? This model is known to be the
and receiver must have both equal
simplest form. The effect is also the result
understanding (to be called a
of communication.
communication).

b. The Aristotle model of communication d. Claude Shannon- Warren Weavers

Model (1949)
Is a linear and speaker-centric model with
no scope for the audience to provide Simply modified the Laswell’s model in a
feedback. There are five basic more extended manner, it comprises eight
components, including speaker, speech, components. Shannon and Weaver are
audience, effect, and occasion. The Mathematicians who introduced and later
Aristotle model of communication also removed noise during the war. This is
details how speakers can become more unique since it focuses on technology.
persuasive. Moreover, the sender is the Also called as Telephone Model on Noise
only active member in this model, which written in the book of “A Mathematical
is primarily used for public speaking as Theory of Communication” in Bell
foolproof. The audience is passive and Technical System Journal. Channel is the
introduced as a persuasive speech in the most important component
podium.
  4 Principles of Osgood-Schramm
Model

1. Equal and reciprocal for receiver and

sender.

2. There is a lot of interpretation in the

message – regardless of receiver or
sender.
2. Interactive Model by Gronbeck (1999)
3. It requires 3 steps: such as encoding,
It argues that communication is a two- decoding, and interpreting
way process that involves an exchange of
4. Communication is more circular than
messages into feedback (feedback exists
linear
along with barriers) this describes
communication as a process, and
Schramm describes it as the weakness or
enhancement of communication
depending on the field of experience or
understanding of both parties.

a. Osgood-Schramm Model (1954)

The Osgood-Schramm communication

model is one in which communication b. The Westley-Mclean Jr. Model (1957)
between sender and receiver is circular
Is a model primarily used for explaining
rather than linear. Being a circular
mass communication. This model
communication paradigm indicates that
suggests that the communication process
the sender and receiver are always sharing
does not start with the source/sender, but
information and ideas.
rather with environmental factors. Thus,
Has the concept that there is no difference starts with environmental factors that
between a sender and a receiver. influence the speaker - the culture or
Interpersonal communication (2 or more society the speaker lives in, whether the
people) gives purposeful messages in a speaker is in a public private space, etc.
circular fashion (face-to-face
conversation). Also, both parties are
equally encoding and decoding the
messages. The interpreter is the person
trying to understand the message at that
moment. In general, this model shows that
information is of no use until it is put into
words and conveyed to other people.
3. Transactional Model adapted from responsible for communication's effect
Wood (1997) and effectiveness.

This model served as a response to the This model accentuates the role of cues in
failure of the second model in portraying impacting our messages. So, Barnlund
the dynamism of human communication differentiates between:
whereas the linear model is described as a
one-way process with a sequential order Public cues (environmental cues).
that also sends feedback and messages to · Private cues (person's thoughts and
the other. background), and
It features the time influences people Behavioral cues (person's behavior, that
communicate along with shared field can be verbal and non-verbal.
experiences and their symbolic
interaction. It varies or changes over the
period and is dynamic. Systems in the
background of the sender or receiver may
implicate the way of communication. In
this model, there is no label as sender or
receiver but both act as communicators
actively and simultaneously participate in
every communication process.
Communication is viewed as a b. Frank Dance's Helical Model (1967)
transaction, which means that it is a - each communication encounter is
collaborative process in which different from the previous one because
communicators co-create the communication never repeats itself. It
communication process, impacting its views communication as a circular
conclusion and efficacy. In other words, process that gets more and more complex
communicators dynamically generate as communication progresses. As the
common meaning. We build relationships, communication process, the feedback we
not just trade information. get from the other party involved
a. Dean Barnlund’s Model (1970) influences our next statement and we
become more knowledgeable with every
it recognizes that communication is a new cycle. Time is one of the factors that
circular process and a multi-layered affect it.
feedback system between the sender and
the receiver, both of whom can affect the
message being sent. Feedback from the
sender is the reply for the receiver, and
both communicators provide feedback. In
short, both sender and receiver are
 3. Message - it’s made up of the ideas and
feelings that the sender-receiver wants to
share with others.

 Verbal symbols-express through

words.
 Non- verbal symbols-express
through gestures, inflection, tone,
etc.
Nature of the Communication 4. Channel- is the means through which
Process we transmit the message in either vocal or
As we all know, human communication is non-vocal messages.
vital for survival and it is one thing in life  Vocal messages- are verbal and
that we cannot avoid. Communication- spoken.
to be common means “to come together”  Non-vocal messages- may be
or “to commune”- “to share something in expressed in words or non-verbal
common” is the process of exchanging symbols.
ideas, thoughts, feelings, and emotions
from one person to another with the use of 5. Feedback- the behavioral response of
symbols which may be verbal and/or non- the sender and receiver to each other. It
verbal aims to understanding. is the information that comes back to the
sender of the message and informs how
Why do we need to study well the message is getting through.
communication? - To understand
ourselves as social beings; to understand 6. Noise- an interference that bars the
ourselves as a person; to gain professional message from being understood or
competence and; to preserve cultural interpreted.
values.
 External noise comes from the
Elements of Human physical environment.
Communication
 Internal noise-confine within the
1. Sender- is the one who initiates the psychological and sociological
communication. nature of individuals when
thoughts and feelings are
2. Receiver- provides the sender with engrossed in something other than
feedback which may prompt the sender to the communication at hand.
clarify the message or signal to carry on
as planned. 7. Context- refers to the
surrounding/environment that helps shape
the interaction between and/or among
individuals.
  Physical context- the physical within a particular environment or setting
environment where the to achieve individual and common goals.
communication takes place. Organizational communication is highly
 Social context- refers to the contextual and culturally dependent.
relationships the participants hold Individuals in organizations transmit
with each other. messages through face-to-face, written,
 Psychological context- which has and mediated channels.
to do with the mood and emotions
5. Intercultural communication is the
of the communication at the
verbal and nonverbal interaction between
moment of communication.
people from different cultural
Types of Communication According to
Form backgrounds. Basically, 'inter-' is a prefix
that means 'between' and cultural
1. Verbal Communication is a form of means… well, from a culture, so
communication that involves words or the intercultural communication is the
use of language either oral or written. communication between cultures.
Sometimes, this is used to describe a
2. Non-verbal Communication is a form
single person trying to interact in a
of communication wherein it uses
foreign environment but more often, it is a
gestures, movements indicating meanings,
two-way street, where people from both
body language, and facial expressions to
cultures are trying to improve their
react, create space, and more.
communication.
3. Visual Communication is used of
Types of Communication According to
images formed (for example: emojis). Purpose and Style
Types of Communication According to 1. Formal Communication
Context
In formal communication, certain rules,
1. Intrapersonal Communication
conventions, and principles are followed
2. Interpersonal Communication while communicating a message. Formal
communication occurs in formal and
3. Extended Communication or official style. Usually, professional
Technology-Mediated involves the use of settings, corporate meetings, and
electronic media Including telephone, conferences undergo in formal pattern. In
audio, or phone conferencing; Video- formal communication, the use of slang
conferencing; Skype calls; Other and foul language is avoided and correct
technological means. Including social pronunciation is required. Authority lines
media, text messaging, and voice calls. are needed to be followed in formal
4. Organizational communication is communication
defined as the sending and receiving of 2. Informal Communication
messages among interrelated individuals
Informal communication is done using discussion within an organization. It may
channels that are in contrast with formal not be less than three or bigger than
communication channels. It’s just a casual twelve.
talk. It is established for societal
affiliations of members in an organization c. One-To-Group Communication
and face-to-face discussions. It happens One-to-group communication involves a
among friends and family. In informal speaker who seeks to inform, persuade, or
communication use of slang words, and motivate an audience. Primarily occurs
foul language is not restricted. Usually. during business meetings or class
informal communication is done orally discussions.
and using gestures. Unlike formal
communication, doesn’t follow authority 4. Public Communication - a
lines. In an organization, it helps in communication that requires you to
finding out staff grievances as people deliver, address, or send a message in
express more when talking informally. front of a group of people or crowd driven
Informal communication helps in building by persuasive or informational purposes.
relationships. In this case, it requires a louder voice, and
better gestures, and may use audiovisual
Levels of Communication
channels.
1. Intrapersonal Communication
5. Mass Communication
Intrapersonal Communication is
communication that occurs in your mind. Mass Communication is the electronic or
It is the basis of your feelings, biases, print transmission of messages to the
prejudices, and beliefs. Also known as general public. Outlets called mass media
self-talk or monologue. include things like radio, television, film,
and printed materials designed to. It is
2. Interpersonal Communication
inclusive to the general population or
Interpersonal Communication is the audiences.
communication between two people but Barriers of Communication
can involve more in informal
conversations. 1. Physiological Impairment

a. Dyad Communication is a 2. Language

communication that occurs between two
3. Psychological/Emotional
people involved only.
4. Perceptual
b. Small Group Communication Small
Group Communication is communication 5. Physical/ Environmental
within formal or informal groups or
teams. It is group interaction that results a. Semantic Noise
in decision-making, problem-solving, and
b. Syntactical Noise
6. Cultural 3. Receiving- having been submitted
through soundwaves and light waves, that
7. Gender come from the sender and then reach the
8. Technological receiver. It is assumed that the receiver's
attention is focused on the communication
9. Organizational at hand to facilitate a better understanding
of the message transported by the sender.
10. Interpersonal
4. Decoding- the process by which the
Principle of Communication
receiver interprets or assigns meaning to
1. Communication is transactional. the codes transported by the source. The
receiver tries to give meanings to these
2. Communication is inevitable.
symbols which may be literal or may give
3. Communication is goal-oriented. associations depending on knowledge
and/or experience.
4. Communication has various levels.
5. Responding- response is anticipated by
5. Communication is complex. the sender from the receiver feedback.

6. Communication can be learned Grammar Guides

7. Communication is relational. 1. Nouns- nouns are people, places, or

things. They tell us what we are talking
8. Communication is guided by culture. about. The words cat, jack, rock,
Communication Process Africa and it are nouns.

1. Encoding- is everything that goes 2. Adjectives- adjectives modify

inside the brain of an individual. It adjectives, verbs, and other adverbs. They
involves the sender who, grounded in tell us how, when, and where things
communicative intentions and goals, happen. They express quantity, intensity,
decides to assign codes. It’s a systematic frequency, and opinions.3. Determiners-
arrangement of symbols used by articles, quantifiers, and other determiners
individuals to create meaning. modify nouns. They resemble adjectives
that way. Determiners help us say what
2. Transmission- is the process by we are talking about.
which the sender, having assigned codes
comes up with thought symbols. 4. Verbs and Verbtenses- verbs are action
words. They tell us what is happening and
(message) that are also comprehensible by when (past, present, and future). Verbs
the participant/s of the communication, can also express possibilities and
the transmits or sends a message to the conditions.
recipient.
5. Speech- when we report what someone
says, we can cite the person directly or
indirectly. Indirect speech rules are an It also means being as objective as
important part of grammar. possible, that is, not tailoring the story
based on what the speaker wants the
6. Punctuation- punctuation is not part of listener to believe.
oral grammar, but it is essential to
mastering written English. 2. Active Listening

7. Relative clauses- we use relative For ethical communication to be effective,

clauses in English to create more complex it is necessary for the recipient to
and more precise sentences. proactively listen to the speaker, and not
just hear what they want to hear or to hear
8. Grammar test- test your English only parts of the conversation. This also
grammar skills in context, and listening means asking questions when any point is
and reading skills included. not completely understood, for the sake of
Ethical Communication clarification.

ETHICS 3. Speak Non-Judgmentally

▰ The term is derived from the Greek Ethically and concisely, communicating
word ethos which can mean custom, means speaking in a non-judgmental
habit, character, or disposition. manner with every recipient, negating
unnecessary conflict, which typically
▰ At its simplest, ethics is a system of creates a communication breakdown and
moral principles. They affect how people causes misunderstandings.
make decisions and lead their lives.
4. Speak from Your Own Experience
▰ Ethics is concerned with what is good
for individuals and society and is also Bringing your personal experience into a
described as moral philosophy. dialogue with business listeners is
important, providing backup for your
▰ Ethical Communication encompasses arguments with something more tangible.
being honest in all communications, Such a communication method
keeping confidential information (experiential communication) paints a
confidential, and not discussing the complete picture for your audience and
personal or business situations of others in helps to prove your points so that the
public or front of a third party. listeners have a better understanding of
Principles of Ethical Communication
what is being said.

1. Be Truthful and Honest 5. Considers the Receiver’s Preferred

Communication Channel
Being honest means communicating what
is known to be true (only 100 percent of You risk losing an audience if you use a
the facts) to a listener, with no intent to communication channel that is not
deceive or present only parts of the truth. preferred by your intended receiver. To
effectively communicate with your workplace gossip and mitigating toxic
listeners, use the most preferred conversations about the private lives of
communication channel, whether that be clients and/or personnel.
face-to-face, email, conference call, phone
call, messenger app, etc. 10. Accept Responsibility

6. Strive to Understand It is taking responsibility for the actions

that result from one’s words, whether it be
While it is important to be proactive in good or bad. This includes both short-
listening, it is important for listeners to term and long-term consequences of one’s
also strive to fully understand what is communications. Owning one’s words
being said before responding. While reinforces the importance of being
asking for clarification or confirmation of conscientious about ethical
a point is fine, many times questions that communication.
listeners pose have already been
answered. Understanding Globalization
7. Avoid a Negative Tone “Process of world shrinkage, of distance
getting closer, things moving closer.” -
Ethically communicating assumes that the Thomas Larson
speaker will avoid rudeness, be polite and
professional, and have tact. The ethical  “Borderless world.” - Ohmae
communicator knows that it is not only “Internationalizing of production,
important what you say, but how you say labor, state, movements, and
it. competitiveness.” - Robert Cox
 “Growing multidirectional flows
8. Do Not Interrupt Others
of people, objects, places, and
Allowing others to speak is important for information as well as structures
the creation of a civil, effective working and barriers to, or expedite these
environment. Interrupting others results in flows.” -Ritzer
misunderstandings unnecessary conflicts  Understanding CULTURE - A
and a breakdown in workplace system of knowledge, beliefs,
communications, which only hinders values, customs, behaviors, and
corporate progress and creates problems. artifacts that are acquired, shared,
and used by members during their
9. Respect Privacy and Confidentiality daily living.
Cultural Diversity makes
Most businesses should include a clause communication difficult and may lead
in their code of ethics defining what is to:
appropriate when it comes to honoring
client and employee confidentiality and 1. STEREOTYPING and PREJUDICE ▻ Is
privacy. This can have a wide range of the process of creating a picture of a
implications, including minimizing whole culture. ▻ Over generalizing all
people belonging to the same culture
Cultural Diversity makes communication
difficult and may lead to:

2. ETHNOCENTRISM ▻ Is the process of

dividing cultures as “us” vs. “them.” ▻
The tendency to see one's own culture as
superior to all others.

3. RACISM ▻ Prejudice, discrimination, or

antagonism directed against a person or
people based on their membership of a
particular racial or ethnic group, typically
one that is a minority or marginalized

4. XENOPHOBIA ▻ Dislike of or prejudice

against people from other countries. ▻
Fear and hatred of strangers or foreigners
or anything strange or foreign.

5. CULTURAL APPROPRIATION ▻ Is the

adoption of an element or elements of one
culture by a member of another culture
that can be controversial when used
inappropriately. ▻ It occurs when a person
from one culture adopts the fashion,
iconography, trends, or styles from
another culture.

Other Factors that Affect

Communication

1. Gender Roles

2. Age and Generational Differences

3. Racial and Ethnic Identity

4. Religious Identity

5. Socio-Economic Identity