CELL ORGANIZATION, STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

The Cell Theory

Description and the discovery of cell
Cells are the simplest and the functional unit of the body that are capable of existing alone.
A general characteristic of cells is their microscopic size. While there are a few exception the
marine alga Acetabularia can be up to 5 centimeters long a typical eukaryotic cell is 10 to 100
micrometers (10 to 100 millionths of a meter) in diameter; most bacterial cells are only 1 to 10
micrometers in diameter. Because cells are so small, no one observed them until microscopes
were invented in the mid-seventeenth century.

Robert Hooke first described cells in 1665, when he used a microscope he had built to
examine a thin slice of cork, a nonliving tissue found in the bark of certain trees. Hooke
observed a honeycomb of tiny, empty (because the cells were dead) compartments. He called
the compartments in the cork cellulae (Latin, “small rooms”), and the term has come down to
us as cells. The first living cells were observed a few years later by the Dutch naturalist
Antonie van Leeuwenhoek, who called the tiny organisms that he observed “animalcules,”
meaning little animals. For another century and a half, however, biologists failed to recognize
the importance of cells. In 1838, botanist Matthias Schleiden made a careful study of plant
tissues and developed the first statement of the cell theory. He stated that all plants “are
aggregates of fully individualized, independent, separate beings, namely the cells
themselves.” In 1839, Theodor Schwann reported that all animal tissues also consist of
individual cells.

The cell theory, in its modern form, includes the following three principles:
1. All organisms are composed of one or more cells, and the life processes of metabolism
and heredity occur within these cells.
2. Cells are the smallest living things, the basic units of organization of all organisms.
3. Cells arise only by division of a previously existing cell.

Although life likely evolved spontaneously in the environment of the early earth, biologists have
concluded that no additional cells are originating spontaneously at present. Rather, life on earth
represents a continuous line of descent from those early cells.
The important material within the cell was not given consideration. The first people to postulate
cell theory were three German scientists, Matthias Schleiden (a botanist), Theodore Schwann
(a zoologist) and Rudolf Virchow.
Their theories are:
 Schleiden:All plants composed of cells
 Schwann: All living things composed of cell
 Virchow: Cells are result of division of preexisting cell.
Hence, the cell theory states that all living things are made up of cells and that cells with
nuclei are the structural and functional basis of all living things. Another aspect of the cell
theory was the generalization that cells came only from pre-existing cells and that the cell
contains information for its development in nucleic acids. As stated by Schleiden “all
organized bodies are composed of essentially similar parts namely cells.
Three basic principles of the cell theory:
 All living things are made up of one or more cells
 Cells are the basic unit of structure and function in living things
 Cells come only from the reproduction of existing cells.
Present day studies have shown that information about a cell’s make up is contained in the
nucleic acid of a cell (i.e. DNA deoxyribonucleic acid and RNA Ribonucleic acid). The term
cell used as used by Schleiden and Schwann was used to denote the actual living unit of
protoplasm. The theory also emphasized that the cell was important not only as a unit of structure
but also as a unit of function. Although organism is made up of similar cells but cells differs in
their functions. Growth, development metabolism inheritance, evolution, ageing, disease and
death are all varied aspects of cellular behaviour. The cell theory generalized that the
continuity includes not only the cell but also some of its smaller components such as genes
and chromosomes, as well as the mechanism of transmitting its genetic substance to the
next generation.
Scientists who contributed to the discovery of cell and its functions

Names Contributions
Made first handheld microscope. Observed
van Leeuwenhoek microscopic organisms in pond water

Robert Hooke Developed an improved microscope.

Observed small organism. Noted box-like
structures in thin slice of cork and called them
cells. Viewed plant cell walls

Robert Brown Discovered cell nucleus

Matthias Schleiden Studied plant structure under microscope.

Proposed that all plants composed of cells.
Co-founder of Cell Theory

Theadore Schwann Examined animal tissue. Observed structures

similar to what Schleiden observed in plants.
Stated that all living things were made of cells
Co-founder of Cell theory

Rudolf Virchow Showed that cells are result of division of

preexisting cells. His idea contradicted the
idea of spontaneous generation (idea that non-
living things could give rise to living
organisms. He developed a standard method
for autopsy that is still used today.
Cell Structure and functions
Cell was coined by an English man, Robert Hooke, who was also the inventor of the microscope.
The word originally, referred to hollow space surrounded by the non-living cellulose wall of the
plant (cork cell). three major features of all cells have in common: a plasma membrane, a
nucleoid or nucleus, and cytoplasm.

The Plasma Membrane Surrounds the Cell

The plasma membrane encloses a cell and separates its contents from its surroundings. The
plasma membrane is a phospholipid bilayer about 5 to 10 nanometers (5 to 10 billionths of a
meter) thick with proteins embedded in it. The proteins of the plasma membrane are in large part
responsible for a cell’s ability to interact with its environment. Transport proteins help
molecules and ions move across the plasma membrane, either from the environment to the
interior of the cell or vice versa. Receptor proteins induce changes within the cell when they
come in contact with specific molecules in the environment, such as hormones. Markers
identify the cell as a particular type. This is especially important in multicellular organisms,
whose cells must be able to recognize each other as they form tissues.

Nucleus or Nucleiod
This is the central portion of the Cell that contains the genetic material. Every cell contains
DNA, the hereditary molecule. In prokaryotes (bacteria), most of the genetic material lies in a
single circular molecule of DNA near the center of the cell in an area called the nucleoid, but this
area is not segregated from the rest of the cell’s interior by membranes. By contrast, the DNA of
eukaryotes is contained in the nucleus, which is surrounded by two membranes. In both types of
organisms, the DNA contains the genes that code for the proteins synthesized by the cell.

Cytoplasm
The cytoplasm comprises of the rest of the cell’s Interior. A semifluid matrix called the
cytoplasm fills the interior of the cell, exclusive of the nucleus (nucleoid in prokaryotes)
lying within it. The cytoplasm contains the chemical wealth of the cell: the sugars, amino acids,
and proteins the cell uses to carry out its everyday activities. In eukaryotic cells, the cytoplasm
also contains specialized membrane-bounded compartments called organelles

Demonstration of cell structure on microscope

Most cells are not big enough to be seeing with the unaided eye.
The Resolution Problem
Most cells are microscopic in size and cannot be seen without unaided eyes. Since most cells are
less than 50 micrometers in diameter only few are visible to the unaided eye.
The key is to understand why cells cannot be seen. The reason why human’s eyes can’t see
cells is the limited resolution of the human eye. Resolution is defined as the minimum
distance two points can be apart and still be distinguished as two separated points. When
two objects are closer together than about 100 micrometers, the light reflected from each
strikes the same “detector” cell at the rear of the eye. Only when the objects are farther
than 100 micrometers apart will the light from each strike different cells, allowing your eye
to resolve them as two objects rather than one.

Microscopes
One way to increase resolution is to increase magnification, so that small objects appear
larger. Robert Hooke and Antonie van Leeuwenhoek were able to see small cells by
magnifying their size, so that the cells appeared larger than the 100-micrometer limit
imposed by the human eye.
Hooke and van Leeuwenhoek accomplished this feat with microscopes that magnified images of
cells by bending light through a glass lens. The size of the image that falls on the sheet of
detector cells lining the back of human’s eye depends on how close the object is to your eye the
closer the object, the bigger the image. Human’s eye, however, is incapable of focusing
comfortably on an object closer than about 25 centimeters, because the eye is limited by the
size and thickness of its lens. Hooke and van Leeuwenhoek assisted the eye by interposing a
glass lens between object and eye. The glass lens adds additional focusing power. Because the
glass lens makes the object appear closer, the image on the back of the eye is bigger than it would
be without the lens. Modern light microscopes use two magnifying lenses (and a variety of
correcting lenses) that act like back-to-back eyes. The first lens focuses the image of the
object on the second lens, which magnifies it again and focuses it on the back of the eye.
Microscopes that magnify in stages using several lenses are called compound microscopes.
They can resolve structures that are separated by more than 200 nm.

Increasing Resolution
Light microscopes, even compound ones, are not powerful enough to resolve many structures
within cells. For example, a membrane is only 5 nanometers thick. Resolution is increased by
making use of electron. The only way two light beams can get closer together and still be
resolved is if their wavelengths are shorter. One way to avoid overlap is by using a beam of
electrons rather than a beam of light. Electrons have a much shorter wavelength, and a
microscope employing electron beams has 1000 times the resolving power of a light microscope.

Transmission electron microscopes so called because the electrons used to visualize the
specimens are transmitted through the material, are capable of resolving objects only 0.2
nanometer apart—just twice the diameter of a hydrogen atom.. A second kind of electron
microscope, the scanning electron microscope, beams the electrons onto the surface of the
specimen from a fine probe that passes rapidly back and forth. The electrons reflected back from
the surface of the specimen, together with other electrons that the specimen itself emits as a result
of the bombardment, are amplified and transmitted to a television screen, where the image can be
viewed and photographed. Scanning electron microscopy yields striking three-dimensional
images and has improved our understanding of many biological and physical phenomena.

Restriction in the size of cells

Most cells are not large for practical reasons. The most important of these is communication. The
different regions of a cell need to communicate with one another in order for the cell as a whole
to function effectively. Proteins and organelles are being synthesized, and materials are
continually entering and leaving the cell. All of these processes involve the diffusion of
substances at some point, and the larger a cell is, the longer it takes for substances to diffuse from
the plasma membrane to the center of the cell. For this reason, an organism made up of many
relatively small cells has an advantage over one composed of fewer, larger cells. The advantage
of small cell size is readily visualized in terms of the surface area-to-volume ratio.

Cells vary in shape and the shape is largely related to the function of such a cell in the organism.
The structures within a cell are called organelles. Simple celled organisms have specialized
organelles for different functions. In addition to the organelles most cells have nucleus. Such
cells that have organelles and nucleus are called Eukaryotic cells. Those cells that do not contain
nucleus are called Prokaryotic cells. Generally the structure of most cells reveal that there are
two regions. These are nucleus and the living matter surrounding it called cytoplasm.
Cells can be divided into two categories namely: Eukaryotic or Prokaryotic
• Prokaryotes do not have a nucleus or organelles (bacteria).
• Eukaryotes: have a nucleus and organelles (plants, fungi, animals
Prokaryotic Cell
Bacteria Are Simple Cells
Prokaryotes, the bacteria, are the simplest organisms. Prokaryotic cells are small, consisting of
cytoplasm surrounded by a plasma membrane and encased within a rigid cell wall, with no
distinct interior compartments. A prokaryotic cell is a simple structure that is bound by a simple
membrane.
Strong Cell Walls Most bacteria are encased by a strong cell wall composed of peptidoglycan,
which consists of a carbohydrate matrix (polymers of sugars) that is cross-linked by short
polypeptide units. No eukaryotes possess cell walls with this type of chemical composition. With
a few exceptions, all bacteria may be classified into two types based on differences in their
cell walls detected by the Gram staining procedure. The name refers to the Danish
microbiologist Hans Christian Gram, who developed the procedure to detect the presence of
certain disease-causing bacteria. Gram-positive bacteria have a thick, single-layered cell wall
that retains a violet dye from the Gram stain procedure, causing the stained cells to appear
purple under a microscope. More complex cell walls have evolved in other groups of
bacteria. In them, the wall is multilayered and does not retain the purple dye after Gram
staining; such bacteria exhibit the background red dye and are characterized as gram
negative. The susceptibility of bacteria to antibiotics often depends on the structure of their cell
walls. Penicillin and vancomycin, for example, interfere with the ability of bacteria to cross-link
the peptide units that hold the carbohydrate chains of the wall together. Cell walls protect the cell,
maintain its shape, and prevent excessive uptake of water.. Long chains of sugars called
polysaccharides cover the cell walls of many bacteria.

Rotating Flagella Some bacteria use a flagellum (plural, flagella) to move. Flagella are long,
threadlike structures protruding from the surface of a cell that are used in locomotion and
feeding.
.
Simple Interior Organization: Simple cellular organization of bacteria can be viewed under the
electron micrograph. Bacteria cells have few internal compartments, and while they contain
simple structures like ribosomes, most have no membrane-bounded organelles, the kinds so
characteristic of eukaryotic cells. Nor do bacteria have a true nucleus. The entire cytoplasm of a
bacterial cell is one unit with no internal support structure.

In summary the characteristics of a bacteria cell are as follows:

• It lacks membrane bound nucleus hence it has false nucleus
• Believed to be the first cells to evolve.
• Lack membrane bound organelles.
• Genetic material is free in the cytoplasm
• Ribosomes are only other cell structure
Eukaryotic cells
Eukaryotic Cells Have Complex Interiors
Eukaryotic cells are far more complex than prokaryotic cells. The hallmark of the eukaryotic cell
is compartmentalization. The interiors of eukaryotic cells contain numerous organelles,
membrane-bounded structures that close off compartments within which multiple biochemical
processes can proceed simultaneously and independently. Plant cells often have a large
membrane-bounded sac called a central vacuole, which stores proteins, pigments, and waste
materials. Both plant and animal cells contain vesicles, smaller sacs that store and transport a
variety of materials. Inside the nucleus, the DNA is wound tightly around proteins and packaged
into compact units called chromosomes. All eukaryotic cells are supported by an internal protein
scaffold, the cytoskeleton. While the cells of animals and some protists lack cell walls, the cells
of fungi, plants, and many protists have strong cell walls composed of cellulose or chitin fibers
embedded in a matrix of other polysaccharides and proteins. This composition is very different
from the peptidoglycan that makes up bacterial cell walls. The structure and function of the
internal components of eukaryotic cells can be described as follows:.
• It has membrane bound nucleus hence it has true nucleus
• It is composed of numerous membrane bound organelles
• It has several rod-shaped chromosomes
Structures and functions of eukaryotic cells: (Refer to the document)
Cell Wall
• Found outside of the cell membrane in plant cells & bacteriaonly
• Contains cellulose that provides support (rigidity) & protection
Cell or Plasma Membrane
• Outer membrane of cells that controls movement of substances in and out of the cell
Double layer (bi-layer)
• In plants and bacteria, this is within the cell wall.
• In animals the cell membrane bounds the entire cell content
Cytoplasm
• Gel-like mixture inside cells
• Surrounded by cell membrane
• It contains the entire living content aside nucleus
• Provides a medium for chemical reactions to take place
Nucleoid
• In prokaryotes.
• Region of the cytoplasm where chromosomal DNA is located.
• Singular, circular chromosome. Smaller circles of DNA called plasmids are also located in
cytoplasm.
Ribosome
Ribosomes: Sites of Protein Synthesis

 Ribosomes are made up of several molecules of a special form of RNA called ribosomal
RNA, or rRNA, bound within a complex of several dozen different proteins.

 Ribosomes are among the most complex molecular assemblies found in cells.
 To make proteins, the ribosome attaches to the mRNA, which is a transcribed copy of a
portion of DNA, and uses the information to direct the synthesis of a protein.

 Proteins that function in the cytoplasm are made by free ribosomes suspended there, while
proteins bound within membranes or destined for export from the cell are assembled by
ribosomes bound to rough endoplasmic reticulum

Organelles
Nucleus
The Nucleus: Information Center for the Cell
 The largest and most easily seen organelle within a eukaryotic cell is the nucleus. Nuclei
are roughly spherical in shape and, in animal cells, they are typically located in the central
region of the cell.

 The nucleus is the repository of the genetic information that directs all of the activities of
a living eukaryotic cell.

 Most eukaryotic cells possess a single nucleus.

 Many nuclei exhibit a darkstaining zone called the nucleolus, which is a region where
intensive synthesis of ribosomal RNA is taking place.

 Contains the genetic material (DNA)

 Separated from cytoplasm by nuclearmembrane (or nuclear envelope)
Nuclear Membrane
The Nuclear Envelope: Getting In and Out of DNA

 The surface of the nucleus is bounded by two phospholipid bilayer membranes, which
together make up the nuclear envelope.
 Surrounds nucleus, separates DNA from cytoplasm
 Made of two layers
 Openings calledpores allow somematerials to enter andleave nucleus
 Scattered over the surface of the nuclear envelope, like craters on the moon, are shallow
depressions called nuclear pores.
The Chromosomes
 It can be found in nucleus
 It help in packaging the DNA In both bacteria and eukaryotes..
 Uncoiling the chromosomes into a more extended form permits enzymes to makes RNA
copies of DNA. By means of these RNA copies the information in the DNA is used to
direct the synthesis of proteins.
 It contains genetic material (DNA) of cell in its non-dividing state (Chromatin)
 Contain instructions for traits and characteristics of organisms.
Nucleolus
• structure in the nucleus composed mainly of protein and RNA
• It is produced by the chromosomes
• Makes ribosomes that make proteins
Endoplasmic Reticulum.
 The Endoplasmic Reticulum: Compartmentalizing the Cell

 The term endoplasmic means “within the cytoplasm,” and the term reticulum is Latin for
“a little net.” Like the plasma membrane, the ER is composed of a lipid bilayer embedded
with proteins.

 It weaves in sheets through the interior of the cell, creating a series of channels between
its folds
.

Rough ER: Manufacturing Proteins for Export

Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum.

• They are network of continuous sacs, studded with ribosomes.
• They manufacture, process, and transport proteins for export from cell.
• The protein they synthesize contain special amino acid sequences called signal sequences
• They are the internal delivery system of the cell.
• Continuous with nuclear envelope.
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
• Similar in appearance to rough ER, but without the ribosomes.
• Produces lipids,
• Involved in carbohydrate metabolism,
• Detoxification of drugs and poisons.
Golgi bodies
Golgi apparatus (The Golgi Apparatus: Delivery System of the Cell)

 They are flattened stacks of membranes often interconnected with one another.

 They are especially abundant in glandular cells, which manufacture and secrete
substances.

 Collectively the Golgi bodies are referred to as the Golgi apparatus.

 The Golgi apparatus functions in the collection, packaging, and distribution of molecules
synthesized at one place in the cell and utilized at another location in the cell.

 Plate like layer which function in the secretion of cellular secretion products.
 Serve as protein packaging plant
 Modifies proteins and lipids made by the Endoplasmic Reticulum and prepares them for
export from the cell.
 Encloses digestive enzymes into membranes to membranes to form lysosomes (transport
pods).

Lysosome
Vesicles: Enzyme Storehouses
Lysosomes: Intracellular Digestion Centers

• Tiny membranes bounded sacs or vesicle that contain digestive enzymes.

• Throughout the lives of eukaryotic cells, lysosomal enzymes break down old organelles,
recycling their component molecules and making room for newly formed organelles.
• Digestive site for proteins, fats, nucleic acids and carbohydrates.
• Digestive enzymes break down cellular waste and debris.
• In addition to breaking down organelles and other structures within cells, lysosomes also
eliminate other cells that the cell has engulfed in a process called phagocytosis,
• Transports undigested material to cell membrane for removal.
• Cell breaks down if lysosome explodes.

Microbodies
  These are varieties of enzyme-bearing, membrane-enclosed vesicles found in Eukaryotic
cells

 The distribution of enzymes into the cells is one of the principal ways in which eukaryotic
cells organize their metabolism.

 microbodies grow by incorporating lipids and protein, then dividing.

 Plant cells have a special type of microbody called a glyoxysome that contains enzymes
that convert fats into carbohydrates. Another type of microbody, a peroxisome, contains
enzymes that catalyze the removal of electrons and associated hydrogen atoms.

Mitochondria.
Mitochondria: The Cell’sChemical Furnaces

• They are typically tubular or sausage-shaped organelles about the size of bacteria and
found in all types of eukaryotic cells.
• Mitochondria are bounded by two membranes: a smooth outer membrane and an inner
one folded into numerous continuous layers called cristae.
• On the surface of the inner membrane, and also embedded within it, are proteins that carry
out oxidative metabolism, the oxygen-requiring process by which energy in
macromolecules is stored in ATP.
• Mitochondria have their own DNA; this DNA contains several genes that produce
proteins essential to the mitochondrion’s role in oxidative metabolism.
• It is the powerhouse of the cell.
• Consists of two fine membranes and is made mainly of lipids and protein.
• Membrane bound organelles that are the site of cellular respiration (use glucose to
produce cell energy, ATP)
• Active cells like muscles have more mitochondria

Animal Vacuole
• Membrane-bound sacs for storage, digestion, and waste removal
• Contains water Solution
• Tiny and temporary plant vacuole
• Plants have large central vacuoles occupying a greater part of the cell.
• They store cell sap and nutrients needed by the cell.
• They are permanent
• Help support the shape of the cell.

Plastids.
• They rounded, oval or disc shaped bodies found in algae and green plants
• Leucoplasts: are found lacks pigment and acts as starch storing organelles e.g. in potatoes
• Chromoplasts: contains carotenoid pigments e.g. as in carrots and tomato fruits
• Chloroplasts: contains carotenoid pigment but the colours are masked by the pigment
chlorophyll.

Chloroplasts: Where Photosynthesis Takes Place

 Plants and other eukaryotic organisms that carry out photosynthesis typically contain from
one to several hundred chloroplasts.

 Chloroplasts contain the photosynthetic pigment chlorophyll that gives most plants their
green color.
 It produces plant food (sugars) and oxygen Gas
 The chloroplast body is nclosed containing an outer and inner membranes, which lie in
close association with each other,
 chloroplasts have a closed compartment of stacked membranes called grana which lie
internal to the inner membrane. A chloroplast may contain a hundred or more grana, and
each granum may contain from a few to several dozen disk-shaped structures called
thylakoids.

 chloroplasts contain DNA, but many of the genes that specify chloroplast components are
also located in the nucleus.

Centrioles: Microtubule Assembly Centers

• Centrioles are barrel-shaped organelles found in the cells of animals and most protists.
• Centrioles help to assemble microtubules, long, hollow cylinders of the protein tubulin.
• Help in organizing cell division.
• Centrioles may be contained in areas called microtubule-organizing centers.
• It plays specific role in cell reproduction
• Self-replicating
• They occur in pairs, usually located at right angles to each other near the nuclear
membranes.The region surrounding the pair in almost all animal cells is referred to as a
centrosome.

The Cytoskeleton (The cell’s skeleton) Interior Framework of the Cell

• Made of microtubules and filaments

• Give the cell shape, strength and ability to move
• This is a network of protein fibers that supports the shape of the cell and anchors organelles
to fixed locations.
• Individual fibers form by polymerization, as identical protein subunits attract one another
chemically and spontaneously assemble into long chains.
Types of cytoskeleton include:

1. Actin filaments.

a. Actin filaments are long fibers about 7 nanometers in diameter. Each filament is
composed of two protein chains loosely twined together like two strands of pearls
b. Actin filaments are responsible for cellular movements such as contraction, crawling,
“pinching” during division, and formation of cellular extensions.

2. Microtubules.
a. Microtubules are hollow tubes about 25 nanometers in diameter, each composed of a ring
of 13 protein protofilaments..
b. Along with allowing for cellular movement, microtubules are responsible for moving
materials within the cell itself. Example include special motor proteins such as kinesin

3. Intermediate filaments.

a. The most durable element of the cytoskeleton in animal cells is a system of tough, fibrous
protein molecules twined together in an overlapping arrangement.

b. These fibers are characteristically 8 to 10 nanometers in diameter, intermediate in size

between actin filaments and microtubules (which is why they are called intermediate
filaments).

c. Once formed, intermediate filaments are stable and usually do not break down.
Intermediate filaments constitute a heterogeneous group of cytoskeletal fibers.

d. The most common type, composed of protein subunits called vimentin, provides structural
stability for many kinds of cells. Keratin, another class of intermediate filament, is found
in epithelial cells (cells that line organs and body cavities) and associated structures such
as hair and fingernails.

Cilia and Flagella: Swimming with Flagella and Cilia

Cilia and flagella are the External appendages from the cell membrane that aid in locomotion
(movement) of thecell.
Flagella
 Eukaryotic cells have a completely different kind of flagellum, consisting of a circle of
nine microtubule pairs surrounding two central microtubules; this arrangement is referred
to as the 9 + 2 structure

 Each flagellum proves to be an outward projection of the cell’s interior, containing

cytoplasm and enclosed by the plasma membrane.
 The microtubules of the flagellum are derived from a basal body, situated just below the
point where the flagellum protrudes from the surface of the cell.

Cilia

 Cilia are short cellular projections that are often organized in rows

 They are more numerous than flagella on the cell surface, but have the same internal
structure.

 In many multicellular organisms, cilia carry out tasks far removed from their original
function of propelling cells through water.

 In several kinds of vertebrate tissues, for example, the beating of rows of cilia moves
water over the tissue surface.

 The sensory cells of the vertebrate ear also contain cilia; sound waves bend these cilia, the
initial sensory input of hearing.

 Thus, the 9 + 2 structure of flagella and cilia appears to be a fundamental component of

eukaryotic cells.
 Cilia also help to move substance past the membrane.
Cell organization
The component of a cell and the arrangement of these individual parts within the cell form
the cellular organization. Cell contain a variety of internal structures called organelles. An
organelle is a cell component that perform a specific function in that cell. Just as the organ of a
multicellular organism carry out the organism’s life functions, the organelles of a cell maintain
the life of the cell. There are many different cells. However there are certain features common to
all cells. The center is surrounded by a thin cell membrane. All membrane have the same
thickness and basic structure. Organelles often have their own membranes too and these
membranes have a similar structure. The nucleus mitochondria and chloroplasts all have double
membranes more correctly called envelopes. Due to the fact that membranes are fluid mosaics,
the molecules making them up – phospholipids and proteins – move independently. The protein
appear to float in the phospholipid bilayer. Membranes can thus be used to transport molecules
within the cell e.g. endoplasmic reticulum. Protein in the membrane can be used to transport
substances across the membrane e.g. by facilitated diffusion or by active transport.

Forms in which Living cells exist

(i) Independent Unicellular organisms.
Cells may live as independent organisms and carry out the basic functions of life as exhibited by
Amoeba, Chlamydomonas, Paramecium etc.

(ii) Colonies
Some exist in colonial forms, for example Volvox and Pandorina. A Volvox colony is made up
of a large number of similar cells that keep dividing but the daughter cells are within the
organisms. The cells are however arranged in a single layer forming a hollow ball and may be
held together by gelatinous secretions from the cells. In this mass of cells, also referred to as a
colony, each cell or protists is more or less independent of the other in activity. Colonial form of
life is common among flagellates and they usually develop into definite shapes. The number of
cells in a colony may reach up to 50, 000 and are always in multiples of two. In a Volvox colony,
individual protists are linked to each other by slender protoplasmic strands that run through the
gelatinous coat.
(iii) Filament
Certain cells are known to exist in the form of filaments for example the Spirogyra. The
cells in Spirogyra are joined from end to end thus forming an unbranched filament. Each
individual cell functions independently and can divide to grow. The cells are vegetatively
identical with each one having two spirally suspended chloroplasts as the cytoplasm. Spirogyra
can reproduce sexually (by conjugation) during which the whole protoplasmic content of a cell is
passed into the cell of another filament through conjugation canal. This results in fertilization and
the zygote germinates into a new filament. Spirogyra can also reproduce asexually by
fragmentation in which the resulting fragments will grow into new filaments.
Similarities between Plant and Animal cell
• Ribosomes are present in both plant and animal cells
• Golgi apparatus is present in both cells
• Cell membrane is present in both cells
• They both have nucleus
• They both have mitochondrion
• They both possess endoplasmic reticulum
• They both have vacuoles

Special Things about Plant Cells

• Vacuole: This is a central storage compartment. The center of a plant cell usually contains
a large, apparently empty space, called the central vacuole. This vacuole is not really
empty; it contains large amounts of water and other materials, such as sugars, ions, and
pigments. The central vacuole functions as storage center for these important substances
and also help to increase the surface-to-volume ratio of the plant cell by applying pressure
to the cell membrane. The cell membrane expands outward under this pressure, thereby
increasing its surface area.
• Cell Walls: Protection and Support: Plant cells share a characteristic with bacteria that
is not shared with animal cells that is, plants have cell walls, which protect and support
 the plant cell. Although bacteria also have cell walls, plant cell walls are chemically and
structurally different from bacterial cell walls. Cell walls are also present in fungi and
some protists. In plants, cell walls are composed of fibers of the polysaccharide cellulose.
Primary walls are laid down when the cell is still growing, and between the walls of
adjacent cells is a sticky substance called the middle lamella, which glues the cells
together. Some plant cells produce strong secondary walls, which are deposited inside
the primary walls of fully expanded cells.

CELL DIVISION
Cell division is a process by which a parent cell divides into two or more daughter cells
which leads to DNA replication and cell growth.

Somatic cell division: This is the division of the body cells to give rise to tissues in the adult
body. After fertilization, the resulting zygote begins to divide by mitosis.

Cell division in Prokaryotes

Prokaryotes have a simple cell cycle:
Binary fission: this is the type of cell division in which the cell divides into two equal or
nearly equal halves. This occurs in bacteria, which are prokaryotes and lack a nucleus. The
genetic information, or genome, replicates early in the life of the cell. It exists as a single,
circular, double-stranded DNA molecule.

Cell division in prokatryotes

• The hereditary information is stored in DNA

• prokaryotic chromosome is a single circle of DNA
• 1st DNA unzips at a point called the origin of replication
• a new double helix forms by adding complementary nucleotides to the exposed DNA
strands that have been unzipped
• Goes on until the cell has 2 complete copies of the hereditary Information
after replication, cells grows
• When big enough, the cell splits into 2 equal halves
• new plasma membrane and cell wall form
• eventually the cell constricts in two to form two daughter cells
• each daughter cell is a complete, living cell with its own DNA

Eukaryotic cells
Eukaryotic cells are much larger than prokaryotic cells, and their genomes contain much
more DNA. Eukaryotic DNA is contained in a number of linear chromosomes, whose
organization is much more complex than that of the single, circular DNA molecules in
bacteria. DNA are packaged in the chromosomes.
Discovery of Chromosomes
Chromosomes are complex of packaged proteins (histones) wound around DNA and
compressed into tiny coils known as chromatin.
Chromosomes were first observed by the German embryologist Walther Fleming in 1882,
while he was examining the rapidly dividing cells of salamander larvae. When Fleming
looked at the cells through a light microscope, he saw minute threads within their nuclei
that appeared to be dividing lengthwise. Fleming called their division mitosis, based on the
Greek word mitos, meaning “thread.”

Chromosome Number
The number of chromosomes may vary enormously from one species to another. Most
eukaryotes have between 10 and 50 chromosomes in their body cells. Human cells each have 46
chromosomes, consisting of 23 nearly identical pairs. Each of these 46 chromosomes
contains hundreds or thousands of genes that play important roles in determining how a
person’s body develops and functions. For this reason, possession of all the chromosomes is
essential to survival.

The Structure of Eukaryotic Chromosomes

Composition of Chromatin
Chromosomes are composed of chromatin, a complex of DNA and protein; most are about
40% DNA and 60% protein. A significant amount of RNA is also associated with
chromosomes because chromosomes are the sites of RNA synthesis. The DNA of a
chromosome is one very long, double-stranded fiber that extends unbroken through the entire
length of the chromosome. A typical human chromosome contains about 140 million nucleotides
in its DNA. The amount of information one chromosome contains would fill about 280 printed
books of 1000 pages each, if each nucleotide corresponded to a “word” and each page had about
500 words on it. In the cell, however, the DNA is coiled, allowing it to fit into a much smaller
space than would otherwise be possible.

Chromosome Coiling
When a eukaryotic nucleus is disrupted and the DNA is examined with an electron
microscope, it resembles a string of beads. Every 200 nucleotides, the DNA duplex is coiled
around a core of eight histone proteins, forming a complex known as a NUCLEOSOME.

Chromosome Karyotypes
This is the particular array of chromosomes that an individual possesses. Karyotypes show
marked differences among species and sometimes even among individuals of the same
species. Chromosomes may differ widely in appearance. They vary in size, staining
properties, the location of the centromere. The CENTROMERE is a point of constriction
on the chromosome, containing a specific DNA sequence. The relative length of the two
arms on either side of the centromere, and the positions of constricted regions along the
arms are bound to a disk of protein called a KINETOCHORE. Kinetochore functions as an
attachment site for fibers that assist in cell division.
Chromosomal number
With the exception of the gametes (eggs or sperm) and a few specialized tissues, every cell in
a human body is diploid (2n). This means that the cell contains two nearly identical copies
of each of the 23 types of chromosomes, for a total of 46 chromosomes. The haploid (1n)
gametes contain only one copy of each of the 23 chromosome types, while certain tissues
have unusual numbers of chromosomes. Many liver cells, for example, have two nuclei,
while mature red blood cells have no nuclei at all. The two copies of each chromosome in
body cells are called homologous chromosomes, or homologues (Greek homologia,
“agreement”). Before cell division, each homologue replicates, producing two identical sister
chromatids joined at the centromere, a condensed area found on all eukaryotic
chromosomes. Hence, as cell division begins, a human body cell contains a total of 46
replicated chromosomes, each composed of two sister chromatids joined by one centromere.
The cell thus contains 46 centromeres and 92 chromatids (2 sister chromatids for each of 2
homologues for each of 23 chromosomes). The cell is said to contain 46 chromosomes rather
than 92 because, by convention, the number of chromosomes is obtained by counting
centromeres.

CELL CYCLE
This is the sequence of event such as duplication of genomes, synthesis of various
constituents of cell and eventual division into two daughter cells.
Phases of the Cell Cycle
This division process is diagrammed as a cell cycle, consisting of five phases.

G1 Phase, S phase, G2 phase, Mphase and the C phase. G1, S, and G2 together constitute
interphase, the portion of the cell cycle between cell divisions.

Duration of the Cell Cycle

The time it takes to complete a cell cycle varies greatly among organisms. Cells in growing
embryos can complete their cell cycle in under 20 minutes; the shortest known animal nuclear
division cycles occur in fruit fly embryos (8 minutes). Mammalian cell completes its cell cycle in
about 24 hours, cells of human liver have cell cycles lasting more than a year.

CELL CYCLES IN SOMATIC AND GERM CELLS

Mitosis occurs in non-reproductive cells (Somatic or body cells) while meiosis is a cell division
mechanism that occurs in cells (germ cells) that participate in sexual reproduction.

Mitosis in somatic cells

Interphase
This is the phase during which the cell prepares for mitosis. It is the first phase of the cycle and
sometimes considered a resting phase but is actually a period of activity. The events that occur
during interphase, is made up of the G1, S and G2 phases. These phases are very important for
the successful completion of mitosis.
G1 phase

• primary growth phase of the cell following division

• most cells spend majority of lifespan in this phase

S phase

• Cell’s DNA replication occurs in prep for cell division

• Each chromosome replicates to produce two sister chromatids, which remain attached to
each other at the centromere.
• After the chromosomes have replicated in S phase, they remain fully extended and
uncoiled. This makes them invisible under the light microscope
G2 phase

• Chromosomes begin the long process of condensation, coiling ever more tightly.
• Further preparation for cell division, including replication of DNA
• Mitochondria and synthesis of microtubules
• Special motor proteins are involved in the rapid final condensation of the chromosomes that
occurs early in mitosis.
• Also during G2 phase, the cells begin to assemble the machinery they will later use to move
the chromosomes to opposite poles of the cell.
In animal cells, a pair of microtubule organizing centers called centrioles replicate. All
eukaryotic cells undertake an extensive synthesis of tubulin. Tubulin is the protein of which
microtubules are formed.

M (Phase) Mitosis
• Somatic Cells: all other cells, such as skin, muscle, and nerves.

• Reproduce for growth, repair and replacement.

• Interphase sets the stage for cell division

• Chromosomes are first duplicated

• Chromosomes begin to wind up tightly in a process called condensation
• Sister chromatids are held together by a protein complex called cohesin
Following interphase, division of the nuclear contents occurs, known as Mitosis.
There are four distinct stages of mitosis
1. Prophase
2. Metaphase
3. Anaphase
4. Telophase

Prophase this is the phase during which mitotic apparatus are formed

 The condensed chromosomes first become visible.

 Centrioles separate in the center of the cell and migrate to opposite ends of the cell
 The centrioles start to form a network of protein cables called the spindle (spindle is made
of microtubules)
• Microtubules extend from the two poles and attach sister chromatids to opposite sides of
the centromere, Meaning they attach one sister chromatid to one pole and the other sister
chromatid to the other pole on their kinetochores.
• The attachment of the two sides of a centromere to the same pole make the sister
chromatids end up in the same daughter cell.
• The nuclear envelope begins to disintegrate and the nucleolus disappears

Metaphase
Metaphase:
• The chromosomes align in the center of the cell as the equator girdles the earth.
• An imaginary plane perpendicular to the axis of the spindle that passes through this circle
is called the metaphase plate.
• The centromeres are neatly arrayed in a circle, equidistant from the two poles of the cell,
• The microtubules extend back towards the opposite poles of the cell in an arrangement
called a spindle because of its shape.
• Chromosomes (attached to microtubules of the spindle) align in the center of the cell

Anaphase

• The poles move apart as microtubular spindle fibers physically anchored to opposite poles
slide past each other, away from the center of the cell.
• Second, the centromeres move toward the poles as the microtubules that connect them to
the poles shorten.
• As more subunits of tubulin are removed, the chromatid-bearing microtubules are
progressively disassembled, and the chromatids are pulled ever closer to the poles of the
cell.
• Sister chromatids separate.

Telophase
• The spindle is dismantled
• Nuclear envelope forms around the set of chromosomes at each set of sister chromatids
which can now be called chromosomes because each has its own centromere.
• The chromosomes begin to uncondensed
• The nucleolus reappears

Cytokinesis
Cytokinesis occurs at end of mitosis. It generally involves the cleavage of the cell into roughly
equal two equal halves.

Cytokinesis in Animal Cells

 In animal cells and the cells of all other eukaryotes that lack cell walls.
 Cytokinesis is achieved by means of a constricting belt of actin filaments.
 As these filaments slide past one another, the diameter of the belt decreases, pinching the
cell and creating a cleavage furrow around the cell’s circumference.
 As constriction proceeds, the furrow deepens until it eventually slices all the way into the
center of the cell.
 At this point, the cell is divided in two.
Cytokinesis in Plant Cells
 Cells assemble membrane components in their interior, at right angles to the spindle
apparatus.
 This expanding membrane partition, called a cell plate, continues to grow outward until it
reaches the interior surface of the plasma membrane and fuses with it, effectively dividing
the cell in two.
 Cellulose is then laid down on the new membranes, creating two new cell walls.
 The space between the daughter cells becomes impregnated with pectins and is called a
middle lamella.

Meiosis in Germ Cells

Meiosis is the reduction division of cells to produce haploid gamete. This cell division gives
rise to haploid gametes which have half the number of chromosomes that are found in
parent cells. It plays a key role in generating the tremendous genetic diversity that is the
raw material of evolution. This process of reduction division in forming gametes ensures a
consistent chromosome number across generations. Germ Cells are the reproductive cells
that will create the offspring of the animal. In animals, the cells that will eventually undergo
meiosis to produce gametes are set aside from somatic cells early in the course of
development. These cells are often referred to as GERM LINE CELLS. Germ Line Cells (2n
in animals) the cells that will eventually undergo meiosis are reserved early on for the purpose of
reproduction. This means that although these germ-line cells are diploid like somatic cells
however they will undergo meiosis to produce haploid gametes.

Meiosis Reduction Division

It was clear even to early investigators that gamete formation must involve some mechanism that
reduces the number of chromosomes to half the number found in other cells. If it did not, the
chromosome number would double with each fertilization, and after only a few generations, the
number of chromosomes in each cell would become impossibly large. For example, in just 10
generations, the 46 chromosomes present in human cells would increase to
over 47,000. The number of chromosomes does not explode in this way because of a special
reduction division that occurs during gamete formation, producing cells with half the normal
number of chromosomes. The subsequent fusion of two of these cells ensures a consistent
chromosome number from one generation to the next.

UNIQUE FEATURES OF MEIOSIS

Meiosis in a diploid organism consists of two rounds of division, mitosis of one. Although
meiosis and mitosis have much in common, meiosis has three unique features: synapsis,
homologous recombination, and reduction division.

Synapsis
The first unique feature of meiosis happens early during the first nuclear division. Following
chromosome replication, homologous chromosomes, or homologues pair all along their length.
Hence, synapsis is the process of forming these complexes of homologous chromosomes.

Reduction Division
The third unique feature of meiosis is that the chromosomes do not replicate between the two
nuclear divisions, so that at the end of meiosis, each cell contains only half the original
complement of chromosomes. In most respects, the second meiotic division is identical to a
normal mitotic division. However, because of the crossing over that occurred during the first
division, the sister chromatids in meiosis II are not identical to each other. Meiosis is a
continuous process, but it is most easily studied when we divide it into arbitrary stages. The
stages of meiosis are traditionally called meiosis I and meiosis II. Like mitosis, each stage is
subdivided further into prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. In meiosis, however,
prophase I is more complex than in mitosis. Meiosis involves 2 divisions (M1 and M2) DNA is
replicated only before meiosis I

First Meiotic Division

Prophase I
 In prophase I of meiosis, the DNA coils tighter, and individual chromosomes first
become visible under the light microscope as a matrix of fine threads.
 Each of these threads actually consists of two sister chromatids joined at their
centromeres.
 Homologous chromosomes become closely associated in synapsis, exchange segments
by crossing over, and then separate.
Prophase I is divided into five sequential stages: leptotene, zygotene, pachytene, diplotene, and
diakinesis.

 Leptotene
The chromosomes longitudinally single rather than double, although DNA synthesis has
occurred, indicating that they are in fact double and their structure is more definite, with a
series of dense granules.

 Zygotene
Chromosomes moves as a result of an unknown attracting force which brings the
homologous chromosomes together. This pairing is known as synapsis and begin at one or
more points along the length of the chromosomes finally uniting them.

 Pachytene
The chromosomes appear more distinct as they shorten and thicken. Synapsis force of
attraction disappear and the chromosomes begin to separate from each other. Each member
of bivalent chromosomes become double stranded. The bivalent forms tetrads and the
exchange of genetic materials takes place.

 Diplotene
The chromosomes separate from each other. Each chromosome now consists of two clearly
visible chromatids and each bivalent therefore is composed of four chromatids. Diplotene is
a period of intense cell growth. During this period the chromosomes decondense and
become very active in transcription.

 Diakinesis
The nucleolus detaches from its special bivalent and disappears. The bivalents becomes
considerably thickened and the chiasma tends to lose their position and move towards the
ends of the poles. It transcription ceases and the chromosomes recondense.

Synapsis
During prophase, the ends of the chromatids attach to the nuclear envelope at specific sites. The
sites the homologues attach to are adjacent, so that the members of each homologous pair of
chromosomes are brought close together. They then line up side by side, apparently guided by
heterochromatin sequences, in the process called synapsis.

Homologous Recombination
The second unique feature of meiosis is that genetic exchange occurs between the homologous
chromosomes while they are thus physically joined. The exchange process that occurs between
paired chromosomes is called crossing over. Chromosomes are then drawn together along the
equatorial plane of the dividing cell; subsequently, homologues are pulled by microtubules
toward opposite poles of the cell. When this process is complete, the cluster of chromosomes at
each pole contains one of the two homologues of each chromosome. Each pole is haploid,
containing half the number of chromosomes present in the original diploid cell. Sister chromatids
do not separate from each other in the first nuclear division, so each homologue is still composed
of two chromatids.

Chiasma Formation
Evidence of crossing over can often be seen under the light microscope as an X-shaped structure
known as a chiasma (Greek, “cross”; plural, chiasmata. The presence of a chiasma indicates that
two chromatids (one from each homologue) have exchanged parts. Like small rings moving
down two strands of rope, the chiasmata move to the end of the chromosome arm as the
homologous chromosomes separate. Chiasmata play an important role in aligning the
chromosomes on the metaphase plate.

Metaphase I (the paired homologous chromosomes align on a central plane). The breakdown of
the nuclear membrane terminates prophase and marks the beginning of the first metaphase of
meiosis. The tetrads orient themselves on the spindle in such a way that each centromere are on
either side and they are of equal distance from the equatorial plate.
 the nuclear envelope disperses and the microtubules form a spindle, just as in mitosis.
 During diakinesis of prophase I, the chiasmata move down the paired chromosomes from
their original points of crossing over, eventually reaching the ends of the chromosomes.
At this point, they are called terminal chiasmata.
 Terminal chiasmata hold the homologous chromosomes together in metaphase I, so that
only one side of each centromere faces outward from the complex; the other side is turned
inward toward the other homologue.
 Spindle microtubules are able to attach to kinetochore proteins only on the outside of each
centromere, and the centromeres of the two homologues attach to microtubules
originating from opposite poles. This one-sided attachment is in marked contrast to the
attachment in mitosis, when kinetochores on both sides of a centromere bind to
microtubules. Each joined pair of homologues then lines up on the metaphase plate. The
orientation of each pair on the spindle axis is random: either the maternal or the paternal
homologue may orient toward a given pole. illustrates the alignment of chromosomes
during metaphase I.

Chiasmata created by crossing over have a key impact on how chromosomes align in
metaphase I. In the first meiotic division, the chiasmata hold one sister chromatid to the other
sister chromatid; consequently, the spindle microtubules can bind to only one side of each
centromere, and the homologous chromosomes are drawn to opposite poles.

Anaphase I (Homologues separate from the pairing and move to opposite poles).
 In anaphase I, the microtubules of the spindle fibers begin to shorten. As they shorten,
they break the chiasmata and pull the centromeres toward the poles, dragging the
chromosomes along with them.
  Because the microtubules are attached to kinetochores on only one side of each
centromere, the individual centromeres are not pulled apart to form two daughter
centromeres, as they are in mitosis.
 Instead, the entire centromere moves to one pole, taking both sister chromatids with it.
When the spindle fibers have fully contracted, each pole has a complete haploid set of
chromosomes consisting of one member of each homologous pair. Because of the random
orientation of homologous chromosomes on the metaphase plate, a pole may receive
either the maternal or the paternal homologue from each chromosome pair.
 As a result, the genes on different chromosomes assort independently; that is, meiosis I
results in the independent assortment of maternal and paternal chromosomes into the
gametes.
 The chromosomes move to the poles. The two chromosomes becomes undivided but the
remaining chiasma strips off and frees the chromosomes from each other so that they are
separated into opposite poles.
 At each of the poles, a reduced or haploid number of chromosomes are formed. The
chromosomes has distinct chromatids instead of the longitudinally single chromosomes in
mitotic anaphase. The chromatids are united at the centromeres.

Telophase I (Individual chromosomes gather at each of the two pole)

 By the beginning of telophase I, the chromosomes have segregated into two clusters, one
at each pole of the cell. Now the nuclear membrane re-forms around each daughter
nucleus.
 Because each chromosome within a daughter nucleus replicated before meiosis I began,
each now contains two sister chromatids attached by a common centromere. Importantly,
the sister chromatids are no longer identical, because of the crossing over that occurred in
prophase

Cytokinesis may or may not occur after telophase I.

The second meiotic division, meiosis II, occurs after an interval of variable length. The
nucleus forms, the chromosomes uncoil and a membrane or wall is formed between the cells
to separate the contents. The chromosomes in each of the haploid cell enter the second
meiotic division.
N.B a brief interphase occurs where there is no replication of DNA

Second Meiotic Division

•Meiosis II also divided into 4 stages
The Second Meiotic Division
After a typically brief interphase, in which no DNA synthesis occurs, the second meiotic division
begins. Meiosis II resembles a normal mitotic division. Prophase II, metaphase II, anaphase II,
and telophase II follow in quick succession.
Prophase II. At the two poles of the cell the clusters of chromosomes enter a brief prophase II,
each nuclear envelope breaking down as a new spindle forms.

 new spindle forms to attach to chromosome clusters

 spindle fibers bind to both sides of the centromere and individual chromosomes align
along a central plane

Metaphase II. In metaphase II, spindle fibers bind to both sides of the centromeres.

Anaphase II: sister chromatids move to opposite poles

Anaphase II. The spindle fibers contract, splitting the entromeres and moving the sister
chromatids to opposite poles.

Telophase II: the nuclear envelope is reformed around each of the four sets of daughter
chromosomes

Telophase II. Finally, the nuclear envelope re-forms around the four sets of daughter
chromosomes.
(a) Second Prophase
This is similar to that of meiosis, however, if there is interphase, the prophase is prolonged

(b) Second Metaphase

The chromosomes are aligned on the metaphase plate by the activities of spindle fibres formed in
each of the two cells.
(c) Second Anaphase
Centromeric divisions occur and sister chromatids are separated into the poles

(d) Second Telophase

The nuclei become reorganized giving rise to four haploid nuclei that become separated into four
individual cells by segmentation of the cytoplasm.
The final result of this division is four cells containing haploid sets of chromosomes. No two are
alike, because of the crossing over in prophase I. Nuclear envelopes then form around each
haploid set of chromosomes. The cells that contain these haploid nuclei may develop directly into
gametes, as they do in animals. Alternatively, they may themselves divide mitotically, as they do
in plants, fungi, and many protists, eventually producing greater numbers of gametes or, as in the
case of some plants and insects, adult individuals of varying ploidy.
How Meiosis Differs from Mitosis
Synapsis: process of drawing together homologous chromosomes down their entire lengths so
that crossing over can occur occurs in meiosis but this is absent in mitosis
Reduction division: because meiosis involves two nuclear divisions but only one replication of
DNA, the final amount of genetic material passed to the gametes is halved which is absent in
mitosis.
Sites of division: Meiosis takes place in reproductive cells while mitosis takes place in somatic
cells.
Number of Chromosomes: diploid number of chromosomes (2n) is formed during mitosis while
haploid number of chromosomes (n) are formed during mitosis.
Phases: Mitosis undergoes a single phase while meiosis undergoes double phase.
 QUESTIONS ON GENETICS

1. Which one of the following is an example of a Back Cross? (a]TT x tt(b] Tt x Tt (c] Tt x TT
(d]TT x TT

2. What will be the phenotype of offsprings from a cross between 'BB' x 'bb' ? [Black colour
(B) is dominant over White (b) (a) All white (b) Both black and white in 1:1 ratio (c) All
black (d) Black and White in 3:1 ratio.

3. In Rabbits, Black fur colour [B] is dominant over Brown [b] and Short hair [S] is dominant
over long hair [s]. If a homozygous black .short haired male is crossed with a homozygous
brown .long haired female, it is an example of---------- (a) Test Cross (b) Back Cross (c)
Dihybrid Cross (d) Monohybrid Cross

4. Which one of the following represents Dihybrid ratio ? (a) 1:3 (b) 3:1 (c) 9:3:3:1 (d) 2:1

5. A woman has a haemophilia. The condition has been found to depend on a single dominant
gene P. The woman father had haemophilia but her mother had no haemophilia. Her father’s
mother had no haemophilia.
i. What are the probable genotypes of the woman, her father and mother
ii. What proportion of her children will be expected to have haemophilia if she marries a
man that has no haemophilia.
6. A breeder had rabbits with brown hair. Using Punnet Square describe how the breeder
could possibly know if the rabbits are homozygous dominant or heterozygous dominant.

7. For two parents with sickle cell trait, work out the chances of producing a sickle cell
anaemic child and a normal child.

8. In Human beings, curly hair [KK] is dominant over non-curly hair [kk]. If a man
homozygous for curly hair marries a woman with non-curly hair, their children will have
------- a] Curly hair only(b) Non-curly hair only (c) Some of them with curly hair and other
with non-curly hair (d) None of the above

9. Some pure [homozygous] Black mice [BB] were mistakenly mixed with hybrid black mice
[Bb]. The quickest way to discover whether one individual black mouse is pure
[homozygous] is — (a) To cross it with pure Black mouse and all the offsprings must be
black (b) To cross it with a Brown mouse and all the offsprings must be black (c) To cross
it with a Brown mouse and all the offsprings must be brown (d) To cross it with a known
hybrid black mouse and all the offsprings must be black and brown in equal numbers.
10. In Rabbits, Black fur colour [B] is dominant over Brown [b] and Short hair [S] is dominant
over long hair [s]. If a homozygous black .short haired male is crossed with a homozygous
brown .long haired female, it is an example of---------- (a) Test Cross (b) Back Cross (c)
Dihybrid Cross (d) Monohybrid Cross

11. What will be the genotype of offsprings of a cross between ' Rr x rr’? (a) Rr & RR (b) Rr,
RR &rr (c) RR &rr (d) Rr &rr

12. Which one of the following cross will produce phenotypically alike off springs only? (a)
Ddxdd (b) WWxWw (c) WwxWw (d)Dd x Dd

13. When an F1 hybrid individual is crossed with its double recessive parent, it is called — (a)
Back cross (b) Dihybrid cross (c) Test cross (d) Monohybrid cross

14. When a homozygous Tall plant is crossed with a homozygous Dwarf plant, all the
offsprings produced are found to be Tall This proves the pnnciple of --------- (a) Law of
dominant and recessive characters (b) Law of Segregation (c) Law of Independent
assortment (d) None of the above

15. A homozygous tall pea plant is crossed with a homozygous short pea plant. What
proportion of phenotype in F2 generation can be expected to be tall?

16. On self- pollination, in purple flowered hybrids of a pea plant, the offspring produced 450
purple and 150 white flowers. Write the genotype and phenotype of all possible offspring in
F1 generation.

17. Write the genotypic and phenotypic ratio in F2 generation in a typical monohybrid cross
showing the inheritance of height in a pea plant.

18. When a cross in made between tall plants with yellow seeds (TtYy) and tall plant with
hgreen seed (Ttyy), what proportions of phenotype in the offspring could be expected to
be(a) tall and green.(b) dwarf and green. Two heterozygous parents are crossed. If the two
loci are linked what would be the distribution of phenotypic features in F1 generation for a
dihybrid cross?