Jimma University

Jimma Institute of Technology

Faculty of Electrical & Computer Engineering
Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering(ECEg2111)
Chapter one
Basic Circuit Theory
By: Biruk Teshome

1
Introduction
 In electrical engineering, we are usually interested in transferring energy or
communicating signals from one point to another. to do this, we often require
an interconnection of electrical components (elements).
 The interconnection of two or more electrical
components (viz., voltage sources, resistors, inductors
and capacitors) is called an electric network.
 If the network contains at least one closed path, it is
called an electric circuit. It is a closed energized
network. Every circuit is a network, but all networks are
not circuits.
 Note: Electrical network and circuit can be used
interchangeably.
 Circuit theory is a foundational aspect of electrical
Fig. 1.1
engineering that deals with the analysis and design of (a) Network which is
electrical circuits. It encompasses the principles and laws not a circuit
that govern the behavior of electrical components when (b) Network which is
interconnected. a circuit

 Circuit analysis is the process of determining voltages across (or the currents
through) the elements of the circuit.
2
Electrical Quantities:
Charge
 The most basic quantity in an electric circuit is the electric charge q.
 Charge is an electrical property of the atomic particles of which matter
consists, measured in coulombs (C).
 All matter is made of fundamental building blocks known as atoms and that
each atom consists of electrons, protons, and neutrons.
 The charge of an electron is −1.602 × 10−19 𝐶, while a proton carries a positive
charge of the same magnitude as the electron. Thus, one Coulomb charge is
1
defined as the charge possessed by 1.602×10−19 electrons.
1 Coulomb charge = charge of 6.242 × 1018 electrons
 Under normal conditions, an atom is supposed to be electrically neutral. The
total positive charge on protons is equal to the total negative charge on
electrons. If an atom loses electron(s), it becomes positively charged. On the
other hand, if an atom acquires excess electrons, it becomes negatively
charged.
 The law of conservation of charge states that charge can neither be created
nor destroyed, only transferred.
3
Cont.….
Electric Current
 When a charge is transferred from one point in the circuit to another point
constitutes what is known as electric current.
 An electric current is defined as the time rate of flow of charge or electron
through a certain section. By convention, the electric current flows in the
opposite direction to the electrons.
 If Q amount of charges flow through an area in time t, then the current is given
as,
𝑄 𝑑𝑞
I= Or, in differential form, i=
𝑡 𝑑𝑡
 And the charge transferred between time 𝑡𝑜 and 𝑡 is given by
𝑡
𝑞= 𝑖𝑑𝑡
𝑡𝑜

 As Q is expressed in Coulomb, the unit of electric current is Coulomb per

second and it is given the name Ampere (A). Thus,

1 A current = flow of 6.24 × 1018 electrons per second through an area

4
 Although a current in a conductor has a magnitude in a certain direction, it is
not a vector quantity. The direction of current merely indicates the sense of
flow from one side to the other.
3A -3 A  a negative current in one
direction is equivalent to a
positive current in the opposite
(a) (b)
direction, and vice versa.
Fig. 1.1 Two methods of representation
for the same current.
 Types of Electric Current: If the current flow
I i
always remain in one direction only, it is called
unidirectional current (Fig. 1.2). If the
magnitude of this current remains constant
with time, it is called direct current or dc t t
(a) DC current. (b) Pulsating current.
current (Fig. 1.2a). On the other hand, if the Fig. 1.2 Unidirectional current.
magnitude of the unidirectional current varies
with time, it is called pulsating current (Fig. i i
1.2b). However, a current which keeps on
t t
reversing its direction continually is called
alternating current or ac current (Fig. 1.3). (a) Sinusoidal (b) Square-wave
Figure 1.3a shows a sinusoidal ac current, and ac current. ac current.
Fig. 1.3b shows square wave ac current. Fig. 1.3 Alternating current.
5
Example 1.1. A person receives a severe shock when he is subjected to a
current of 25 mA for a time duration of 30ms. How many electrons pass
through the person?
Solution: Q = 𝐼𝑡 = 25 × 10−3 × 30 × 10−3 = 75 × 10−5 𝐶 , but
Since 1C = 6.242 × 1018 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠
Hence, no. of electrons = 75 × 10−5 × 6.242 × 1018
= 4.68 × 1015
Example 1.2. The total charge entering a terminal is given by 𝑞 = 5𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛 4𝜋𝑡
mC. Calculate the current at t = 0.5 s.
𝑑𝑞 𝑑
Solution: i = 𝑑𝑡
= 𝑑𝑡 5𝑡 sin 4𝜋𝑡 𝑚𝐴 = 5 sin 4𝜋𝑡 + 20𝜋𝑡 cos 4𝜋𝑡 𝑚𝐴
Thus, at t = 0.5 s, i = 31.42 𝑚𝐴
Exercise 1.1. If the current in an electrical device
is given by 𝑖 𝑡 = 2𝑡 + 4 𝑚𝐴 with 𝑞 0 =
1.5 𝑚𝐶. Calculate the charge at t = 1 s .
Exercise 1.2. The current that enters an element
is shown in Fig. E1.2. Find the charge that enters
the element in the time interval 𝑡1 = 0 to 𝑡2 = 20 𝑠
Fig. E1.2
6
Cont.….
Voltage
 Electrons move when there is a difference in charge between two locations.
This difference is expressed as the potential difference, or voltage (V).
 When charge moves through circuit elements, energy can be transferred.
 Voltage is a measure of the energy transferred per unit of charge when charge
moves from one point in an electrical circuit to a second point.
 If the energy required to move a charge of Q from point a to point b is W , the
voltage 𝑉𝑎𝑏 between a and b is given as
𝑊 𝑑𝑊
𝑉𝑎𝑏 = or in differential form, 𝑉𝑎𝑏 =
𝑄 𝑑𝑞
 Where w is energy in joules and Q is charge
in coulombs. The voltage 𝑉𝑎𝑏 is measured
in volts.
 Figure 1.4 shows the voltage across an
element (represented by a rectangular block)
connected to points a and b.
Fig. 1.4 Polarity of voltage 𝑉𝑎𝑏 .
7
 The plus and minus signs are used to define reference direction or voltage
polarity. The 𝑉𝑎𝑏 can be interpreted in two ways:
1. Point a is at a potential of 𝑉𝑎𝑏 volts higher than point b, or
2. The potential at point a with respect to point b is 𝑉𝑎𝑏 .
𝑉𝑎𝑏 = −𝑉𝑏𝑎
 Two equivalent representations of the same voltage:
1. In Fig. 1.5(a), point a is +9 V above point b;
2. in Fig. 1.5(b), point b is −9 V above point a.
 We may say that in Fig. 1.5(a), there is a 9 V
voltage drop from a to b or equivalently a 9 V
voltage rise from b to a.
 In other words, a voltage drop from a to b is
equivalent to a voltage rise from b to a.
Fig. 1.5 Two equivalent
 A constant voltage is called a DC voltage, representations of the same
whereas a sinusoidal time-varying voltage is voltage 𝑉𝑎𝑏 .
called an AC voltage.
 A dc voltage is commonly produced by a battery; ac voltage is produced by an
electric generator.
1. Voltage source
 Necessary conditions for current flow: 2. The circuit must be closed
8
Cont.….
Power
N
 Power is the time rate of expending or absorbing energy, measured in watts
(W). 𝑑𝑤 𝑑𝑤 𝑑𝑞
𝑃= = × = 𝑣𝑖
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑞 𝑑𝑡
 Where P is power in watts, w is energy in joule, t is time in sec, q is charge in
coulombs, v is voltage in volt and i is current in amperes.
 Thus, the power absorbed or supplied by an element is the product of the
voltage across the element and the current through it.
 If the power has a + sign, power is being delivered to
or absorbed by the element. If, on the other hand, the
power has a − sign, power is being supplied by the
element.
 Passive sign convention: Whenever the reference
direction for the current in an element is in the
direction of the reference voltage drop across the
(a) Absorbed (b) Supplied
element (as in Fig. 1.6(a)), use a positive sign in any
expression that relates the voltage to the current. Fig. 1.6 Reference polarities
Otherwise, use a negative sign. for power using the passive
sign convention.
9
 Absorbing Power Supplying Power

Fig. 1.7 Two cases of an Fig. 1.8 Two cases of an

element with an absorbing element with a supplying
power of 12 W. power of 12 W.

 Fig. 1.7(a) 𝑝 = 4 × 3 = 12 𝑊  Fig. 1.8(a) 𝑝 = −4 × 3 = −12 𝑊

 Fig. 1.7(b) 𝑝 = 4 × 3 = 12 𝑊  Fig. 1.8(b) 𝑝 = −4 × 3 = −12 𝑊
 The energy absorbed or supplied by an element from time t o to time t is:
𝑡 𝑡
w= 𝑝 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑣𝑖 𝑑𝑡
𝑡𝑜 𝑡𝑜

10
 The law of conservation of energy must be obeyed in any electric circuit. For
this reason, the algebraic sum of power in a circuit, at any instant of time, must
be zero:
𝑃=0→ 𝑃𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 = 𝑃𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑑

Example 1.3. How much work will be done by an electric energy source with a
potential difference of 3 kV that delivers a current of 1 A for 1 minute?

Solution: The total charge for a period of 1 minute is Q = It = 1 × 60 = 60 C.

Total work done, W = Q × V = 60 × 3000 = 180000 J = 180 kJ
Exercise 1.3. Two electric circuits, represented by boxes A and B, are
connected as shown in Fig. E1.3. The reference direction for the current i in the
interconnection and the reference polarity for the voltage v across the
interconnection are as shown in the figure. For each of the following sets of
numerical values, calculate the power in the interconnection and state whether
the power is flowing from A to B or vice versa.
a) i = 6 A, v = 30 V
b) i = − 8 A, v = −20 V
c) i = 4 A, v = −60 V
d) i = −9 A, v = 40 V
Fig. E1.3
11
Exercise 1.4. The voltage across a given circuit element is 𝑉𝑎𝑏 = 20 V. A
positive charge of 2 C moves through the circuit element from terminal b to
terminal a. How much energy is transferred? Is the energy supplied by the
circuit element or absorbed by it?

Exercise 1.5. The following are the details of load on a circuit connected
through a supply meter:
i. One 42 inches LED TV of 80 watts working for 8 hours per day
ii. Two fluorescent tubes 125 watts each working for 4 hours per day
iii. One 2000 watt stove working for 3 hours per day
If energy costs 2birr/kWh, what will be the electricity bill(the cost of its
operation ) for 30 days?

Exercise 1.6. Find an expression for the power

for the voltage source shown in Fig. E1.6. and
compute the energy for the interval from 𝑡1 = 0
to 𝑡2 = ∞

Fig. E1.6
12
Exercise 1.7.
i. A 1000 mAh lithium-ion battery has been fully discharged (i.e., 0 mAh).
How long will it take to recharge it from a USB port supplying a constant
current of 250 mA? How much charge is stored in the battery when it is
fully charged? [Ans. 3600C]
ii. A fully charged 1000 mAh lithium-ion battery supplies a load, which
draws a constant current of 200 mA for 4 hours. How much charge is left
in the battery at the end of the 4 hours? Assuming that the load remains
constant at 3.6 V, how much energy is absorbed by the load in joules?
[Ans. 10,368J]

Fig. E1.7

13
Circuit Elements
Voltage & Current Sources
 There are two types of elements found in electric circuits: passive elements and
active elements.
 An active element is capable of generating energy while a passive element is
not. Typical active elements include generators, batteries, and operational
amplifiers. The three common passive elements are resistors, capacitors, and
inductors.
 The most important active elements are voltage or current sources that
generally deliver power to the circuit connected to them.
 An ideal voltage source is a circuit element that maintains a prescribed voltage
across its terminals regardless of the current flowing in those terminals.
 An ideal current source is a circuit element that maintains a prescribed current
through its terminals regardless of the voltage across those terminals.
 These circuit elements do not exist as practical devices they are idealized
models of actual voltage and current sources.
 Ideal voltage and current sources can be further described as either
independent sources or dependent sources.
14
 An independent source provides a voltage or
current in a circuit without relying on voltages
or currents elsewhere in the circuit. 𝑣𝑠 𝑖𝑠

 The circuit symbols for the ideal independent

sources are shown in Fig. 1.9. (a) (b)
Fig. 1.9 The circuit symbols for
 Note that a circle is used to represent an (a) an ideal independent voltage source &
independent source. (b) an ideal independent current source.

 A dependent or controlled source provides a

voltage or current whose value depends on the
value of a voltage or current elsewhere in the 𝑣𝑠 = 𝜇𝑣𝑥 𝑖𝑠 = 𝛼𝑣𝑥
circuit.
 The circuit symbols for the ideal dependent
(a) (c)
sources are shown in Fig. 1.10.
(a) an ideal dependent voltage-controlled voltage source (VCVS)
(b) an ideal dependent current-controlled voltage source (CCVS)
(c) an ideal dependent voltage-controlled current source (VCCS) 𝑣𝑠 = 𝜌𝑖𝑥 𝑖𝑠 = 𝛽𝑖𝑥
(d) an ideal dependent current-controlled current source (CCCS)

 Where 𝑣𝑠 and 𝑖𝑠 are supplied voltage and current (b) (d)

𝑣𝑥 and 𝑖𝑥 are controlling voltage and current Fig. 1.10 The circuit symbols for an ideal
𝜇 , 𝜌, 𝛼 and 𝛽 are multiplying constant dependent sources.

15
 Fig. 1.11 shows dependent
sources in the circuit.
 The analysis of electronic
circuits involves the use of
these controlled elements.
(a) (b)
 Such dependent sources are
observed in the electrical
equivalent models for
electronic devices such as
transistors, operational
amplifiers, and integrated
circuits. (c) (d)

Fig. 1.11 Dependent sources

Exercise 1.8. Find the power

absorbed or supplied by element 1
in Fig. E1.8.

Fig. E1.8
16
Cont.….
Electrical Resistance
 Resistance is the capacity of materials to impede the flow of current or, more
specifically, the flow of electric charge; it is measured in ohms (Ω).
 The circuit element used to model this behavior is the resistor.
 Figure 1.12 shows the circuit symbol for the resistor, with R denoting the
resistance value of the resistor.
 Certain materials offer very little opposition to the flow
of electric current and are called conductors, e.g., metals,
acids and salt solutions. Fig. 1.12 The circuit
symbol for a resistor
 Certain materials offer very high resistance to the flow of having a resistance R.
electric current and are called insulators, e.g., mica,
glass, rubber, Bakelite, etc. In b/n called semiconductor.
The resistance of a material depends on the following factors
1. It is directly proportional to its length.
2. It is inversely proportional to the area of cross section of the conductor.
3. It depends on the nature of the material.
4. It also depends on the temperature of the conductor.

17
 The factors governing the resistance of a material at a given temperature may
be summarized mathematically as follows:
𝑙
𝑅=𝜌
𝐴
 Where 𝜌 is resistivity(specific resistance) of the material in ohm-
meters[Ω-m], l is length[m] & A is a cross-sectional area[𝑚2 ]
 Georg Simon Ohm (1787–1854), a German
physicist, is credited with finding the relationship
between current and voltage for a resistor. This Fig. 1.13 Material resistance
relationship is known as Ohm’s law.
 Ohm’s law states that the voltage v across a resistor is directly proportional
to the current i flowing through the resistor.
𝑣∝𝑖
 Ohm defined the constant of proportionality for a
resistor to be the resistance, R. Thus, the equation
becomes:
𝑣 = 𝑖𝑅
 To apply Ohm’s law , we must pay careful attention
to the current direction and voltage polarity. Fig. 1.14 Passive sign
convention and ohm’s
 Apply passive sign convention as shown in fig. 1.14. law
18
Extreme cases of resistance
 A short circuit is a circuit element with resistance
approaching zero.
 An element with R = 0 is called a short circuit,
as shown in Fig. 1.15(a). For a short circuit,
𝑣 = 𝑖𝑅 = 0
 Showing that the voltage is zero but the current
could be anything. In practice, a short circuit is
usually a connecting wire assumed to be a
perfect conductor.
 An open circuit is a circuit element with resistance
approaching infinity.
 Similarly, an element with R = ∞ is known as
an open circuit, as shown in Fig. 1.15(b). For an
open circuit,
𝑣
𝑖 = lim = 0
𝑅→∞ 𝑅
Fig. 1.15
 Indicating that the current is zero though the (a) Short circuit ,
voltage could be anything. (b) Open circuit
19
 Conductance is the ability of a material to conduct electric current.
 It is the reciprocal of the resistance, symbolized by the letter G, and is
measured in siemen (S) or mho (℧).Thus,
1 𝑖
𝐺= =
𝑅 𝑣
 The reciprocal of resistivity is conductivity. It is denoted by the symbol σ
(sigma) and measured in Siemen 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 −1 (𝑆𝑚−1 ). Given by ;
1  The material having highest value of conductivity is the best
𝜍=
𝜌 conductor while having poorest conductivity is the best insulator.
The power dissipated by a resistor can be expressed in terms of R/G
2
𝑣 𝑖2
𝑃 = 𝑣𝑖 = 𝑖 2 𝑅 = 𝑃 = 𝑣𝑖 = 𝑣 2𝐺 =
𝑅 𝐺
 We should note two things from the above power equations
1. The power dissipated in a resistor is a nonlinear function of either
current or voltage.
2. Since R and G are positive quantities, the power dissipated in a resistor
is always positive. Thus, a resistor always absorbs power from the
circuit. This confirms the idea that a resistor is a passive element,
incapable of generating energy.
20
Example 1.4. What is the resistance of a 50m length of copper wire with a
radius of 0.5cm at 20°C? [ resistivity of copper is 1.72 × 10−8 𝛺𝑚]
Solution: cross-sectional area of the wire, 𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 2 = 𝜋 × 0.0052 = 7.85 ×
10−5 𝑚2 𝑙 50
Resistance of the wire, 𝑅 = 𝜌 𝐴 = 1.72 × 10−8 × 7.85×10−5 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝜴

Example 1.5. A coil consists of 2000 turns of copper wire having a cross-
sectional area of 0.8 𝑚𝑚2 . The mean length per turn is 80 cm and the
resistivity of copper is 0.02 𝜇𝛺𝑚. Find the resistance of the coil and power
absorbed by the coil when connected across 110 V dc supply.

Solution: Length of coil, l = 0.8 × 2000 = 1600m; Cross-sectional area of coil,

𝐴 = 0.8 × 10−6 𝑚2 ; Resistivity of copper, ρ = 0.02 × 10−6 Ω𝑚
𝑙 1600
Resistance of the coil, 𝑅 = 𝜌 𝐴 = 0.02 × 10−6 × 0.8×10−6 = 𝟒𝟎𝜴
𝑉2 1102
Power absorbed, P = 𝑅
= 40
= 𝟑𝟎𝟐. 𝟓𝑾

Exercise 1.9. A wire of length 1 m has a resistance of 2 ohms. What is the

resistance of second wire, whose specific resistance is double the first, if the
length of wire is 3 meters and the diameter is double of the first? [Ans. 3 Ω]
21
Cont.….
Capacitor
 Unlike resistors, which dissipate energy, capacitors and inductors do not
dissipate but store energy, which can be retrieved at a later time. For this
reason, capacitors and inductors are called storage elements.
 Any two conducting surfaces separated by an insulating material is called a
capacitor. Its purpose is to store charge (energy) in a small space(electric
field).
 The conducting surfaces are called the plates of the
capacitor and the insulating material is called the
dielectric. The dielectric may be air, oil, mica,
plastic, ceramic, or other suitable insulating
material.
 A capacitor is generally named after the dielectric
used e.g. air capacitor, paper capacitor, mica
capacitor etc.
 The capacitor may be in the form of parallel plates,
concentric cylinder or other arrangement. One of its
basic forms is the parallel-plate capacitor shown in Fig. 1.16 Basic construction of
Fig. 1.16. parallel plate capacitor
22
 When a voltage source v is connected to the capacitor, as in Fig. 1.17, the
source deposits a positive charge q on one plate and a negative charge -q on the
other. The capacitor is said to store the electric charge.
 The ability of a capacitor to store charge is known as
its capacitance. The amount of charge stored,
represented by q, is directly proportional to the applied
voltage v so that
𝑞∝𝑣

𝑞
= 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 = 𝐶 ⇒ 𝑞 = 𝐶𝑣 Fig. 1.17 A capacitor with
𝑣
applied voltage v.
 Where C, the constant of proportionality, is known as the capacitance of the
capacitor. The unit of capacitance is the farad (F).
 Capacitance is the ratio of the charge on one plate of a capacitor to the
voltage difference between the two plates, measured in farads (F).
 Alternatively, capacitance is the amount of charge stored per plate for a unit
voltage difference in a capacitor.
 Most practical capacitors range in size from picofarads(pF) to microfarads
(µF). The larger the value of C, the more charge that the capacitor can hold for
a given voltage.
23
Factors Affecting Capacitance
 It depends on the physical dimensions of the capacitor
1. The surface area of the plates; The larger the area, the greater the capacitance.
2. The spacing between the plates; The smaller the spacing, the greater the
capacitance.
3. The permittivity of the material; The higher the permittivity, the greater the
capacitance.

 For the parallel-plate capacitor shown in Fig.1.16, the capacitance is given by

𝜀𝐴 𝜀𝑟 𝜀𝑜 𝐴
𝐶= =
𝑙 𝑙
 where A is the surface area of each plate, d is the distance between the plates,
and 𝜀 & 𝜀𝑟 are the absolute permittivity & relative permittivity of the
dielectric material between the plates. 𝜀𝑜 is permittivity of free space or air, is
8.85 × 10−12 𝐹/𝑚.
 Air has been assigned a reference value of dielectric constant (or relative
permittivity) as 1. The dielectric constant of all other insulating materials is
greater than unity. The dielectric constants of materials commonly used in
capacitors range from 1 to 10.
24
 Current-voltage relationship of the capacitor
 Since the current is
𝑑𝑞
𝑖=
𝑑𝑡
 Then for a capacitor
𝑑
𝑖 = (𝐶𝑣)
𝑑𝑡
 Thus, for constant C current-voltage relationship of
capacitor will be 𝑑𝑣 Fig. 1.18 Circuit symbols for
𝑖=𝐶 capacitors: (a) fixed capacitor,
𝑑𝑡 (b) variable capacitor.
 Current-voltage relationship equation can be rewritten as
1
𝑑𝑣 = 𝑖𝑑𝑡
𝐶
 Integrating this expression from t = –∞ to some time t and assuming υ (–∞) = 0
(because the capacitor was uncharged at 𝑡 = –∞), yields
𝑡𝑜 𝑡 𝑡
1 1 1
𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑖 𝜏 𝑑𝜏 + 𝑖 𝜏 𝑑𝜏 = 𝑣 𝑡𝑜 + 𝑖 𝜏 𝑑𝜏
𝐶 –∞ 𝐶 𝑡𝑜 𝐶 𝑡𝑜
 where 𝑣(𝑡𝑜 ) is the voltage due to the charge that accumulates on the capacitor
from time t = –∞ to time t = 𝑡𝑜.
25
 Energy stored in the capacitor
 The energy stored in the capacitor can be derived from the power that is
delivered to the element. This power is given by the expression
𝑑𝑣
𝑝 𝑡 = 𝑣𝑖 = 𝐶𝑣
𝑑𝑡
 Hence, the energy stored in the capacitor is
𝑡 𝑡 𝑣(𝑡)
𝑑𝑣 1 2 𝑣(𝑡)
𝑤= 𝑝 𝜏 𝑑𝜏 = 𝐶 𝑣 𝑑𝜏 = 𝐶 𝑣𝑑𝑣 = 𝐶𝑣 |
−∞ −∞ 𝑑𝜏 𝑣(−∞) 2 𝑣(−∞)

 Thus
1 2
𝑤 = 𝐶𝑣
2
 Represent the energy stored by the capacitor, which, in turn, is equal to the
work done by the source to charge the capacitor.
 we can obtain two alternative expressions for the stored energy:

1 𝑞2
𝑤 = 𝑞𝑣 𝑤=
2 2𝐶

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 We should note the following important properties of a capacitor:
1. Let’s consider the case of a dc voltage applied across a capacitor. From i-v
relationship, We see that the current flowing through the capacitor is directly
proportional to the time rate of change of the voltage across the capacitor. A
dc voltage does not vary with time, so the current through the capacitor is
zero. Thus, we can say that:
𝑨 𝒄𝒂𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒐𝒓 𝒊𝒔 𝒂𝒏 𝒐𝒑𝒆𝒏 𝒄𝒊𝒓𝒄𝒖𝒊𝒕 𝒕𝒐 𝒅𝒄 𝒐𝒓 𝒃𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒔 𝒅𝒄.
 Capacitors are often utilized to remove or filter out an unwanted dc
voltage. In analyzing a circuit containing dc voltage sources and
capacitors, we can replace the capacitors with an open circuit and
calculate voltages and currents in the circuit.
2. What if we had an instantaneous change in the
capacitor voltage? This would correspond to
dυ /dt = ∞ =>infinite current and infinite
power which is practically impossible, Thus,
V𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑎 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡
𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠𝑙𝑦 𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑏𝑟𝑢𝑝𝑡𝑙𝑦.

Fig. 1.19 Various types of

capacitors
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Cont.….
Inductor
 An inductor is a passive circuit element that consists of a conducting wire
usually in the form of a coil. Designed to store energy in its magnetic field
(When current flows through it).
 Typical inductor and electrical symbols are shown
in Fig. 1.20. and Fig. 1.21.
 If current is allowed to pass through an inductor, it is
found that the voltage across the inductor is directly
proportional to the time rate of change of the current.
Thus, voltage-current relationship of the inductor is Fig. 1.20 Typical inductor

𝑑𝑖
𝑣=𝐿
𝑑𝑡
where L is the constant of proportionality called the
inductance of the inductor. The unit of inductance is
the henry (H).
 Inductance is the property whereby an inductor Fig. 1.21 Circuit symbols for
exhibits opposition to the change of current flowing inductors: (a) air-core, (b) iron-
through it. core, (c) variable iron-core.
Factors Affecting Inductance
 The inductance of an inductor depends on its physical dimension and
construction. Formulas for calculating the inductance of inductors of different
shapes are derived from electromagnetic theory.
 For example, for the inductor, (solenoid) shown in Fig. 1.20,
𝑁 2 𝜇𝐴
𝐿=
𝑙
where N is the number of turns, l is the length, A is the cross-sectional area of
the core, and µ is the permeability of the core.
1. Number of turns: The more turns of wire in the coil, the greater the inductance.
2. Cross-sectional area of the core: The larger the area, the greater the inductance.
3. Coil length: The shorter coil length, the greater the inductance.
4. Core material: The greater the magnetic permeability of the core, the greater the
inductance.
 The core may be made of iron, steel, plastic, or air. The terms coil and choke
are also used for inductors.

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 Following the development of the mathematical equations for the capacitor, we
find that the expression for the current in an inductor is
𝑡 𝑡
1 1
𝑖= 𝑣 𝜏 𝑑𝜏 = 𝑖 𝑡𝑜 + 𝑣 𝜏 𝑑𝜏
𝐿 −∞ 𝐿 𝑡𝑜

 where i 𝑡𝑜 is the total current for −∞ < t < 𝑡𝑜 and i(−∞) = 0.The idea of
making i(−∞) = 0 is practical and reasonable, because there must be a time in
. the past when there was no current in the inductor.
Energy stored in the inductor
 The energy stored in the inductor can be derived from the power that is
delivered to it. This power is given by the expression
𝑑𝑖
𝑝 𝑡 = 𝑣𝑖 = 𝐿𝑖
𝑑𝑡
 Hence, the energy stored in the inductor is
𝑡 𝑡 𝑖(𝑡)
𝑑𝑖 1 2 1 2
𝑤= 𝑝 𝜏 𝑑𝜏 = 𝐿 𝑖 𝑑𝜏 = 𝐿 𝑖𝑑𝑖 = 𝐿𝑖 𝑡 − 𝐿𝑖 −∞
−∞ −∞ 𝑑𝜏 𝑖(−∞) 2 2
1 2
𝑤 = 𝐿𝑖
2
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 We should note the following important properties of an inductor:
1. Let’s consider the case of a dc current flowing through an inductor. From v-i
relationship, We see that the voltage across the inductor is directly
proportional to the time rate of change of the current flowing through the
inductor. A dc current does not vary with time, so the voltage across the
inductor is zero. Thus, we can say that:
𝑨𝒏 𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓 𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒔 𝒍𝒊𝒌𝒆 𝒂 𝒔𝒉𝒐𝒓𝒕 𝒄𝒊𝒓𝒄𝒖𝒊𝒕 𝒕𝒐 𝒅𝒄
 In analyzing a circuit containing dc sources and inductors, we can replace
any inductors with short circuits and calculate voltages and currents in the
circuit.
2. What if we had an instantaneous change in
the inductor current? This would correspond
to di /dt = ∞ =>infinite voltage and infinite
power which is practically impossible, Thus,
The current through an inductor cannot change
instantaneously 𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑏𝑟𝑢𝑝𝑡𝑙𝑦.

Fig. 1.22 Various types of inductors

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