Journal of Arts and Contemporary Society ISSN: 2277-0046 Volume 9, Number 3, 2017

SOCIOLINGUISTIC STUDY OF CODE-SWITCHING AMONG

YORUBA USERS OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE IN SOUTH
WESTERN NIGERIA.

Adetuyi, Chris Ajibade1, Owaniyi Rebecca Omolola2, Adeniran

Adeola Adetomi3
1&3
Department of English and Literary Studies, Lead City University, Ibadan.
2
Department of English Education, Lead City University, Ibadan.
Email: [email protected], [email protected]

ABSTRACT
Code Switching is a widespread phenomena in bilingual communities
like Nigeria, where the speakers use their first language L1 (native
language) and their acquired language called the second language (L2)
in different settings. This paper therefore examines the
sociolinguistic study of code-switching among users of English
language as a second language in south western Nigeria. This paper
also examines various reasons for code switching; which may be to
compensate for deficiency in the other language, or to exclude a
person from conversations and to show identity that the audience
have a shared knowledge of the two languages. Data elicitation
research method with the application of random sampling technique
in recording the conversations of some Yoruba users of English
Language sampled is adopted. The paper however, recommends that,
the indigenous language should be developed, modernized and
standardized so as to widen their cognitive frames. Also that code
switching should be seen and treated as rich and a veritable
communicative tool because of its role in the process of
communication.

Keywords: Sociolinguistics, Code Switching, Diaglossia, Language,

Code Mixing, Bilingualism.

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Sociolinguistic Study of Code-Switching among Yoruba Users
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INTRODUCTION
The second half of the 20th century and the past few decades in
particular have seen an increased interest in the study of
bilingualism and multilingualism as well as all the phenomena related
to it. The definition of bilingualism has evolved greatly from the
narrow beginnings, when it applied only to speakers with native-like
fluency in two languages. Much progress has been made since then
and scholars have widened the scope of bilingualism to include those
individuals whose competence in two languages may be far from
balanced, those who use one of the languages on an irregular basis
only or just in certain domains, but not in others. By the same token,
code-switching as one of the most typical forms of bilingual
discourse is now defined in more flexible terms than it was in 1953,
when the pioneer of contact linguistics, Uriel Weinreich held the
view that the ideal bilingual switches between languages in
accordance with appropriate changes in the speech situation, but
never in an unchanged speech situation, and definitely not within a
single sentence. Code-switching today is mostly defined as the
alternate use of more than one code (i.e. language, dialect, speech
variety) in the same conversation or verbal interaction. Not all
authors view code-switching in the same way and they do not always
agree in as far as the terminology and the nature of the phenomenon
is concerned; nevertheless, code- switching remains one of the most
common conversation strategies employed by bilingual speakers and
as such a topic of fascination for all those who realize the
importance and pervasiveness of bilingualism in today's world.

This is indeed widespread: it certainly applies to the speakers in

neighboring areas between different countries, to various immigrant
settings and, with the growing mobility of the globalization era, no
doubt to many others as well. Wherever the language contacts,
there is bound to be some form of code-switching as well. Continuous
exploration of various facets of code switching thus comes as no
surprise, as it has much more than just (socio) linguistic,
anthropological and psychological implications. In the sense that the
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way people speak is an expression of their personal, social, cultural

and other identities it is not an overstatement to say that it actually
touches the majority of the world's population and, while it has been
frequently considered a stigmatized form of bilingual discourse,
there can be no doubt that learning more about the underlying rules
of code-switching can only contribute to a greater awareness and
understanding among speakers of different. One aspect of language
study that attracts much attention today is sociolinguistics. It
examines the use of language by considering social parameter. This
field is relatively wide and it encompasses a lot of variables like the
context of the situation, age, status etc. among other variables that
can be found in sociolinguistics are Code mixing, Diglossia, Code-
switching, language contact etc. There are several terms referring
to code switching, and code mixing, code-changing, and tag-
switching, situational and metaphorical code-switching. As these
terms often have various meanings attached to them, each of them,
are explained in this paper. Code-mixing and code-switching are
important aspect of sociolinguistic because of their use and status in
the society. Different reasons have been advanced by various
writers and scholars as to why people code-mix and code-switch. It
is obvious that they have both the negative and positive effects on
language use. It then becomes necessary that these concepts
related to human society and our educational system be given
adequate attention so that they are known and also used effectively
where necessarily.

In a society where individuals speak more than one language there is

usually a language that is naturally influenced by the others. Some of
the effects of multilingualism are code-mixing and code-switching,
bilingualism, diglossia etc when a speaker comes in contact with two
or more languages, he or she may start to use the languages
together even though it might not be with equal proficiency.
However these languages affect one another and often lead to code-
mixing and code-switching. A study of code-switching among peoples
of Nigeria will reveal that ease of switching from L2 (English) to
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L1 (a Nigerian language) and vice versa may vary from one ethnic
group to the other. Other than taking pride in speaking the English
language, dialectal differences could create so much discomfort
(and repetitions or explanations to make up for differences) that
using the English language becomes economical, especially for the
educated who do not have to learn the central or standard dialects
to survive. Code-mixing and code-switching occurs when elements of
two or more languages are mixed between sentences, clauses and
phrases. These concepts are products of bilingualism and they are
the focus of this paper. Some researchers have shown that students
code-mix and code-switch in order to be admitted into some social
situations. It is on this note that this paper intends to find out if
the users of English as a second language code-mix and code-switch,
and also intend to find out why, if they code-mix and code-switch. In
this paper, code-mixing and code-switching as concepts of
sociolinguistics will be given more attention.

LANGUAGE AS A CONCEPT
Language is a major means of identifying a set of people, nation or
country. Some list of linguists, define language as the system of
communication in speech and writing that is used by a people of a
particular country. The word language is derived from “lingua” the
Latin word for tongue, which rightly emphasizes the speech aspect
as basic in language. It is often called that man is a “social being” and
what, perhaps, plays the vital role in enabling man to act as a “social
being” is his ability to use language for communication. Language is
the fundamental tool for social interaction that opens up the
possibilities to convey, inform and share different ideas, thoughts,
messages, feelings and viewpoints. Ayeomoni, M.O (2006) asserts
that: The indispensability of language has been inexorably tied to
the existence of man in the society. Language plays an important role
in our lives. Adetuyi and Okediran (2004) observe that language is
the most powerful instrument of cohesion of all species. Human,
animals and plants, in fact, every living thing has its language, verbal
and nonverbal. It is presented here as a capstone of the myriad
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forms of sociocultural arrangements in nature. Skiba, R. (1997)

asserts that: “Language is intrinsic to the way we think, to the way
we construct our groups and self identities, to the way we perceive
the world and organize our social relationships and political
systems”. In the perception of Auer Peter(1998) :“language is not an
abstract construction of the learned or of dictionary-makers, but is
something arising out of the work, needs, ties, joys, affections,
tastes, of long generations of humanity, and has its basis broad and
low close to the ground”.

ENGLISH LANGUAGE IN NIGERIA

The entry of the British who were English speaking people in 1841, to
the southern and south-western parts of Nigeria, inevitably raised
the question of a language to adopt for communication between the
indigenous population and the guest, more so the European guest felt
the native languages were too “extensive and not of high quality and
never likely to become of any practical use to human beings. English
language was in the past conceived as the language of the English
people, but the notion has transcended such narrow consideration
because it has attained dominance on every facet of life in this
country. Some places like Abeokuta, Lagos and Badagry and Bendel
had a lot of English speakers and since the language was already
popular among the elites, it was soon seem as a prestigious language:
a language of success and power. Regrettably, around the period,
attention to native languages dwindled and it was relegated to the
background, also called vernacular. Students in schools were
punished for speaking them and they were unacceptable in offices
and general gatherings.

Importance of English Language in Nigeria.

English Language is the interconnecting language amongst Nigeria
from different geopolitical zones and different ethnicities; Nigeria
is a complex country of diversified language, where over three
hundred languages exist. It is obvious that with these numerous
languages to contend with in the country, there must be a unified
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language, and since English Language is a foreign and adopted

language in the country it is easily adopted as the lingual- franca in
the country. English Language is a worldwide language, and it’s the
means of communication in over 30% of all countries in the world.
English language has taken the position of an international language
in the globe. It is the language of technology; and as much as
developing countries like Nigeria that wants to meet up the world’s
technical knowhow has to look up to the developed countries for
help. . The inability to communicate in English language would
definitely make international trade impossible; as a global language
that it is, there is no country in the globe that has not reckoned
with English language, because, involvement in International trade
without the knowledge of English language will be difficult. The roles
of English Language in Nigeria cannot be overemphasized as it is an
important tool for national development. Adetuyi and Jegede(2016)
summarises the roles English play in Nigeria that “it used in most
domains of life and plays dominant role in all official transactions,
education, the media, the judiciary, science and technology. As in the
case of Yoruba speakers, one can notice that day -in, day- out,
hardly will one meet an indigene, who will not code mix or code
switch as the case may be. In most homes of the Yoruba elites, the
only welcome language is English language at the expense of their
indigenous languages, no wonder; the language is fading away
gradually.

English as a Language of Trade in Nigeria.

The arrival of the Portuguese and the missionaries in Nigeria
enhanced Nigeria trade and commerce. Also, they brought along
their language which the indigenes did not understand, which called
for interpretation and necessity of learning the language for
efficiency and effectiveness of business transaction by the
indigenes. A trade language is therefore that medium of
communication that originated as a result of the development of
trade and commerce. It is used specifically for the purpose of trade
transactions. The most important aspect of a trade language is that
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it may not be a mother tongue of any of the users. It develops as

result of the blend of two or more language involved in the business
transaction. A typical example of trade is pidgin which a variation of
English language in Nigeria. In correlation, with this study, it is
obvious that anyone who wants to be successful in trade must have
the knowledge of English language, no matter how little it is. This is,
because, nearly all the goods to be sold are labeled in English
language not in the indigenous language like Yoruba language. In
Nigeria, it is adopted as the official language, language of law,
education, diplomacy, technology and language adopted at the
national of assembly. [To be frank,, the adoption of English as the
national/ official/ lingua franca in Nigeria has immensely contributed
to the economy and political growth of the country positively.]

BILINGUALISM AS A CONCEPT
The term bilingualism can be defined as the use of two languages by
an individual or a community. That is, the existence of two languages
in the repertoire of an individual or a speech community (Lambert,
1977). The two languages exist side by side and are used by the
individual or community. It is important to note that bilingualism has
a essential characteristic of being a consequence of language in
contact which deals with the direct or indirect influence of one
language on the other. An example of bilingual community is Nigeria
where many bilingual communities exist e.g. Yoruba and English,
Hausa and English, Igbo and English and likes. The origin of
bilingualism can be traced to the following factors: colonization,
conquest, trade, and commerce, annexation and border line areas.
One of the major sources of bilingualism is colonization, which is a
type of imperialism, which can either be in the process of ruling the
indigenes of a particular community through their traditional heads,
by and large, in this style, the language and culture of the colonialist
introduced the process of education into the social, economic and
political life of the community/ nation involved e.g. as in the case of
Nigeria. The situation of conquest arises from large group expansion
when a powerful nation embarks on a particular war in order to be
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able to control the politics of a weaker nation. A good example is

that of USA which was dominated by the Indians before being
conquered by the British who later introduced the English language
as well as its culture to the society, because of this, the community
became bilingual. Adegbite (2005) defined Annexation as the
process whereby a community forcefully acquires another
community. As the annexed community is made a part of the
acquired community, the members in both communities acquire each
other languages. Annexation can also be through colonization as in
the case of Cote de’ivore. Code switching can appear on several
language levels including syntactic, phonological and morphological
levels. Studies have shown that bilinguals, when discussing their own
language abilities, will often confirm that they differ when speaking
to monolinguals versus bilinguals. They may completely avoid using
their L2 with monolinguals, while code switching when conversing
with bilinguals (Grosjean, 2001). Most importantly, however, is that
when bilingual speakers code switch they switch from language to
language with ease and fluidity, following the syntactic and semantic
rules of both languages (Muysken, 2000). An average Nigerian is
bilingual, thus, given birth to studying code switching of English
Language and an indigenous language (Yoruba)

To clarify the term bilingualism or multilingualism, Spolsky

(1998) defines a bilingual as “a person who has some functional
ability in the second language.” This may vary from a limited ability
in one or more domains, to very strong command of both languages.
Gumperz (1972) also mentions that bilingual people usually use their
own idioms for in-group communication and the common language for
their interaction and communication with outsiders. In this case, the
bilinguals have a repertoire of domain-related rules of language
choice meaning that bilinguals are able to choose which language that
he is going to use. In other words, since the members of a bilingual
community vary in the capacity of mastering the languages used in
the community, they have to be able to set a condition where they
can communicate effectively. This condition leads them to do code
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switching and code mixing. Since being multilingual means being

versed in two or more languages, Nigerians are fortunate to have
many languages and many, are versed in more than one indigenous
language with knowledge of English language which serves as both
lingual-franca and official language in Nigeria.

DIAGLOSSIA
As an aspect of study of the relationships between codes and social
structure, diglossia is an important concept in the field
of sociolinguistics. At the social level, each of the two dialects has
certain spheres of social interaction assigned to it and in the
assigned spheres it is the only socially acceptable dialect (with minor
exceptions). At the grammatical level, differences may involve
pronunciation, inflection, and/or syntax (sentence structure).
Differences can range from minor (although conspicuous) to
extreme. In many cases of diglossia, the two dialects are so
divergent that they are distinct languages as defined by linguists:
they are not mutually intelligible. Ricento (2012), an author on
language policy and political theory believes that there is always a
"socially constructed hierarchy, indexed from low to high." The
hierarchy is generally imposed by leading political figures or popular
media and is sometimes not the native language of that particular
region. The dialect that is the original mother tongue is almost
always of low prestige. Its spheres of use involve informal,
interpersonal communication: conversation in the home, among
friends, in marketplaces.

In some diglossias, this vernacular dialect is virtually unwritten.

Those who try to use it in literature may be severely criticized or
even persecuted. The other dialect is held in high esteem and is
devoted to written communication and formal spoken communication,
such as university instruction, primary education, sermons, and
speeches by government officials. It is usually not possible to
acquire proficiency in the formal, "high" dialect without formal study
of it. Thus in those diglossic societies which are also characterized
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by extreme inequality of social classes, most people are not

proficient in speaking the high dialect, and if the high dialect is
grammatically different enough, as in the case of Arabic diglossia,
these uneducated classes cannot understand most of the public
speeches that they might hear on television and radio. The high
prestige dialect (or language) tends to be the more formalised, and
its forms and vocabulary often 'filter down' into the vernacular
though often in a changed form. In many diglossic areas, there is
controversy and polarization of opinions of native speakers regarding
the relationship between the two dialects and their
respective statuses. In cases that the "high" dialect is objectively
not intelligible to those exposed only to the vernacular, some people
insist that the two dialects are nevertheless a common language. The
pioneering scholar of diglossia, Ferguson (1977), observed
that native speakers proficient in the high prestige dialect will
commonly try to avoid using the vernacular with foreigners and may
even deny its existence even though the vernacular is the only
socially appropriate one for themselves to use when speaking to
their relatives and friends. Yet another common attitude is that the
low dialect, which is everyone's native language, ought to be
abandoned in favor of the high dialect, which presently is nobody's
native language--. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diaglossia.

LANGUAGE CONTACT
Language contact is the social and linguistic phenomenon by which
speakers of different languages (or different dialects of the same
language) interact with one another, leading to a transfer of
linguistic features. Prolonged language contact generally leads to
bilingualism or multilingualism. What counts as language contact? The
mere juxtaposition of two speakers of different languages, or two
texts in different languages, is too trivial to count: unless the
speakers or the texts interact in some way, there can be no transfer
of linguistic features in either direction. Only when there is some
interaction does the possibility of a contact explanation
for synchronic variation or diachronic change arise. Throughout
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human history, most language contacts have been face to face, and
most often the people involved have a nontrivial degree of fluency in
both languages. "Minimally, in order to have what we would recognize
as 'language contact,' people must learn at least some part of two or
more distinct linguistic codes. And, in practice, 'language contact' is
really only acknowledged when one code becomes more similar to
another code as a result of that interaction" (Owaniyi 2017).

Different Types of Language-Contact Situations

"Language contact is not, of course, a homogeneous phenomenon.
Contact may occur between languages which are genetically related
or unrelated, speakers may have similar or vastly different social
structures, and patterns of multilingualism may also vary greatly. In
some cases the entire community speaks more than one variety,
while in other cases only a subset of the population is multilingual.
Lingualism may vary by age, by ethnicity, by gender, by social class,
by education level, or by one or more of a number of other factors.
In some communities there are few constraints on the situations in
which more than one language can be used, while in others there is
heavy diglossia, and each language is confined to a particular type of
social interaction. "While there a great number of different
language contact situations, a few come up frequently in areas where
linguists do fieldwork. One is dialect contact, for example between
standard varieties of a language and regional varieties. "A further
type of language-contact involves exogamous communities where
more than one language might be used within the community because
its members come from different areas. The converse of such
communities where exogamy leads to multilingualism is an
endoterogenous community which maintains its own language for the
purpose of excluding outsiders. "Finally, fieldworkers particularly
often work in endangered language communities where language
shift is in progress."

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SOCIOLINGUISTICS
Sociolinguistic studies have been largely characterized by the
exploration of the systematic relationship between language and
socio-cultural organization of speech communities. The basic
assumption behind this is that speakers functioning as members of a
particular speech community, and within the ambit of a particular
culture, have internalized not only the rules of grammar but also the
rules of appropriate speech usage. These rules which are broadly
shared by other members of the speech community are applied daily
in speech behavior (Sankoff, 1989). To this end, Chambers (1995:
15) defines sociolinguistics as the study of the social uses of
language, encompassing a multitude of possible enquiries. These
include questions about personal, stylistic, social and socio cultural
patterns of language use in society. In this regard, sociolinguistics
can be said to share the goals of the ethnography of communication
(Saville-Troike, 1982) which takes language as a socially situated
cultural form. This direction gives prominence to the analysis of the
code and the cognitive process of its users. Many scholars have
discussed sociolinguistics and have come up with several definitions
based on their individual perspectives. Hudson, R.A (1980) defines
sociolinguistics as, the study of language in relation to the society.
It is the study of language as it affects and is being affected by
social relations; it is also the study of language and linguistic
behavior as influenced by social and cultural factors.

Holmes (1992) defines sociolinguistics as, the way people use

language in different contexts, and the way people indicate aspects
of their social identity through language. Sociolinguistics is a
scientific discipline developed from the cooperation of linguistics
and sociology that investigates the social meaning of the language
system and language use, and the common set of conditions of
linguistic and social structure. Fishman (2000) defines
sociolinguistics as the study of the characteristics of language
varieties, the characteristics of their functions, and the
characteristics of their speakers as these three constantly interact,
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change and change one another within a speech community. Anything

that either examines language in its social context or investigates
social life through linguistics could be referred to as sociolinguistics.
Sociolinguistics is the study and analyses of language; its nature,
characteristics as well as its structure in relation to the society
where it functions. The focus of sociolinguistics is the effect of the
society on the language. Sociolinguistics actually does not discuss a
structure of a language, but it focuses on how a language is used, so
it could play its function well. From this statement, we can get a
description that people also face language conflicts before
sociolinguistics appears. So it is clear now that the role of
sociolinguistics is to manage a language as its functions in society, or
deals with a language as means of communication.

SPEECH COMMUNITY
Human beings are social beings who are always committed to a
certain group of people called a community. A particular community
has its own characteristics, including the way of its communication.
The concept of speech community does not simply focus on groups
that speak the same language. Rather, the concept takes as fact
that language represents, embodies, constructs and constitutes
meaningful participation in society and culture; Owaniyi (2017). It
also assumes that a mutually intelligible symbolic and ideological
communicative system must be at play among those who share
knowledge and practices about how one is meaningful across social
contexts. Of course concepts like mutual intelligibility and meaning
are complex in and of themselves. The point here is that speech
communities are also political and historical sites where social
meaning is intrinsic in talk. The study of speech communities is
central to the understanding of human language and meaning. Speech
communities are groups that share values and attitudes about
language use, varieties and practices. These communities develop
through prolonged interaction among those who operate within these
shared and recognized beliefs and value systems regarding forms
and styles of communication. While we are born with the ability to
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learn language, we do so within the cultures and societies that

frames the process of learning how to talk to others. This framing
once exclusively occurred as face-to-face interactions within
communities of speakers. Constant relocation, mass migration,
transmigration, ever-evolving technology and globalization have
transformed many societies and increased the need to provide more
detailed descriptions and theories regarding the nature of speech
communities. Spolsky (1998) also defines speech community as “all
the people who speak a single language and so share notions of what
is same or different in phonology or grammar.” Because of the
system, Gumperz (1972) further states that “the language of a
speech community can be analyzed both within the context of the
language itself and also within the broader context of social
behavior”. A group of people is not necessarily a community unless
they share a common view, activity, belief etc. Speech is not simply
sounds that come from a person’s mouth. Communities can be
defined and identified in terms of space, place, affiliation, practices
and any combination of these terms. For example, while the term
“community” is generally used in reference to a social unit larger
than a household, it can also refer to a national and inter-national
group. Online communities can exist where members are in the
thousands and there may be no physical, visual or auditory contact
among members.

Anthony Cohen (1985) believes that communities can be understood

by their boundaries, since they are identified by both their
uniqueness and difference. He argues that “a reasonable
interpretation of the word’s use would seem to imply two related
suggestions: that the members of a group of people (a) have
something in common with each other, which (b) distinguishes them
in a significant way from members of other reputed groups” (1985:
12). What is fundamental to both speech and community is that a
system of interaction and symbols is shared, learned and taught, and
that participants and members are aware they share this system
Hence, this study focuses on the Yoruba speech Community and
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English Speech Community and do a critical study of how students

freely code switch English and Yoruba languages among themselves
and the correlation with sociolinguistic.

CODE MIXING AS A CONCEPT

The terms code-mixing or language alternation are used to describe
more stable situations in which multiple languages are used without
such pragmatic effects. In studies of bilingual language
acquisition, code-mixing refers to a developmental stage during
which elements of more than one language are freely mix. Nearly all
bilingual children go through a period in which they move from one
language to another without apparent discrimination. Essien, Okon
(1995) defines code- mixing as “a language phenomenon, in which
two codes or languages are used for the same message or
communication”(272). Code-mixing generally takes place in
informal situations, usually among speakers with the same
linguistic background. It occurs at home, in parties among intimate
people etc. Code-mixing is done for specific purposes, serving both
linguistic and social functions. Essien (1995) also asserts that code-
mixing is ad hoc and strongest in areas such as the academic
disciplines, the professions, politics and the economy (281). Code-
mixing is one of the features of the use of language in Nigeria,
resulting from the complex linguistic system and biculturalism. It
involves the presence of the dominant English language (the
target language), and the indigenous Nigerian languages (the
source languages) in speech making. Code-mixing is the change
from one language to another within the same utterance or in the
same oral/written text. It is a common phenomenon in societies in
which two or more languages are used. Studies of code-mixing
enhance our understanding of the nature, processes and constraints
of language and of the relationship between language use and
individual values, communicative strategies, language attitudes and
functions within particular socio-cultural contexts. Code-mixing
leads to language hybridization that in turn gives birth to the issues
of language maintenance, shift, and desertion. Wardhaugh (2002)
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characterizes that “code mixing occurs when during conversation;

speakers “use both languages” together to the extent that they
shift from one language to the other in the course of a single
utterance”. In code-mixing sentences, pieces of one language are
used while a speaker basically using another language. Code mixing is
a mixing of two codes or languages, usually without a change of topic.
Code mixing often occurs within one sentence, one element is spoken
in language A and the rest in language B. In formal situation, the
speaker tends to mix it because there is no exact idiom in that
language, so it is necessary to use words or idioms from other
language.

CONCEPT OF CODE SWITCHING

Bilingual speakers often ‘switch codes ’, that is, move from one
language to another and back again in the course of conversations.
Sometimes, it is unclear which one they are speaking at any
particular point. The process may result in language mixing.... But in
most cases, one of the languages wins out, and the other is demoted
to subsidiary status (Silva-Corvalaán, 1996:246). Silva-Corvalaán
(1996:6) suggests that while using the subordinate language
speakers code-switch (one of five strategies employed) to lighten
the “cognitive load of having to remember and use two different
linguistic systems.” Code-switching may become an integral element
of bilingual speech when there is no functional differentiation
between two languages in contact or restrictions on their use.
Where languages in contact have significant place in the socio-
economic context, code-switching may lead to the evolving of a “new”
language, such as Nigerialish, Singlish, Franglais (Frenglish),
Hinglish, etc. But if one of the languages has a superior position in
the socio-politico-economic arrangement, there is a tendency for
people to shift from the less “significant” language to a dominant
socioeconomically viable language. Education and mobility of people
from their places of origin to other parts of the country favour
shift from local languages to English in Nigeria. Kuntze
(2000:289):“Code switching is conventionally thought of, as the
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mixing of two languages in an utterance,” since the interchanging of

languages in a given conversation could involve the use of not only
words of the languages involved but also their different
grammars and morphological features. According to Kuntze (2000)
“if the morphology and syntax are consistent with only one of the
languages, any non-native lexical item must be borrowed; if not
then, it is case of code switching” (p.289). Similarly, Fasold (1984)
considers the interchange of grammatical structures in an
utterance as code-switching, when the grammatical structure of a
clause is different from that of a preceding one. This may imply
that lexical items may belong to one language and the grammatical
structure to another. Such covert cases of code-switching are
encountered in students’ writings – deviant constructions, otherwise
meaningless, that are direct translations of mother tongue. Many
proficient speakers of English are unaware of deviant sentences and
pronunciations in the Nigerian - English repertoire (A lecturer
could pronounce the word “vulcanizer ”as “fokaniza,” just as most
people in the city say it). Therefore, first and second language
learners are acquiring models of English riddled with deviants. Code-
switching in Nigeria is a characteristic of transitional bilingualism
and may indicate a process of shift from traditional languages
to English. This is unlike Hinglish, Franglais or the situation of
Irish in Ireland where code-switching is encouraging the
“maintenance ”of an endangered language (O ’Malley-Madec,2004).

Sometimes, people consider that code switching and code mixing

have the same meaning. But actually both of them are different.
People in the bilingualism or multilingualism situation often change
language or variety of languages. This situation depends on situation
or the need for communication such as when a person uses a
standard language when he meets his guest. When he knows that,
actually, the guest is his old friend, the person switches his
standard language into informal language. This phenomenon is called
code switching. According to Crystal (1991: 59) “code switching can
be illustrated by the switch bilingual speaker may make (depending
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Sociolinguistic Study of Code-Switching among Yoruba Users
of English Language in South Western Nigeria Policy Adetuyi, Chris Ajibade, et al

on who they are talking to or where they are) between standard and
regional forms of English, between Welsh and English in parts of
Wales, or between occupational and domestics varieties.” Code
switching is general characteristics in bilingualism. Bilingual people
often switch codes from one language to other language when they
speak or write. Code switching is switching situation from one code
to another (Suwito, 1985: 68). If a speaker firstly uses code A (for
example Yoruba Language) and he changes his code to code B
(English Language), this situation is called code switching. Code
switching not only occurs in the form of language change but also
may happen in the change of the variant of language. Hymes (in
Chaer 1995: 142) says that code switching has become a common
term for alternate us of two or more languages, varieties of
language or even speech style. For example, when people switch one
code, for example, grammatical code to casual code when the
situation changes into informal situation. Code switching happens in
bilingual society. Code switching occurs when people use a particular
code and suddenly change to another code. Wardhaugh (1986: 103)
also gives definition of code switching occurs when the language
used, changes according to the situation in which the conversant find
themselves. The speakers here switch one code to another code or
they speak in one language to another language. Code-switching is a
term in linguistics referring to using more than one language or
dialect in conversation. Code-switching can occur between
sentences (inter sentential) or within a single sentence (intra
sentential). Code-switching is now considered to be a normal and
natural product of interaction between the bilingual (or multilingual)
speaker’s two languages. Code-switching can be distinguished from
other language contact phenomena such as loan translation (calques),
borrowing, pidgins and creoles, and transfer or interference.

Forms of Code Switching

There are several terms referring to code switching, which
includes code mixing, code-changing, and tag-switching, situational
and metaphorical code-switching, intersentential code switching and
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intrasentential code switching. As these terms often have various

meanings attached to them, it is necessary to first define each type,
as relates to this paper. Code switching is the general term for any
kind of language switching, especially among bilingual Latinos (‘A
ma visit those patients that were brought in last night’---We shall
visit those patients that were brought in last night.) (Fromkin &
Rodman, 1998).

Code Mixing is a brief insertion of a few words from one language

into the other (Mo n lo si SCHOOL-- ‘I ‘m going to the school’).

Code Changing is defined as a long clause(s) inserted into one

language before or after a segment of the other language (Cheng &
Butler, 1989) (Last Sunday, when I was in the church, while the
choristers were singing melodiously, lojiji okunrin kan sare wole, lo
ba bere si ni jo, kia gbogbo wa ti fo dide, it took awhile before the
pastor could calm the situation. ‘…suddenly, a man ran in, and began
to danced, every one of us fled immediately……..

Tag-Switching occurs when a speaker inserts a tag statement from

one language into another language. Examples of this in English are
taking phrases like you know, I mean, no way, etc, and then inserting
them into a Yoruba sentence, as seen in this example: ko rorun lati
tete ri ise ni ilu yi,YOU KNOW? (‘It’s hard to find work in this town,
you know’) (Romaine,1989). For example: Nigerian students use some
tag like ‘o’ (a word use to lay emphasis on statement being said) e.g I
am going ‘o’, instead of just saying that ‘I am going.’ Also, ‘sebi’ (word
use to ask question) is sometimes heard from the students even
some adult .e.g Sebi, you are coming with her? Instead of simply
saying: Are you are coming with her?

Situational Code-Switching occurs when, due to a change in setting,

conversational partners, or topic, a speaker chooses to speak in a
different language than he was originally speaking (Wardhaugh,
2006). For example, a group of Yoruba-English bilinguals engaged in a
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Sociolinguistic Study of Code-Switching among Yoruba Users
of English Language in South Western Nigeria Policy Adetuyi, Chris Ajibade, et al

conversation in Yoruba may switch to English when a monolingual

English speaker approaches and joins the conversation. This concept
also applies to shifting between registers within a language; e.g. a
teenage boy may speak Standard American English when conversing
with a teacher, but switch to a lower register of slang English when
his peers approach.

Metaphorical Code-Switching is used to emphasize certain aspects

of a statement or add meaning to relationships being expressed.
This occurs when bilinguals switch languages to imply that they
identify more with a group in a particular situation (Saville-Troike,
2003).

Inter-Sentential code switching, the language switch is done at

sentence boundaries. This is seen most often between fluent
bilingual speakers. For example: If you are late for the job
interview, ti e ba e niyen.

Intra-Sentential Code Switching, the shift is done in the middle of

a sentence, with no interruptions, hesitations or pauses indicating a
shift. The speaker is usually unaware of the shift. Different types
of switch occur within the clause level including within the word
level. Some researchers call it also code mixing. For example: She is
called ijewuru, because she can spend all her kobos on food. ---She is
called a glutton because; she can spend all her earning on food.

CONCLUSION
Concept of ‘code-mixing’ and ‘code-switching’ is an ordinary
phenomenon in the area of bilingualism. These phenomena occur
when bilinguals substitute a word or phrase from one language to
another language. Code-mixing and code-switching are widespread
phenomena in bilingual communities where speakers use their native
tongue (L1) and their second language (L2) in different domains. In
monolingual societies, people may think that code-switching and code
mixing is very unnatural. However, code-mixing and Code-switching
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 Journal of Arts and Contemporary Society Volume 9, Number 3, 2017

may influence bilinguals’ languages positively. Code switching occurs

when the bilinguals attempt to maintain order, to create solidarity
or empathy, to cover lack of experience or strategies, to rephrase
or modify their speech among many other reasons. The phenomenon
of code switching is consequently also present in second language
learning situation. For instance, during an English lesson in a school,
English and the first language which is also called frequently
switched. Many teachers of English code switching as
a communicative strategy for learners with insufficient vocabulary
resources and thus as a source of concern. Consequently, these
teachers may be intolerant of switching to the native language. At
the same time, recent studies suggest that code switching is a part
of the process of acquiring a second language and that may be an
important competence in itself in the way the speaker is able to
alternate between the two languages and employ each language for
specific purposes. The native language is (in most cases) a common
code of communication which makes it possible to level off the
linguistic advantage held by the teacher. Thus, in spite of the
existing but unwritten pedagogical rule to speak the target language,
the second language learners are aware of the possibility to retreat
to the native language if necessary. Code switching and code mixing
is widely observed especially in multilingual and multicultural
communities. Although it is not favoured by many educators, one
should have at least an understanding of the functions of switching
between the native language and the target language. Teaching in
bilingual education is a challenging activity since bilingual teachers
have to make learners comprehend the lesson. They do not only have
to be able to teach in English very well, but they also have to be able
to make lesson clearly understood by the students.

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Sociolinguistic Study of Code-Switching among Yoruba Users
of English Language in South Western Nigeria Policy Adetuyi, Chris Ajibade, et al

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