Topic 03: Elementary Analytic Functions

MA201 Mathematics III

AC, MGPP, SN, SNB

IIT Guwahati

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Topic 03: Learning Outcome

Elementary Analytic Functions

We learn
Exponential Function
Trigonometric Functions
Logarithm Function
Branch, Branch cut, Branch Point of Multiple Valued Functions
Complex Power Function
Inverse Trigonometric Functions

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 Exponential Function ez

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Exponential Function ez

The real exponential function f (x) = e x is the unique function with the following properties:
1 f (x) is a continuous real valued function for all x ∈ R with f (0) = 1.
2 f (x1 + x2 ) = f (x1 ) f (x2 ) for all x1 and x2 in R.
3 f 0 (x) = f (x) for all x ∈ R.
The complex function f (z) = ez can be characterized in much the same way.

The exponential function is defined as the solution of the differential equation f 0 (z) = f (z) for
z ∈ C with the initial value f (0) = 1.
∞ n
X z
Obtain power series solution to the IVP: f 0 (z) = f (z) for all z ∈ C with f (0) = 1 as ez = for
n=0
n!
all z ∈ C (Recall: From MA102 Power Series Solutions to ODE).

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Alternative way of defining complex exponential function

We know that the definitions and properties of following real valued functions of real variable.

ex , sin x, cos x .

We know Euler’s formula: eit = cos(t) + i sin(t) for t ∈ R.

Combining the above information, the complex exponential function ez can be defined by

ez = e x (cos(y) + i sin(y)) = e x eiy for z = x + iy ∈ C .

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Properties of Exponential Function

1 If z = x + iy then ez = e x (cos y + i sin y).

2 |ez | = e x and arg(ez ) = y where z = x + iy.
d
3 ez is analytic everywhere in C and (ez ) = ez for z ∈ C.
dz
4 e z1 +z 2 = e e for any z1 and z2 in C.
z1 z2

5 ez+2πi = ez for any z ∈ C. It is a periodic function with period 2πi.

6 ez , 0 for any z ∈ C.
7 ez = ez for all z ∈ C.
8 |ez | ≤ e|z| for all z ∈ C and equality holds if z is a non-negative real number.
∞ n
X z
9 ez = for all z ∈ C.
n=0
n!

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Mapping Properties of ez : Horizontal Lines
The function w = ez maps any

horizontal line {z = x + iy ∈ C : −∞ < x < ∞ and y = y0 }

on to the set

{w = reiy0 ∈ C : 0 < r < ∞} which is a ray θ = y0 emanating from the origin but not including
the origin.

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Mapping Properties of ez : Vertical Lines
The function w = ez maps any

vertical line {z = x + iy ∈ C : x = x0 and − ∞ < y < ∞}

on to the set

{w = e x0 eiy ∈ C : −∞ < y < ∞} which is a circle with center at the origin and radius e x0 .

{z = x + iy ∈ C : x = x0 and a < y ≤ (a + 2π)} → one-to-one →

{w = e x0 eiy ∈ C : a < y ≤ (a + 2π)}.
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Mapping Properties of ez : Rectangular Regions
The function w = ez maps any

rectangular region
{z = x + iy ∈ C : a < x < b and c < y < d} where d > (c + 2π)

on to the set

annular region between the circles |z| = ea and |z| = eb .

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Mapping Properties of ez : Left Half-planes
The function w = ez maps any

(closed) left half plane {z = x + iy ∈ C : x ≤ x0 and − ∞ < y < ∞}

on to the bounded set

{w = reiθ ∈ C : 0 < r ≤ e x0 and − ∞ < θ < ∞}

which is the disk |z| ≤ e x0 but excluding the origin.

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Mapping Properties of ez : Right Half-planes
The function w = ez maps any

right half plane {z = x + iy ∈ C : x > x0 and − ∞ < y < ∞}

on to the unbounded set

{w = reiθ ∈ C : r > e x0 and − ∞ < θ < ∞}

which is the exterior of the circle |z| = e x0

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 Trigonometric Functions

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(Complex) Cosine and Sine Functions

According to the formulas

eix = cos x + i sin x, e−ix = cos x − i sin x for all x ∈ R ,

we have
eix + e−ix eix − e−ix
cos x = and sin x = for all x ∈ R .
2 2i
Motivated by these identities, we define the complex cosine and sine functions for all complex
numbers by the formulas

eiz + e−iz eiz − e−iz

cos z = and sin z = for all z ∈ C .
2 2i

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Properties of Cosine and Sine Functions

d
cos z is analytic everywhere in C and (cos z) = − sin z for z ∈ C.
dz
d
sin z is analytic everywhere in C and (sin z) = cos z for z ∈ C.
dz
sin2 z + cos2 z = 1 for all z ∈ C.
cos(z1 + z2 ) = cos z1 cos z2 − sin z1 sin z2 for any z1 and z2 in C.
sin(z1 + z2 ) = sin z1 cos z2 + cos z1 sin z2 for any z1 and z2 in C.
cos(z + 2π) = cos z and cos(−z) = cos z for any z ∈ C. Thus, the function cos z is a periodic
function with period 2π and is an even function in C.
sin(z + 2π) = sin z and sin(−z) = − sin z for any z ∈ C. Thus, the function sin z is a periodic
function with period 2π and is an odd function in C.

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sin z is unbounded in C
If z = x + iy then sin z = sin x cosh y + i cos x sinh y.
We know that sin2 t + cos2 t = 1 and cosh2 t − sinh2 t = 1 for all t ∈ R.
q
| sin z| = sin2 x cosh2 y + cos2 x sinh2 y
q
= sin2 x cosh2 y + cos2 x (cosh2 y − 1)
q q
= cosh2 y − cos2 x = (1 + sinh2 y) − (1 − sin2 x)
q r
1
= sin x + sinh y =
2 2
(cosh 2y − cos 2x)
2
which in turn implies
| sinh y| ≤ | sin z| ≤ cosh y .
Observe that as |y| → ∞, | sinh y| → ∞ and hence | sin z| → ∞.
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cos z is unbounded in C
If z = x + iy then cos z = cos x cosh y − i sin x sinh y.
We know that sin2 t + cos2 t = 1 and cosh2 t − sinh2 t = 1 for all t ∈ R.
q
| cos z| = cos2 x cosh2 y + sin2 x sinh2 y
q
= cos2 x cosh2 y + sin2 x (cosh2 y − 1)
q q
= cosh y − sin x = (1 + sinh2 y) − (1 − cos2 x)
2 2

q r
1
= cos2 x + sinh2 y = (cosh 2y + cos 2x)
2
which in turn implies
| sinh y| ≤ | cos z| ≤ cosh y .
Observe that
as |y| → ∞, | sinh y| → ∞ and hence | cos z| → ∞.
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Zeros of cos z and sin z

cos z = 0 if and only if z = π2 + kπ where k is any integer.

The function cos z has the same zeros as its real counter part cos x.
sin z = 0 if and only if z = kπ where k is any integer.
The function sin z has the same zeros as that of the real function sin x.
∞
X (−1)n z2n
cos z = for all z ∈ C.
n=0
(2n)!
∞
X (−1)n z2n+1
sin z = for all z ∈ C.
n=0
(2n + 1)!
Note that many more identities involving with the real functions cosine and sine can be proved
for complex functions cos z and sin z.

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Mapping Properties of sin z, cos z and tan z

For mapping properties of sin z, cos z and tan z, refer

Complex Analysis for Mathematics and Engineering by J. H. Mathews and R. W. Howell.

Figures in Page No. 443 of Complex Variables and Applications by J. W. Brown and
R. V. Churchill.

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Other Trigonometric Functions
The other trigonometric functions are defined for complex variables in terms of the cosine and
sine in accordance with the real definitions as follows:

sin z cos z
tan z = , cot z = ,
cos z sin z
1 1
sec z = , cosec z = .
cos z sin z
The hyperbolic functions cosh z and sinh z, called the hyperbolic cosine and the hyperbolic sine,
respectively, are defined by the formulas:

ez + e−z ez − e−z
cosh z = and sinh z = .
2 2
Clearly, the functions cosh z and sinh z are analytic everywhere in C, and reduce to the familiar
hyperbolic functions cosh x and sinh x when z = x is real.
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Properties of Hyperbolic Sine and Cosine Functions

cosh2 z − sinh2 z = 1 for any z ∈ C.

cosh(iz) = cos z for any z ∈ C.
sinh(iz) = i sin z for any z ∈ C.
cosh(z + 2πi) = cosh z and cosh(−z) = cosh z for any z ∈ C.
sinh(z + 2πi) = sinh z and sinh(−z) = − sinh z for any z ∈ C.
If z = x + iyqthen cosh z = cosh x cos y + i sinh x sin y. Consequently,
| cosh z| = sinh2 x + cos2 y.
If z = x + iy
qthen sinh z = sinh x cos y + i cosh x sin y. Consequently,
| sinh z| = sinh2 x + sin2 y.
 
cosh z = 0 if and only if z = i k + 12 where k is any integer.
sinh z = 0 if and only if z = i kπ where k is any integer.
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Other Hyperbolic Trigonometric Functions

With cosh z and sinh z, the other hyperbolic functions are defined by

sinh z
tanh z = ,
cosh z
cosh z
coth z = ,
sinh z
1
sech z = ,
cosh z
1
cosech z = .
sinh z

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 Logarithm Functions log z

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logarithm function log z

The logarithm was defined in elementary algebra as the inverse of the exponential function.
We will follow this idea in defining the complex logarithm log z.
First of all, since ez is always non-zero, the number 0 has no logarithm. Thus, for any z , 0, the
logarithm log z is defined as

w = log z is a root of the equation ew = z .

To determine w in terms of z, write w = u + iv and z = reiθ . Then, ew = z becomes eu eiv = reiθ

and hence u = ln r and v = θ + 2kπ where ln is the usual natural logarithm for positive real
numbers and k is any integer, or simply, u = ln |z| and v = arg z. Putting this together, we obtain

log z = ln |z| + i arg z for all z ∈ C \ {0} .

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log z is a multiple valued function
Unlike the real logarithm, log z is a multiple-valued function, because arg z is multiple-valued.
log(1) = ln |1| + i arg(1) = 0 + i 2kπ = 2kπ i where k ∈ Z.

1 7→ {· · · , −2πi, 0, 2πi, · · · }

log(1.001) = ln |1.001| + i arg(1.001) = 0.000999 + i 2kπ, k ∈ Z.

1.001 7→ {· · · , 0.000999 − 2πi, 0.000999, 0.000999 + 2πi, · · · }

log(−1) = ln | − 1| + i arg(−1) = 0 + i (2k + 1)π = (2k + 1)π i where k ∈ Z.

√
log(1 + i) = ln |1 + i| + i arg(1 + i) = ln( 2) + i π4 + 2kπ = 12 ln(2) + i (8k+1)π
   
4 where k ∈ Z.
Each point z ∈ C \ {0} is mapped to a set consisting of infinite number of values by the
function log z which differ from each other by multiples of 2πi. Therefore, log z is a multiple
valued function.
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Identities involving logarithm

The function log z satisfies

log (z1 z2 ) = log z1 + log z2

!
z1
log = log z1 − log z2
z2

We must interpret the above two identities to mean that if particular values are assigned to any
two of their terms, then one can find a value of the third term so that the equation is satisfied.
For example, if z1 = z2 = −1 and we select πi to be the value of log z1 and log z2 , then the
identity is satisfied if we use the particular value 2πi for log(z1 z2 ) = log 1.

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Making multiple valued function into single valued

log(z) maps:
1 7→ {· · · , −2πi, 0, 2πi, · · · }
1.001 7→ {· · · , 0.000999 − 2πi, 0.000999, 0.000999 + 2πi, · · · }
Guess: How to pick values for a single valued function that is analytic (and hence continuous)?
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Principal Value of logarithm (Log z)

We can make the multiple valued function logarithm into a single valued function by restricting
arg z suitably.
Principal value of Logarithm: For z , 0, we define the principal value of the logarithm as
follows:
Log z = ln |z| + i Arg z where − π < Arg z ≤ π .
Since Log z jumps by 2πi as z crosses the negative real axis, it is discontinuous along the cut
θ = π. However it is continuous in the domain D = {z = reiθ : r > 0, −π < θ < π}.

It is important to observe that the principal value of the logarithm (Log z) can be defined in the
domain D = {z = reiθ : r > 0, −π < θ ≤ π} and but it is analytic in the domain
d 1
D∗ = {z = reiθ : r > 0, −π < θ < π}. Furthermore, (Log z) = for z ∈ D∗ .
dz z

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Computing Principal Value of logarithm

Find log(1) and Log(1).

log(1) = ln |1| + i arg(1) = 0 + i 2kπ = 2kπ i where k ∈ Z. Log(1) = 0.
Find log(−1) and Log(−1).
log(−1) = ln | − 1| + i arg(−1) = 0 + i (2k + 1)π = (2k + 1)π i where k ∈ Z.
Log(−1) = π i.
Find log(−i) and Log(−i).
log(−i) = ln | − i| + i arg(−i) = 0 + i (4k+3)π
2 = i (4k+3)π
2 where k ∈ Z.
Log(−i) = 2 .
−π i

Find log(1 + i) and Log(1 + i). √

log(1 + i) = ln |1 + i| + i arg(1 + i) = ln( 2) + i π4 + 2kπ =
   (8k+1)π 
1
2 ln(2) + i 4 where k ∈ Z.
Log(1 + i) = 21 ln(2) + i π4 .

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Branch, Branch Cut, Branch Point

Let f (z) be a multiple valued function defined in a set D ⊆ C.

Definition
A branch of a multiple valued function f (z) is any single valued function F(z) that is analytic in
some open, connected set (domain) D∗ ⊂ D at each point z of which the value F(z) is one of
the values of f (z).

The requirement of analyticity prevents F from taking on a random selection of the values of f .

Definition
A branch cut is a portion of a line or curve that is introduced in order to define a branch F of a
multiple valued function f (z).
Any point that is common to all branch cuts of f is called a branch point.

Note: Points on the branch cut for F are singular points of F .

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Multiple Valued Function: Branches, Branch Cuts, ...

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Principal Branch of log z

The function
Log z = ln |z| + i Arg (z) = ln(r) + i θ
for z ∈ D∗ = {z = reiθ : r > 0, −π < θ < π} is a branch of the multiple valued function log z. It is
called the principal branch of log z, since it uses the principal value of arg z.

For the principal branch, the negative real axis including the origin
L = {z = x + iy ∈ C : y = 0 and x ≤ 0} is the branch cut.

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All Branches of log z

For each α ∈ R, the single valued function

Fα (z) = Fα (reiθ ) = ln |r| + i θ

for z ∈ D∗α = {z = reiθ : r > 0, (α − 2π) < θ < α} is a branch of the multiple valued function
f (z) = log z. Note that Fα (z) is analytic in D∗α .

For the branch Fα , the ray with the angle θ = α including the origin
L = {z = reiθ ∈ C : θ = α and r > 0} ∪ {0} is the branch cut.

The origin which is common to all branch cuts is the branch point of log z.

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All Branches of log z
Branches: For each α ∈ R,
Fα (reiθ ) = ln(r) + i θ where r > 0 and (α − 2π) < θ < α .
Branch Cut: The ray θ = α including the origin.
Branch Point: The origin z = 0.

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Identities involving Principal Value of logarithm

In general, Log (z1 z2 ) , Log(z1 ) + Log(z2 ).

However,

Log (z1 z2 ) = Log(z1 ) + Log(z2 ), if <(z1 ) > 0 and <(z2 ) > 0 .

Log (z1 z2 ) = Log(z1 ) + Log(z2 ) + 2Kπ i for some K ∈ Z .

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 Complex Exponents/ Complex Powers za

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Complex Exponents/ Complex Powers

Using logarithm function, we can define complex powers of z.

Define the complex power function by

za := ea log z for all z ∈ C \ {0} ,

where a is any complex constant and log z is the complex logarithm.

Since log z is multiple valued, it follows that za is in general multiple valued.

If a is an integer, then za is single valued.
If a is a rational number (and not an integer), za takes finitely many values.
In all other cases, za takes infinitely many values.

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Examples
Find all the values of (−2)5 .
Since log(−2) = ln 2 + i(π + 2kπ) where k ∈ Z, we have
(−2)5 = exp(5 log(−2)) = e5 ln(2) ei 5(2k+1)π = −25 .
Find all the values of (−2)1/7 .
Since log(−2) = ln 2 + i(π + 2kπ) where k ∈ Z, we have
!
1 1 (2k+1)π
(−2) 1/7
= exp log(−2) = e 7 ln(2) ei 7 .
7
(2k+1)π
The distinct values of (−2)1/7 are given by 21/7 ei 7 for k = 0, 1, · · · , 6.
Find all the values of (−2)i .
Since log(−2) = ln 2 + i(π + 2kπ) where k ∈ Z, we have
(−2)i = exp(i log(−2)) = e−(2k+1)π ei ln(2)

where k ∈ Z.
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Principal Branch of za
By specifying a branch of the logarithm, we obtain a single valued branch of complex power
function from ea log z . In particular, if we choose the principal logarithm Log z, we obtain the
principal value of za as:

Principal value of za = ea Log z for z , 0 .

The principal branch of za is ea Log z and it is analytic in D∗ = {z = reiθ : r > 0, −π < θ < π}.
We have
d  a Log z  d a
e = ea Log z (a Log z) = ea Log z for z ∈ D∗ .
dz dz z

Note: We remark that the above equation can be written in the more familiar form
d a

z = a za−1 with the proviso that the branch of logarithm used in defining za is the same as
dz
the branch of the logarithm used in defining za−1 .
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Riemann Surfaces of z1/2 (Two Branches)
Two Branches of f (z) = z1/2 are:
!
+ 1
F (re ) = exp (ln(r) + i θ)
iθ
for r > 0 and − π < θ < π .
2
!
1
F (re ) = exp (ln(r) + i θ)
− iθ
for r > 0 and − 3π < θ < −π .
2

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Riemann Surfaces of z1/3 (Three Branches)

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 Inverse Trigonometric Functions

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Inverse of Sine Function: sin−1 (z)
We know that sin z is periodic function of period 2π. The domain of definition of sin z is C and
its range is infinite number of copies of C.
For each z ∈ C, find all w such that sin w = z.
sin w = z
(e − eiw −iw
)/(2i) = z
e −e iw −iw
− 2iz = 0
e 2iw
− 2ize − 1 = 0
iw
(by multiplying by eiw )
It is a quadratic in eiw and solving it, we get
p
eiw = iz + 1 − z2
 p 
w = (−i) log iz + 1 − z2
 p 
arc sin (z) = sin−1 (z) = (−i) log iz + 1 − z2 for all z ∈ C .
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For the multiple valued function sin−1 (z), first choose a branch of the square root function and
then selecting a suitable branch of the logarithm, we can show that

d  −1  1
sin (z) = √ for all z ∈ C \ {±1}
dz 1 − z2
where the choice of the square root on the right must be the same as that used in the branch
of sin−1 (z).

Similarly,
 p 
arc cos (z) = cos−1 (z) = (−i) log z + z2 − 1 for all z ∈ C

d  −1  −1
cos (z) = √ for all z ∈ C \ {±1}
dz 1 − z2

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arc tangent function

i i + z i 1 − iz
!
tan−1 (z) = log = log for z ∈ C \ {±i}
2 i−z 2 1 + iz
d  −1  1
tan (z) = for all z ∈ C \ {±i}
dz 1 + z2

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