Module 4.1 picture angle 60° wider than normal lens.

It
enables photographing a widely extended
Lens. A system of one or more pieces of glass scene from a close proximity or within a
bounded by spherical surfaces the center of which is confined area. In police work, the wide angle
at a common axis termed as lens axis. lens should be used under restricted conditions
when the photographer is able to cover the
Two Main Types of Lens According to Shape desired picture area with a longer focal length.
3. Telephoto lens or long focus lens. It has a
1. Convergent or Positive or Convex Lens. It is
longer focal length and provides a close-up
always thicker at the center and thinner at the
image of a distant subject. In contrast to the
side. Light passing through it are bended
wide angle lens, the telephoto covers a smaller
toward each other on the other side of the lens
field of view and a shallower depth of
meeting at a certain point. It produces a real
field. Production of a flat composition, far
image on the opposite side of the lens or where
objects appear enlarged while near object do
light is coming from.
not appear proportionally large.
2. Negative or Concave or Biconcave Lens. It is
always thinner at the center and thicker at the Main Groups of Camera Lens
sides. Light passing through it are bended
away from each other as if coming from a 1. Simple Miniscus Lens. This is usually found in
point. It produces a virtual image on the same simple or box camera comprises a single piece
side of the lens or where light is coming from. of glass with one side convex and other side
concave. It is uncorrected lens and therefore
Three Basic Categories of Lens suffers from inherent defects of lenses.
2. Rapid Rectilinear Lens. It is a combination of
1. Normal lens (35 mm to 70 mm). One with a
two achromatic lens with almost the same
focal length equal to the diagonal measure of
focal length. This is corrected from some kind
the image area. The normal lens is usually
of lens defect but not an astigmatism defect.
standard equipment on a camera, and is
3. Anastigmatic lens. A lens which is free from
intermediate between wide angle and
astigmatism or other types of lens defect.
telephoto lens. The picture angle is 45° up to
4. Achromatic lens. A lens which is partly
75° which corresponds to the viewing angle of
corrected from achromatic aberration.
the human eye.
5. Process lens. A saucer-corrected lens for
2. Wide angle lens. It has a shorter focal length
astigmatism. It has a better color correction
than the normal lens and as a result, it covers a
 and has the ability to produce the best the image because light of different colors is
definition of image in the photographs. brought to different focal points by a lens.
6. Fixed Focus lens. A lens used in all fixed focus 3. Astigmatism. The ability of the lens to bring
camera. Basically, it has a short focal length horizontal and vertical lines in the subject to the
and greater depth of field. same plane of focus in the image. It occurs at
the edge of image, the image appears
Special Types of Lens elliptical or cone-shaped because of an
irregularity in the curvature of the lens.
1. Macro lens. The word macro was derived from 4. Coma. It occurs when light falling obliquely on
a Greek word which means to “enlarge”. In the lens and passing through different circular
photographic terms, a macro lens is designed zones is brought to a focus at different
with extended focusing capabilities to shoot distances from the film plane. A spot of light
few inches from a subject. appears to have tail rather like a comet.
2. Zoom lens. Allows quick adjustment to give a 5. Curvature of Field. A curved, concave or
wide or narrow field of vision. It can be moved saucer shaped image of an object which has a
back and forth while other elements stay in flat surface. The image distance is different for
place which gives the same effect as if the different points of the object due to their
camera itself was moving towards or away different distance from the axis.
from the subject. 6. Distortion. Inability to produce the same
enlargement in the image formed by the
Forms of Optical Aberration edges of the lens as in that part formed by the
center of the lens.
1. Spherical aberration. The focusing at different
7. Flare or optical flare. A result of double
points of rays passing through different parts of
reflection from inner lens surfaces. It exhibits self
spherical lens. It occurs because light hitting
as a misty, hazy or cloudy semi-circular path of
the outer part of the lens is bent more sharply
light.
and comes to a focus sooner than passing
8. Mechanical flare. Bright spot on the film
through the middle. The image is blurred.
caused by stray light from worn shiny parts of
2. Chromatic aberration. The failure of different
the lens such as the stops, shutter, lens mount or
colored light rays to focus after passing through
from inside the camera itself.
a lens, focusing of light of different colors at
9. Light loss. Most corrected lenses are coated
different points resulting in a blurred image. In
with a substance which will reduce one type of
chromatic aberration, colored fringes surround
 flare and which will also increase the optics Linear polarizers
inability to transmit light, thus reducing light loss.
10. Stray light. It can be reduced or • These are used with most video and manual
eliminated by using the proper lens shade focus photo cameras.
placed on the front of the lens or shield. • They are not recommended for auto focus SLR
cameras.
Module 4.2

FILTERS
Uses of Filters in Photography
• These are discs of glass or negative which when
placed in front of the camera lens stop one or 1. Clear Filter. It is also known as window glass
another color of light from passing through in filters or optical flats, are completely
striking the film. transparent, and ideally perform no filtering of
• Usually they are used only for black and white incoming light at all. The only use of a clear
photography and even then should not be filter is to protect the front of the lens.
used for most police photography. 2. UV Filter. This is used to reduce haziness
• These are usually made of glass or gelatin created by ultraviolet light. A UV filter is mostly
materials placed in front of or before the lens. transparent to visible light, and can be left o the
• These are used to change the composition of lens for nearly all shots. UV filters are often used
available light before allowing it to strike the for lens protection, much like clear filters.
film. 3. Color Correction. A major use is to
• A transparent colored medium employed to compensate for the effects of lighting not
regulate either the color or the intensity of the balanced for the film stock’s rated color
light used to expose the film. temperature. The use of these filters has been
greatly reduced by the widespread adoption
Circular polarizers of digital photography, since color balance
problems are now often addressed with
• These are specifically designed for use with software after the image is captured, or with
auto-focus SLR cameras. camera settings as the image is captured.
• They will also work on manuals systems without
problems. 1. Color conversion filters. These are with
odd reference number which is yellowish
or orange, for lowering the color
 temperature of the light. Filters with even Types of Filters
numbers are bluish and raise the color
temperature. These set filters change a 1. Blue filters. These can be used effectively when
particular light source by the amount photographing blood in black and
required for a particular film type. white. When used outdoors, it will make the sky
2. Color compensating filters. These are or any blue objects appear white in the
best bought as gelatins of various tints photograph.
and strengths. These allow you to “fine 2. Green filters. Used in place of the blue filter for
tune” adjustments towards warmer or photographing blood often they work better
colder results due to batch variations, than the blue filter.
working conditions, non-standard light 3. Yellow filters. It can be used to photograph
sources. white cars. The details of the car will stand
2. Color subtraction filters. These work by out. Yellow filters also cut through haze to
absorbing certain colors of light, letting the certain extent and can be used with good
remaining colors through. They can be used to results to photograph an accident on a hazy
demonstrate the primary colors that make up day.
an image. They are perhaps most frequently 4. Ultraviolet filter. It is not a filter for ultraviolet
used in the printing industry for color photography rather it is a filter which screen out
separations, and again, use has diminished as the violet end of the spectrum. When placed
digital solutions have become more advanced in front of a lens, it will not only improve most of
and abundant. the police photographer’s work but it will also
3. Contrast enhancement. Filters are commonly prevent his lens from being scratched.
used in black and white photography to 5. Special 18A deep purple filter. It is the correct
manipulate contrast. For example a yellow filter for ultraviolet photography. These are
filter will enhance the contrast between clouds often used in photography; its short wavelength
and sky by darkening the latter. gives better definition of the fine details.
4. Polarizer 6. Polarizing filter. It is used to cut down light
transmission. They do no otherwise affect the
color or tonal quality of the scene. It polarizes
reflected light from a non-metallic surface such
as water and reduced reflection in the
photograph. It is the only filter than can
 increase the blue saturation in the sky in a color Special Application of Filters
photograph.
1. To introduce deliberate departures from
normal color balance either to enhance a
particular color for mood and preference of
Filter Classification the photographer.
2. For critical work with films that are not ordinary
1. contrast like infrared rays or in ultraviolet fluorescence
2. correction method.
3. haze 3. To correct undesirable overall tint of color
4. sky especially in color positive film or transparency.
5. polarizing filter 4. To modify the color balance of transparencies
which show overall tint.
5. To balance light sources used in color printing.
6. To compensate for particular absorption like in
General Types of Filters
taking photographs under water, or through
1. Light balancing filter. A filter used to change tinted windows.
the color quantity of the exposing light in order
Module 5.1
to secure proper color balance for artificial light
films. Definition of Terms
2. Color compensating filter. This is used to
change the over-all color balance of Film
photographic result obtained with color films
and to compensate for deficiencies in the • It is a cellulose tape or plate where silver salts
quality of the exposing energy. are suspended capable of recording light.
3. Neutral density filter. This filter is used when the • Its primary function is to record the image that
light is too bright to allow the use of the desired is focused upon it by the lens of the camera.
f-number or shutter speed with a particular film.
4. Polarizing filter. This is used to reduce or Photographic paper
minimize reflections on subjects like water,
glass, and highly polished surfaces. • A type of light sensitized material that produces
a positive result or photographs after
 development which is the final result of • It is a compound of silver with fluorine, chlorine,
photography. bromine or iodine crystal.
• A material suspended with emulsion. • Electric charge on the specks attract silver ions
from the neighboring silver halides, and as the
Film Speed silver ions accumulate, they become metallic
silver, causing the speck to grow halides (e.g.
• It is determined by the ASA number of the film bromide) ions at the same time migrate to the
that ranges from ASA 25, 50, 80, 100, 200, 400, surface of the silver halide crystal and are
800, 1000 or 2000. absorbed by the gelatin emulsion.
• This implies that the higher the ASA number, the
more sensitive the film is when exposed to light. Module 5.2
• Lower ASA film are very good or commonly
used in document photography purpose which Kinds of Film
is commonly used in a dim or well lighted room,
records images in split second and could 1. Ordinary film or panchromatic film. It is sensitive
record moving objects. to all colors especially blue and violet. It is
suitable for general use in the preparation of
Exposure index black and white photographs.

• It refers to the film rating or the number of the Classes of Panchromatic film
exposed film.
1. Process panchromatic film or short
Graininess scale. Low in speed and high in contrast.
2. Fine grain panchromatic film or long
• It is the granular appearance of the enlarged scale. It permits short exposures under
image. average lighting condition and has the
advantage of fine grain structure.
Silver Halide Crystals 3. High speed panchromatic film. It was
originally intended for photographing an
• It carry minute specks of metallic silver – so object or subject under adverse lighting
called sensitivity specks with amount in mass to conditions.
about 1/1, 000, 000, 000 part of the silver halide
crystal. 1. Blue sensitive film. A film especially treated that
makes it more sensitive to blue rays of light.
 2. Orthochromatic or Kodalith film. Sensitive to all 3. 120 and 220 roll film – used by medium format
colors except red. Good for fingerprint cameras.
photography or document (high contrast). 4. 4x5 inch film – sharp photographs are possible
3. Minicopy film. as it requires less magnification.
4. Polaroid film. A special type of sensitized
material that produces a photograph General Types of Emulsion
immediately after exposure.
5. Color film. All film ending COLOR. 1. Monochromatic film. Because of its limited
color sensitivity, it has no use in regular
1. Color negatives – for prints, ends in the word photography. It is used primarily for recopying.
“COLOR”. 2. Orthochromatic film. These are sensitive to the
2. Color transparency – for slides, ends in the word ultraviolet, violet, blue, green, and yellow
“CHROME”. portions of the spectrum. They do not
accurately reproduce the relative brightness of
1. Color infra-red film. A special type of film which a subject as seen by the naked eye. It is
is sensitive to infra-red radiation. It is also available in sheet film only and it is not used in
sensitive to violet and blue green. It is useful in regular police photography.
penetrating haze because of its longer 3. Panchromatic film. These are sensitive to all
wavelength. In investigative photography, it is color of the visual spectrum to assist in the
useful in laboratory analysis of questionable selection of the correct film for any kind of
documents. In the discovery of old or faded work. These are divided based on color
tattoos or areas where small objects are hidden sensitivity.
under the skin, and in the construction of
camera traps. Type A Panchromatic. It produces the various tones
2. X-ray film. A material which is sensitive to the X- and hues of the subject in tones of gray with
ray region of the electromagnetic spectrum. brightness range approximately the same as that
seen by the naked eye.
Basic Film Sizes
Type B Panchromatic. Only differs in speed. Its
1. 110 film – it is very small, not good for subclasses include:
enlargement
2. 35 mm film – use for 35 mm adjustable cameras 1. Long scale – used in portraiture, press,
and widely use today. illustrative continuous tone copy, general
outdoor and indoor photography.
 2. Short scale – generally called process pan used 3. ISO (International Standard Organization)
for copy work when complete tonal separation rating – expressed in the combined
is required. arithmetical and logarithmic values.
2. Spectral sensitivity. The different classifications
of films as according to its spectral sensitivity
are:
Black and White Film 1. Blue sensitive film – sensitive to ultraviolet
rays and blue light only.
Layers of a Black and White Film 2. Orthochromatic film – sensitive to
ultraviolet rays and blue light only.
1. Emulsion. It consists of crystals of light-sensitive
3. Panchromatic film – sensitive to ultraviolet
compound (silver nitrate) evenly distributed
radiation to blue, green and red light or
throughout plastic base material. Silver halide
all colors.
emulsions are universally sensitive to the
4. Infra-red film – sensitive to ultraviolet rays
ultraviolet radiations and some wavelengths of
to blue, green, red light and infra-red rays.
blue light. Gelatin is universally used as the
3. Granularity or graininess. This refers to the size
medium that holds the crystals in the emulsion.
of the metallic silver grains that are formed after
2. Gray or anti-halation backing. It prevents
development of an exposed film. The sizes of
whatever light that passes through the emulsion
the metallic silver grains are dependent on the
and reflected by the base back to the emulsion
emulsion speed of the film and the type of
which forms a “halo”.
developing solution that is used in
3. Base. These are made of plastic material. They
processing. The rule is: The lower the emulsion
serve as a support to the emulsion.
speed rating of the film, the finer is the grain
and conversely, the higher the emulsion speed
Characteristics of Black and White Films
rating of the film, the bigger are the
1. Emulsion speed. The different indicators of grains. Likewise, a film developer will produce
emulsion speed are as follows: a finer grain than a paper developer when
1. ASA (American Standard Association) used for film processing.
rating – expressed in arithmetical value.
2. DIN (Deutche Industri Normen) rating –
expressed in logarithmic value.
Color Films To withstand the rigors of soaking in chemical
solution and water during processing and washing,
It consists of seven (7) layers. A multi-layer emulsion as well as the variety of degree in humidity and
coated on same support or base. The top emulsion temperature, the base is made of wood pulp.
is sensitive to blue light only. Since green and red
light passes through it without effect, the blue light Characteristics of a photographic paper
alone makes the exposure. A yellow filter layer
above the middle emulsion absorbs and unused blue 1. Emulsion speed
light and prevents it from reaching the two lower 1. chloride paper – has a slow speed and is
emulsion layer. The yellow color in the filter layer has suited for contact printing
no permanent effect on the appearance of the film 2. bromide paper – has a fast speed and is
because it is destroyed during processing. The recommended for projection printing or
middle emulsion is sensitive to green light but not to enlarging
red light. 3. chloro-bromide paper – a multi-speed
and could be used in both contact
Like all emulsions, the middle layer is also sensitive to printing and enlarging
blue light but the blue light cannot reach it. The 2. Exposure and development latitude
exposure in this layer is therefore made by green light 1. Exposure latitude – generally,
alone. The bottom layer is sensitive to red light but its photographic papers do not have wide
sensitivity to green light so low as to be exposure latitude so exposure must be
negligible. Hence, the exposure in this layer is made critical at all times.
by red light alone. These three emulsion layers are 2. Development latitude – papers that do
coated on a film base which has an anti-halation not change appreciable in contrast and
backing. image tone with reasonable variations in
development has good latitude. For best
Module 5.3 quality, the developing time should be as
near as those prescribed by the
Photographic Papers manufacturer.
3. Contrast grade or range. In black and white
Modern photographic papers are basically printing, it is often necessary to adjust the paper
composed of a light sensitive coating (emulsion) on contrast so they can yield a natural scene result
a paper base or support. The emulsion suspended from negatives with density range that are
on a gelatin is generally made of silver halide salts. either too low or too high. Some papers are
 available in several contrast range or grade the photographic processes of the tones and colors
while others have built-in contrast control of the original subject.
effected by the use of a filter on the enlarging
lens or one the enlarger light source. Photographic papers both colored and black
4. Physical characteristics and white are supplied in rolls or sheet in varying
1. Surfaces of photographic papers vary in lengths or sizes.
surface texture or degrees gloss or
sheen. They are the glossy and smooth,
semi matte or silk, and the matte or the
rough surface.
2. Base weight or thickness. Under this
category, we have the light weight, single
weight, medium weight, and the double
weight.
3. Color maybe “cold” or white with a very
slight blue cast, and the “warm” or
“cream” where the white light has a slight
yellow brown line.

Photographic papers for color printing

These are essentially similar to the film used in

Printing a negative in complementary colors