Numerical Relays
Introduction to Numerical protection:
➢ The modern power system which have grown both size and complexity require fast, accurate
and reliable protective schemes to protect major equipment and to maintain the system
stability.
➢ The conventional protective relays are either of electromechanical or static type.
➢ The electromechanical relays have several drawbacks such as
1. High burden on instrument transformer
2. High operating time
3. Contact problems
➢ Even though static relays have inherent advantages like
a. Compactness
b. Lower burden
c. Less maintenance
d. High speed
➢ They suffer from a number of disadvantages like
a. Inflexibility
b. Inadaptability to changing system conditions
c. Complexity
➢ Therefore, increasing interest have been shown in the use of online digital computers for
protection.
➢ The concept of numerical protection employing computers which show much promise in
providing improved performance has evolved during the past few decades.
➢ The conventional relays of electromechanical and static type had no significant drawbacks in
their protection functions
➢ But the additional features offered by the microprocessor technologies have encouraged the
evolution of numerical relays that introduced many changes in the power industry
➢ Economics and additional functionability were the main factors that forced the power industry
to accept and cope with the changes brought about by microprocessor, microcontroller based
numerical relays.
Numerical Relays
The numerical relay is the latest development in the area of power system protection and it differs
from conventional relays both in design and methods of operation.
It has been developed because of the tremendous advancement in VLSI (very large scale integration)
and computer hardware technology.
It is based on numerical i.e digital devices such as:
Microprocessors, Microcontrollers, Digital signal processors
This relay acquires sequential samples of the ac quantities in numeric data through the data
acquisition system (DAS).
Then the data is processed numerically using a relaying algorithm to calculate the fault discriminants
and make trip decisions.
In a numerical relay, the analog current and voltage signals monitored through primary transducers
are conditioned, sampled at specific instants of time and converted to digital form for
• Numerical manipulation
• Analysis
• Display
• Recording
This process provides a flexible and very reliable functions, thereby enabling the same basic hardware
units to be used for almost any kind of relaying scheme.
Thus a numerical relay has an additional entity, software which runs in the background and makes the
relay functional.
Hardware is more or less same in all the numerical relays.
The software used in the numerical relay depends upon the processor used and type of the relay.
Hence with the advent of numerical relay depends upon the processor used and the type of relay.
The evolution of the modern numerical relay has thus taken place from a torque balancing device to a
programmable information processor.
Block diagram of the typical numerical relay is as shown in the figure.
This relay samples voltage and current which at the power system level are in the range of hundreds’ of
kilovolts and kilo amperes respectively.
The level of these signals are reduced by voltage and current transformers.
The outputs of the transformers are applied to the signal conditioner.
Signal conditioner is one of the important components of the data acquisition system DAS.
It brings the real world signals into digitizer.
The signal conditioner performs following functions:
• Electrically isolates relay from the power system
• Reduces the level of input voltages
• Converts current into equivalent voltages
• Removes high frequency component from signal using the analog filters.
The relay is isolated from the power system by using auxiliary transformers which receive analog signals
and reduce their levels to make them suitable for use in the relays
Since A/D converters accept voltage signals only, the current signals are converted into proportional
voltage signals by using I/V converters or by passing through precision shunt resistors.
Anti –aliasing filters which are low pass filter are used to prevent aliasing from affecting relay functions.
The output of the signal conditioner is applied to the analog interface which include following circuits
• Sample and hold circuit (S/H )
• Analog multiplexers
• Analog to digital A/D converters
These components sample the reduced level signals and convert their analog levels to equivalent
numbers that are stored in memory.
The status of the isolator and circuit breaker in the power system is provided to the relay via digital
input subsystem and are read into the microcontroller/ microcomputer memory.
After quantization by the A/D converter, analog electrical signals are represented by discrete values of
the samples taken at specified instants of time.
The signal in the form of discrete numbers are processed by a relaying algorithm using numerical
methods.
A relaying algorithm which possesses the acquired information is a part of the software.
The algorithm uses signal processing technique to estimate the real and imaginary components of the
fundamental frequency voltage and current phasors.
The some cases the frequency of the system is also measured.
These measurement are used to calculate the other quantities such as impedance.
The computed quantities are compared with pre-specified threshold to decide whether the power
system is experiencing fault or not.
If there is fault in the power system, the relay sends the trip command to the circuit breaker for isolating
the faulty zones of the power system through the digital output subsystem.
Advantages of Numerical Relays:
1. Compactness:
Numerical relays are compact in size and reliable in operation
2. Flexibility
• Numerical relays offer flexibility because of programmability.
• Some general purpose hard ware can be used to perform a variety of protection
functions with the change of stored program only.
• Drastic addition and / or alternation of the protection logic hardly require any hardware
replacement
3. Adaptive capability:
• Numerical relays can adapt themselves to charging system conditions by monitoring the
operating quantities from the digital inputs of the relay.
• The behavior of the processor can be made to change automatically depending on the
external conditions which change with time.
• The basis of this change can be either local information available to the processor or an
external source such as data link or the central computer system.
4. Multiple Functions:
• Numerical relays provide many functions that were not available in electromechanical
or static designs.
• These features include
➢ Multiple setting groups
➢ Programmable logic
➢ Adaptive logic
➢ Self-monitoring
➢ Self-testing
➢ Sequence of events recording
➢ Oscillography
➢ Ability to connect with other relays
➢ Control computers
• While these features make relay powerful, they also introduce factors such as
complexity that were not associated with the earlier technologies.
5. Detailed Logic and Mathematical capabilities:
• The programmer in the numerical relay schemes is free to provide almost any
characteristic within the limits of his understanding.
• Specific protection problems can be broken down into fine details and handled
separately.
• In addition measurement problem can be stated as mathematical equation and directly
implemented.
6. Economic Benefits:
The cost per function of the numerical relays is lower as compared to their economical and
static counterparts.
7. Self-Monitoring and self-testing :
The perform self-monitoring and self-testing features reduce need for routine maintenance.
8. Low Burden on Instrument Transformer:
Numerical relays impose significantly less burden on the CT’s and PT’s.
Disadvantages:
1. Short life cycle
2. Susceptibility to transients
3. Setting and testing complexities
Numerical over current protection
Overcurrent protection is simplest form of power system protection, widely used for the protection of
distribution lines, motors and power equipment.
Overcurrent relay operates when the current in any circuit exceeds a certain predetermined value. The
value of predetermined current above which the overcurrent relay operates is known as its pick up
value.
A numerical overcurrent relay acquires sequential samples of the current in numeric (digital) data form
through the Data Acquisition system (DAS), and processes the data numerically using a numerical
filtering algorithm to extract the fundamental frequency component of the current and make trip
decision. In order to make the trip decision, the relay compares the fundamental frequency component
of the current (I) with the pick-up setting and computes the plug setting multiplier (PSM). If the
fundamental frequency component of the fault current exceeds the pickup current, the relay issues a
trip signal to the circuit breaker.
The numerical filtering algorithm can be used for extraction of the fundamental frequency component
of the fault current. The fundamental Fourier sine and cosine coefficients are represented as real and
imaginary components Is and Icrespectively.
I = Is+ Ic
The operating time can be computed by using time current characteristic
K and n are characteristic index value.
The block diagram of a typical numerical overcurrent relay is shown in figure below:
Fig: Block diagram of Numerical overcurrent relay
The current derived from the current transformer (CT) is applied to the signal conditioner for electrical
isolation of the relay from the power system, conversion of current signal into proportional voltage
signal and removed of high frequency components from the signals using analog low pass filter. The
output of the signal conditioner is applied to the analog interface which include S/H circuit, analog
multiplexer and A/D converter (ADC).
After quantization by the A/D converter, along current (i.e voltage proportional to current) is
represented by discrete values of the samples taken at specified instants of time. The current in the
form of discrete numbers is processed by numerical filtering algorithm which is a part of the software.
The algorithm uses signal processing technique to estimate the real and imaginary components of the
fundamental frequency current phasor. The measured value of the current is compared with the pick-up
value to decide whether there is a fault or not. If there is a fault in any element of the power system, the
relay sends a trip command to circuit breaker for isolating the faulty element.
Numerical Distance Protection
Distance protection is a widely used protective scheme for the protection of transmission and sub
transmission lines. It employs a number of distance relays which measure the impedance or some
components of the line impedance at the relay location. Since the measured quantity is proportional to
the distance between the relay location and the fault point, the measuring relay is called a distance
relay.
A distance protection scheme which incorporates numerical distance relays for the protection of lines is
known as a numerical distance protection scheme or numerical distance protection.
The block diagram of typical numerical distance relay is shown in figure below:
Figure: Block diagram of typical numerical distance relay.
In a numerical distance relay, the analog voltage and current signals monitored through primary
transducers (VTs and CTs) are conditioned, sampled at specified instants of time and converted to digital
form for numerical manipulation, analysis display and recording. The voltage and current signals in the
form of discrete numbers are processed by a numerical filtering algorithm to extract the fundamental
frequency components of the voltage and current signals ad make trip decision.
The extraction of the fundamental frequency components from the complex post fault voltage and
current signals that contain transient dc offset component and harmonic frequency components, in
addition to the power frequency fundamental components, is essential because the impedance of a
linear system is defined in terms of the fundamental frequency voltage and current sinusoidal waves.
The numerical filtering algorithms can be used for extraction of the fundamental frequency components
of voltage and current signals. The extracted fundamental frequency obtain in form of Fourier sine and
cosine coefficient for voltage and current signals are computed by using any numerical filtering
algorithm. The computed signals are in form of real and imaginary components as R and X of apparent
impedance of line, the relay examine whether the fault point lies within the defined protective zone or
not. If the fault point lies in the protective zone of the relay, the relay issues a trip signal to the circuit
breaker.
Numerical Differential Protection
Differential protection is one of the most sensitive and effective methods of protection of electrical
equipment against internal faults. It is based on current comparison. It makes use of the fact that any
internal fault in an electrical equipment would cause the current entering it, to be different from that
leaving it.
A differential protection scheme which incorporates numerical differential relays for the protection of
electrical equipment is known as numerical differential protection scheme or numerical differential
protection. In a numerical differential relay, the current signals I1s and I2s monitored through current
transformer CT1 and CT2 are conditioned by the signal conditioner, sampled at specified instants of time
and converted to digital form for numerical manipulation.
The signal conditioner electrically isolates the relay from the power system, reduces the level of the
current signals to make them suitable for use in the relay, converts current signals into proportional
voltage signals and removes high frequency components from signals using analog low pass filters. The
output of the signal conditioner is applied to the analog interface which includes S/H circuit, analog
multiplexer and A/D converter (ADC).
After quantization by the ADC analog current I1s and I2s are represented by discrete values of sample
taken at specified instants of time. The currents in the form of discrete numbers are processed by a
numerical filtering algorithm to extract the fundamental frequency component of the current signals I1s
and I2s and make trip decision.
The numerical filtering algorithms can be used for extraction of the fundamental frequency components
of the current I1s and I2s. Using the fundamental frequency components of I1s and I2s, the relay
examines whether the operating condition of the relay is satisfied or not. If the operating condition is
satisfied, the relay issues a trip signal to the circuit breaker.
