LIST OF EXPERIMENTS

CONTROL SYSTEM

1.Study of open-loop & closed-loop control system.

2. Time response of second order control system.

3. To reduce linear systems block diagram using series, parallel and

feedback configuration using MATLAB.

4. To simulate transfer function and pole- zero mapping using SIMULINK.

5. To simulate unit ramp response of a control system using SIMULINK

6. To simulate step response of a control system using MATLAB.

7. To obtain the Root locus plot for the given system using MATLAB

8. To obtain the Nyquist plot for the given system using MATLAB.

9. To obtain the bode plot for the given system using MATLAB.

10. To Transform a given Transfer Function to State Space Model and from
State Space Model to Transfer Function using MATLAB.
 EXPERIMENT NO. 1

AIM: Study of open-loop & closed-loop control system.

APPARATUS: Kit, CRO, Connecting Chords.

THEORY:

CLOSED-LOOP CONTROL SYSTEM:

INPUT OUTPU

CONTROLL PROCESS

MEASURING

A closed- loop control system is one in which the output signal has a direct effect upon the control
action. That is, closed-loop control systems are feedback control systems. The actuating error signal,
which is the offences between the input signal and feedback signal, (which may be the output signal
or a function of the output signal and its derivatives), is fed to the controller so as to reduce the error
and bring the output of the system to a desired value, In other words, the term "closed-loop" implies
the use of feedback action in order to reduce system error. The input-output relationship of the
closed-loop control system is shown in block diagram.In automatic feedback or automatic closed-
loop temperature control system, the position of the dial on the automatic controller nets the desired
temperature. The output, the actual temperature of the hot water, which is measured by the
temperature measuring device, is compared with the desired temperature in order to generate an
actuating error signal, In doing this, output temperature i9s conversed to the same units as the input
(set point) by a transducer. (A transducer is a device which converts a signal from one form into
another). The error signal produced in the automatic controller is amplified, and the output of the
controller is amplified and the output of the controller is sent to the control valve in order to change
the valve opening for steam supply so as to correct the actual water temperature. If there is no error,
no change in the valve opening is necessary.

Numerous closed-loop control system may to found in industry and in homos. Some
examples are – all the servomechanisms, most process control systems, house hold refrigerators,
automatic hot water healers, and automatic home healing systems with thermostatic control.
DIAGRAM

TRANSFER FUNCTION OF CLOSED LOOP CONTROL SYSTEM:

Consider the closed loop system shown as under.

DIAGRAM

Where R (S) ------- Input to the system

Y (S) ------- Output of the system.

E (S) ------- Error signal at any time t.

G (S) ------- Forward transfer function of the loop.

H (S) ------- Feedback transfer function of the loop.

Then E (s) = R (S) – B (S)

= R(S) – H(S). Y (S)

But Y(S) = E(S). G (S)

Y(S)
i.e. ------------- = R (S) – H (S). Y (S)
G (S)

Y (S) G (S)
Or ---------- = --------------------------- ......................... (A)
G (S) 1+ H (S) G (S)

Equation A is the transfer function of closed loop control system.

OPEN LOOP CONTROL SYSTEM :

Open – loop control systems are control systems in which the output has no effect upon the
control action. That is, in an open loop control system, the output is neither measured nor fed back
for comparison with the input. Figure shows the input output relationship of a such system. A
practical example is a washing machine, soaking, washing and rinsing in the washing machine are
operated on the time basis. The machine does not measure the output signal, namely, the cleanliness
of the clothes.

In any open – loop control system the output is not compared with the reference input.
Hence, for each reference input, there corresponds a fixed operating condition. Thus, the accuracy of
the system depends, on the calibration. (open – loop control systems must be carefully calibrated in
order to be useful). In the presence of disturbances an open – loop control system will not perform
the desired task. Open – loop control can be used in practice only if the relationship between the
input and output is known and if there are neither internal nor external disturbances. Clearly such
systems are not feedback control systems. Note that any control system which operates on a time
basis is open – loop. For example, traffic control by means of signals operated on a time basis is
another instance of open – loop control.

INPUT plant or process OUTPUT

CONTROLLER
CLOSED LOOP VERSUS OPEN – LOOP CONTROL SYSTEMS:

1)The closed – loop control system is that the use of feedback makes the system response relatively
insensitive to external disturbances and internal variations in system parameters, It is thus possible to
use relatively inaccurate and inexpensive components to obtain the accurate control of a given plant,
where as this is impossible in the open – loop case.

2)From the point of view of stability of the open – loop control system is easier to build since
stability is not a major problem. On the other hand, stability is always a major problem in the closed
– loop control system since it may tend to over correct errors which may cause oscillations of
constant or changing amplitude.

3)It should be emphasized that for systems in which the inputs are known ahead of time and in
which there are no disturbances it is advisable to use open – loop control. Closed – loop control
systems have advantages only when unpredictable disturbances and / or unpredictable variations in
system components are present. Note that the output power range partially determines the cost,
weight and size of a servomechanism (or capital investment, manpower etc in business systems).

In order to decrease the required power of a system, open – loop control may be used where
applicable. A proper combination of open-loop and closed-loop controls is usually less expensive
and will give satisfactory overall system performance.

PROCEDURE:

(A) MEASUREMENT OF OPEN LOOP GAIN:

1.Make power on to the unit.

2.Connect SP to Open Loop Controller G (S) with K1 ( or K2) gain by connecting SP socket to K1
(or K2) socket.

3.Set SP to value of 4 volt and measure the output.

4.Change the value of SP and take 2 –3 more readings.

OUTPUT
5.Calculate Open Loop gain G (S) = --------------- = K
INPUT

6.Change Open Loop gain to K2 by connecting SP to K2 & repeats steps 2 to 5.

SP INPUT K 1 g (s) Y (S)

(B) MEASUREMENT OF FEEDBACK GAIN:

(7) Connect SP to input K1 (or K2) of H (S)

Set SP to say 4 volt.
Measure the voltage at input & output of H (S)

OUTPUT OF H (S)
Feedback gain H(S) = --------------------
INPUT TO H (S)

(C) CLOSED LOOP CONTROL:

(8)Connect SP to summing amplifier at R (S).

Connect E(S) to K1 of G (S) (for gain = 1)

Connect Z point as input at K1 to H(S) (feedback gain = 1)

Connect output of H (S) to summing amplifier by shorting points X1 & X2.

Set SP to say 4 V and measure output voltage Y (S).

Tabulate the result and compare observed value and calculated value.

K1

K1
X1 X2
OBSERVATION TABLE:-

Gain Without feed Back G (s) With feed back H(s)

K1

K2

OPEN LOOP SYSTEM:-

With out disturbance With disturbance

Input

Output

K1

CLOSED LOOP SYSTEM:-

With out disturbance With disturbance

Input

Output

K1

(9) Change the gain of forward controller G(S) and/ or Feedback controller H (S) and note the
input & output voltage. Tabulate the result.

(D) EFFECT OF LOAD DISTURBANCE:

Adjust load disturbance to say + 1 V.

Connect Load disturbance to system by shorting points L1 & L2.

Note the output voltage for closed loop system for disturbance of + 1 V.

Now make connections for open loop controller as in part A and short points L1 and L2 for
providing load disturbance.
Note the effect of + 1 volt load disturbance on output of open loop controller.

Compare the percentage change in output for given load disturbance for open-loop and closed-loop.
Comment on the result.

RESULT: Forward gain =

Feedback gain =
 EXPERIMENT NO -2

TITLE: Time response of second order control system

OBJECT: Find out the response of step input for second order system.

EQUIPMENT: CRO, Function generator, RLC network representing second order system.

THEORY: RLC network shown in figure 1 represents a second order system. When step input is
applied to series combination of RLC network.
And output is obtained across capacitor. This output varies as the response of a second order
system. From figure 1:

Ei(s) = (R+SL+ 1/CS) I(s)

= (LCS2 + RCS + 1) I(s)/CS
And Eo(s) = (1/CS) I(s)
Therefore;
Eo (s) = 1
Ei (s) (LCS 2 + RCS + 1 )

= 1/LC
2
(S + (R/L) S + 1/LC)
Comparing with standard second order transfer function:

Eo (s) = W n2
Ei (s) = (S2 + 2WnS + Wn2 )
Natural frequency of oscillation:

Wn = 1

LC

Damping Ratio (  ) = R C
2 L

Maximum Overshoot = e - 

1- 

Damped frequency of oscillations

 Wd=Wn 1- 2
% Overshoot = Vomax - Vi *100
Vi
To determine the output supply step voltage at input terminals of RLC network.
Observe the output response on CRO. Damping and Natural frequency of oscillation can be varied
by change of R and C. Take the observations for <1, =1 &, >1 and draw the waveforms. Observe
the waveform for RL, RC, and LC circuit also

OBSERVATIONS:
1. R = 10 K ohms variable.
2. L = 2.98 Henry  3H.
3. c = 0. 25  farad.
tr  Time corresponding to output becoming equal to input for first time .
tp  Time corresponding to maximum overshoot .
ts  Setting time .

REPORT: Show the waveform across R, L and C.

QUESTIONS :
1. What is the time response when output is taken across ‘ R in a RLC circuit.
2. Draw the root locations in s plane.
3. Draw the time response when  = 0 &  > 1.
 EXPERIMENT NO: 3

AIM: To reduce linear systems block diagram using series, parallel and feedback
configuration using MATLAB.

SOFTWARE USED: MATLAB Simulink

THEORY:
Series configuration: If the two blocks are connected as shown below then the blocks are said
to be in series. It would like multiplying two transfer functions. The MATLAB command for
such configuration is “series”.

The series command is implemented as shown below:

Y s 
T s  
U s 
 sys G 1 s   sys1 G 2 s   sys2

Parallel configuration: If the two blocks are connected as shown below then the blocks are said
to be in parallel. It would like adding two transfer functions.

The

MATLAB command for implementing a parallel

configuration is “parallel” as shown below:
 Y s 
T s    sys G 1 s   sys 1 G 2 s   sys2
U s 

Feedback configuration: If the blocks are connected as shown below then the blocks are said to
be in feedback. Notice that in the feedback there is no transfer function H(s) defined. When not
specified, H(s) is unity. Such a system is said to be a unity feedback system.

The MATLAB command for implementing a

feedback system is “feedback” as shown

Y s 
T s    sys Gc sGs  sys1
U s 

below:
When H(s) is non-unity or specified, such a system is said to be a non-unity feedback system as
shown below:

A non-unity feedback system is implemented in

MATLAB using the same “feedback” command as
shown:

Y s 
T s    sys G s   sys1 H s   sys 2 +1- positive feedback
U s  -1-negative feedback (by default)

[sys]= feedback (sys1,sys2,sign)

Example 1: Given a unity feedback system as shown in the figure, obtain the overall transfer
function using MATLAB.

s 1 G s  
1
G c s 
s2 500s 2

Result is:

Example 2: Given a non-unity feedback system as shown in the figure, obtain the overall
transfer function using MATLAB:

1
G s  
500s 2

The result is as shown below:

s 1
H s  
s2

Exercise 1: For the following multi-loop feedback system, obtain the closed loop transfer
function.
 1 1 s2  1 s 1 s 1
where
G1 
s  10  ;
G2 
s  1 ;
G3 

s 2  4s  4 ; G4 
s  6  ;
H1 
s  2 ; H 2  2 ; H 3  1
 EXPERIMENT NO: 4

AIM: To simulate transfer function and pole- zero mapping using SIMULINK.
SOFTWARE USED: MATLAB Simulink
TRANSFER FUNCTION:
The transfer function of a control system can be defined as the ratio of Laplace transform of output
to the Laplace transform of the input, assuming initial conditions to be zero. That is,

where C(s), n(s), R(s) and d(s) are the Laplace transforms of numerator & denominator polynomials
respectively.

In MATLAB, the ‘tf’ command is used to represent the transfer function as follows:
sys = tf (num, den)
It creates a continuous-time transfer function with numerator and denominator specified by num and
den.
Another way of creating a transfer function is by using the zero-pole-gain model, in order to create a
transfer function in factored form. The advantage of this model in comparison to the previous one is
that it gives us a straight-forward way of finding the zeros and the poles of any system. A zero-pole-
gain model has the following form:

where k= gain of the system. For a zero-pole-gain model

sys = zpk(z,p,k)
where variable z and p are arrays, containing the zeros and the poles of the system respectively and
variable k is the gain, which is a constant. In case of no zeros in transfer function, just input z = [ ].
Following commands can also be used:
[z,p,k] = tf2zp(num,den);
sys = zpk(z,p,k)
Command tf2zp(num,den) takes as input the numerator and the denominator of the transfer function
and returns variables z,p,k containing the zeros, poles and the gain respectively. Then, we simply
take the factored form with the command zpk(z,p,k).
On the other hand, let variable sys contain a transfer function created by zpk(z,p,k). In order to
convert to the tf model (polynomial form) we can use
 sys tf = tf(sys)
Alternatively,
[num,den] = zp2tf(z,p,k);
sys = tf(num,den)

Commands used for the transfer function to pole-zero conversion and vice versa
Command Description
[z,p,k]=tf2zp (num,den) Convert transfer function to pole- zero
[num, den]= zp2tf (z,p,k) Convert pole- zero to transfer function

Problem:
1. Create the following transfer function using tf(num,den) and then convert from tf model
(polynomial form) to zpk model (factored form).

Solution:
num = [1 1];
den = [1 3 1];
sys = tf(num,den) % Create transfer function
syszpk = zpk(sys) % Convert to zpk model
Program Result:
sys =
s+1
-------------
s^2 + 3 s + 1
Continuous-time transfer function.

syszpk =
(s+1)
-------------------
(s+2.618) (s+0.382)

Continuous-time zero/pole/gain model.

2. Create the following transfer function using zpk(z,p,k) and then convert from zpk model to tf
model.

Solution:
z = -2;
p = [-1 -1 -3];
k = 1;
sys = zpk(z,p,k) % Create zpk model
systf = tf(sys) % Convert to tf model
 Else: A=zpk([-2],[-1 -1 -3],1)
B=tf(A)

Program Result:
sys =
(s+2)
-------------
(s+1)^2 (s+3)

Continuous-time zero/pole/gain model.

systf =
s+2
---------------------
s^3 + 5 s^2 + 7 s + 3

Continuous-time transfer function.

POLE ZERO MAPPING:

Some of the most basic characteristics that play an important role in system analysis are of course
the poles and the zeros of a system. In order to obtain these, one can use the following commands:

pole(sys) Poles of the transfer function

zero(sys) Zeros of the transfer function
Returns the natural frequency and damping factor of each pole in
[w,z,p]=damp(sys)
the vector p
pzmap(sys) Pole-Zero map of the transfer function

Problem:
Find the poles and zeros of the following transfer function and plot them in the Complex plane.

Solution:
z=[-2]; % This is the same as z=-2
p=[-1 -1 -3];
k=1;
sys=zpk(z,p,k) % Command tf(sys) can also be used
pole(sys); % in order to obtain the poles
zero(sys); % in order to obtain the zeros
pzmap(sys); grid
Program Result:
sys =
(s+2)
-------------
 (s+1)^2 (s+3)
Continuous-time zero/pole/gain model.

Pole Zero Mapping

 EXPERIMENT NO: 5

AIM: To simulate unit ramp response of a control system using MATLAB.

SOFTWARE USED: MATLAB

THEORY:
MATLAB doesn’t have a ramp command like ‘step’ command. But, there is a relation between step
and ramp functions. The Laplace transform of ramp function is 1/s 2, which can be obtained by
dividing the Laplace transform of step function by ‘s’. Hence the ramp response can be obtained by
dividing the given T.F. by ‘s’ and then evaluating it using “step’ function.

PROBLEM STATEMENT:
Example 1: Determine the unit-ramp response of the following system using MATLAB and lsim
command.
Cs  25

R s  s 2  5s  25
Steps: 1) Obtain the ramp response by dividing the system T.F. by ‘s’. The new T.F. can be written
as
25 25
2

s(s  5s  25) s  5s 2  25s
3

2) Define the numerator and denominator polynomial coefficients.

3) Define/print the transfer function named sys1 using tf command.
4) Define the time vector t=0: dt: t
5) Obtain the step response using the ‘step’ command using following syntax:
y=step(sys1,t)
This will return the output response y and the time vector t used for simulation. The output and input
ramp response can be plotted w.r.t. time using plot command.

Program:
% Program to plot the Ramp Response
clc;
clear;
n1 = [25]; % Define num and den coefficients of modified TF
d1 = [1 5 25 0];
[n2, d2]=feedback(n1,d1,1,1);
sys2 = tf(n2, d2); % Write transfer function
[y, t] = step(sys2); % Obtain step response
plot(t,y, '-s'); % Plot response y w.r.t t with solid line style and square marker
axis([0 2 0 2]); % Define scales for x and y axis
hold on;
plot(t,t,'--*'); % Plot the input ramp signal with dashed line style and * marker
grid on;
xlabel('Time (sec)');
ylabel('Magnitude');
title ('Plot of Unit Ramp Response');
 Example 2: Determine the unit-ramp response of the following system using MATLAB and lsim
command.
Cs  1

R s  3s 2  2s  1
PROGRAM:
clc;
clear all;
close all;
num = [0 0 1];
den = [3 2 1];
t = 0:0.1:10;
r = t;
y = lsim(num, den, r, t);
plot(t, r,'-', t, y, 'O')
grid
title('Unit-ramp response')
xlabel('t Sec')
ylabel('Unit-ramp input and output')
text(1.0, 4.0, 'Unit-ramp input')
text(5.0, 2.0, 'Output')
 EXPERIMENT NO: 6

AIM: To simulate step response of a control system using MATLAB.

SOFTWARE USED: MATLAB

THEORY:
The general expression of transfer function of a second order control system is given as

Here, ζ and ωn are damping ratio and natural frequency of the system respectively.
There are number of common terms in transient response characteristics and which are:
1. Delay time (td) is the time required to reach at 50% of its final value by a time response signal
during its first cycle of oscillation.

2. Rise time (tr) is the time required to reach at final value by a under damped time response signal
during its first cycle of oscillation. If the signal is over damped, then rise time is counted as the time
required by the response to rise from 10% to 90% of its final value.

3. Peak time (tp) is simply the time required by response to reach its first peak i.e. the peak of first
cycle of oscillation, or first overshoot.

4. Maximum overshoot (Mp) is straight way difference b of time response and magnitude of its
steady state. Maximum overshoot is expressed in terms of percentage of steady-state value of the
response. As the first peak of response is normally maximum in magnitude, maximum
overshoot is simply normalized difference between first peak and steady state value of a response.

5. Settling time (ts) is the time required for a response to become steady. It is defined as the time
required by the response to reach and steady within specified range of 2-5% of its final value.

6. Steady-state error (ess) is the difference between actual output and desired output at the infinite
range of time.
Fig. (a) Time response specification curve

PROBLEM STATEMENT: For the closed loop system defined by

Plot the unit step response curve and find time domain specifications.

PROGRAM:
clc;
clear all;
close all;
num=input('enter the numerator coefficients ---->’);
den=input('enter the denominator coefficients ---->’);
system=tf(num,den);
system
step(system)
grid on;
wn=sqrt(den(1,3));
zeta= den(1,2)/(2*wn);
wd=wn*sqrt(1-zeta^2);
disp('Delay time in seconds is')
td=(1+0.7*zeta)/wd
disp('Rise time in seconds is')
theta=atan(sqrt(1-zeta^2)/zeta);
tr=(pi-theta)/wd
disp('Peak time in seconds')
tp=pi/wd
disp('Peak overshoot is');
mp=exp(-zeta*pi/sqrt(1-zeta^2))*100
disp('settling time in seconds is');
ts=4/(zeta*wn)
PROGRAM RESULT:
enter the numerator coefficients---->100
enter the denominator coefficients---->[1 12 100]
Transfer function:
100
----------------
s^2 + 12 s + 100
Delay time in seconds is
td =
0.1775
Rise time in seconds is
tr =
0.2768
Peak time in seconds
tp =
0.3927
Peak overshoot is
mp =
9.4780
settling time in seconds is
ts =
0.6667
 EXPERIMENT NO. 7

STABILITY ANALYSIS OF LINEAR SYSTEMS

(Root Locus Plot)

AIM: To obtain the Root locus plot for the given system whose transfer function is given as

G(S)= ________K________
s(s+3)(s2+3s+11.25)

APPARATUS REQUIRED: Mat lab Software

THEORY:

ROOT LOCUS PLOT:

The characteristic of the transient response of a closed-loop system is related to the location of the
closed loop poles. If the system has a variable loop gain, then the location of the closed-loop poles
depend on the value of the loop gain chosen. A simple technique known as “Root Locus Technique”
used for studying linear control systems in the investigation of the trajectories of the roots of the
characteristic equation.
This technique provides a graphical method of plotting the locus of the roots in the s-plane as a given
system parameter is varied over the complete range of values(may be from zero to infinity). The
roots corresponding to a particular value of the system parameter can then be located on the locus or
the value of the parameter for a desired root location can be determined form the locus. The root
locus is a powerful technique as it brings into focus the complete dynamic response of the system .
The root locus also provides a measure of sensitivity of roots to the variation in the parameter being
considered. This technique is applicable to both single as well as multiple-loop systems.

PROCEDURE:
1. Write a Program to (or using SIMULINK) obtain the Root locus plot for the given system.
2. Access the stability of given system using the plots obtained.

PROGRAM:

%ROOT LOCUS OF THE SYSTEM%

num=[0 0 0 0 1]
den=[1 6 20.25 33.75 0]
sys=tf(num,den)
rlocus(sys)
v=[-10,10,-8,8];
axis(v)
xlabel('Real Axis')
ylabel('Imaginary Axis')
title('Root Locus of the sytem ')
title('Root Locus Plot of the system K/s(s+3)(s^2+3s+11.25))')
MANUAL CALCULATIONS:

1. Number of poles =4, zeros = 0, number of root locus branches =4. Starting points s=0, -3 &
1.5+ j3.
2. Pole – zero plot is as follows
Section between 0 and -3 is part of root locus. One breakway point is between s=0 and s=-3.
3. Angle of asymptotes are 45,135,225 and 315 degrees
4. Centroid = -1.5
5. Three Breakway points are -1.5,-1.5 + j 1.8371
6. Intersection with imaginary axis s= + j2.37.
7. Angle of departure -90, +90.
8. Root locus is plotted.
9. Stability for 0< K<82.26 system is stable.
K=82.26 system is marginally stable.
K>82.26 system is unstable

OUTPUT:
num =
0 0 0 0 1
den =
1.0000 6.0000 20.2500 33.7500 0
Transfer function:
1
---------------------------------
s^4 + 6 s^3 + 20.25 s^2 + 33.75 s

GRAPH(from Simulation):

VIVA QUESTIONS:

1. Define root locus technique.

2. What are the conditions of stability in root locus criteria.
3. What is the advantage of root locus technique.
 4. Which method of stability analysis is more advantageous?
5. How the stability of unstable is improved?
6. What are the methods to improve the stability.
7. What is the use of compensators.
8. What do you mean by Root-Loci?
9. What is complementary Root Loci?
10. What are contours?
11. State the basic properties of Root Locus.
12. How would you find the number of branches of Root Loci?
13. How are the break away points of the root locus determined?
14. How is the point of intersection of the asymptotes with real axis found out.

REFERENCE:

1. NAGRATH & GOPAL,” Control Systems”.

2. MATLAB User Manual .
3. Control Systems by Nagoor gani
4. Control system Engineering by S .P .Eugene Xavier and J.Joseph Cyril babu.
5. Control system Engineering by R.Ananda Natarajan and P.Ramesh babu.

RESULT: Thus, the Root Locus plot is drawn for the given transfer function using matlab and
verified manually.
 EXPERIMENT NO. 8

STABILITY ANALYSIS OF LINEAR SYSTEMS

(Nyquist Plot)

AIM: To obtain the Nyquist plot for the given system whose transfer function is given as
G(S)= 50 .
(s+4)(s2+3s+3)
and to find out whether the system is stable or not.

APPARATUS REQUIRED: Mat lab Software

THEORY:

POLAR PLOTS OR NYQUIST PLOTS:

The sinusoidal transfer function G(jω) is a complex function is given by
G(jω) = Re[ G(jω)] + j Im[G(jω)]
or
G(jω) = │G(jω) │ ∟G(jω) = M ∟Φ -----------(1)

From equation (1), it is seen that G(jω) may be represented as a phasor of magnitude M and phase
angle Φ. As the input frequency varies from 0 to ∞, the magnitude M and phase angle Φ changes and
hence the tip of the phasor G(jω) traces a locus in the complex plane. The locus thus obtained is
known as POLAR PLOT.

The major advantage of the polar plot lies in stability study of systems. Nyquist related the stability
of a system to the form of these plots. Polar plots are referred as NYQUIST PLOTS.
NYQUIST stability criterion of determining the stability of a closed loop system by investigating
the properties of the frequency domain plot of the loop transfer function G(s) H(s).
Nyquist stability criterion provides the information on the absolute stability of a control system as
similar to Routh- Hurwitz criterion. Not only giving the absolute stability, but indicates “Degree of
Stability” i.e “Relative Stability” of a stable system and the degree of instability of an unstable
system and indicates how the system stability can be improved. The Nyquist stability citerion is
based on a Cauchy’s Residue Theorem of complex variables which is referred to as the “principle of
argument”.
Let Q(s) be a single –valued function that has a finite number of poles in the s-plane. Suppose that an
arbitrary closed path Гq is chosen in the s-plane so that the path does not go through any one of the
poles or zeros of Q(s); the corresponding Гq locus mapped in the Q(s) plane will encircle the origin
as many times as the difference between the number of the zeros and the number of poles of Q(s)
that are encircled by the s-plane locus Гq.
The principle of argument is given by
N= Z - P
Where N – number of encirclemnts of the origin made by the Q(s) –plane locus Гq.
Z – number of zeros of Q(s) encircled by the s-plane locus Гq in the s-plane.
P - number of poles of Q(s) encircled by the s-plane locus Гq in the s-plane.

ALGORITHM:
1. Write a Program to (or using SIMULINK) obtain the Nyquist plot for the given system.
2. Access the stability of given system using the plots obtained.

PROGRAM:

%NYQUIST PLOT
%Enter the numerator and denominator of the transfer function
num=[0 0 0 50]
den=[1 7 12 12]
sys=tf(num,den)
%Specify the frequency range and enter the command
nyquist(sys)
v=[-3 5 -7 7]
axis(v)
xlabel('Real Axis');
ylabel('Imaginary Axis');
title('Nyquist Plot of the sytem 50/(s+4)(s^2+3s+3)')
%To determine the Gain Margin,Phase Margin, Gain crossover frequency and
%phase cross over frequency
[Gm,Pm,Wcp,Wcg]=margin (sys)

v = -3 5 -7 7
Gm = 1.4402
Pm =11.1642
Wcp = 3.4643
Wcg = 2.9533

MANUAL CALCULATIONS:
(NYQUIST PLOT)
VIVA QUESTIONS
1. What is polar plot?
2. What is Nyquist plot?
3. Define the conditions of stability in polar plot.
4. What is the use and advantage of polar plot.

REFERENCE
1. NAGRATH & GOPAL,” Control Systems”.
2. MATLAB User Manual .
3. Control Systems by Nagoor gani
RESULT:Thus the Nyquist plot is drawn for the given transfer function using matlab and verified
manually
 EXPERIMENT NO. 9

STABILITY ANALYSIS OF LINEAR SYSTEMS

(Bode Plot)

AIM: To obtain the bode plot for the given system whose transfer function is given as

G(S)= 242(s+5)
s(s+1)(s2+5s+121)
and to find out whether the system is stable or not.

APPARATUS REQUIRED: MATLAB Software

THEORY:

A Linear Time-Invariant Systems is stable if the following two notions of system stability are
satisfied
 When the system is excited by Bounded input, the output is also a Bounded output.
 In the absence of the input, the output tends towards zero, irrespective of the initial
conditions.
The following observations are general considerations regarding system stability and are
If all the roots of the characteristic equation have negative real parts, then the impulse response is
bounded and eventually decreases to zero, then system is stable.
 If any root of the characteristic equation has a positive real part, then system is
unstable.
 If the characteristic equation has repeated roots on the jω-axis, then system is
unstable.
 If one are more non-repeated roots of the characteristic equation on the jω-axis, then
system is unstable.

BODE PLOT :
Consider a Single-Input Single-Output system with transfer function

C(s) b0 sm + b1 sm-1 + ……+ bm

=
R(s) a0 sn + a1sn-1 + ……+an

Where m < n.
  Rule 1 A system is stable if the phase lag is less than 180˚ at the frequency for
which the gain is unity (one).
 Rule 2 A system is stable if the gain is less than one (unity) at the frequency for
which the phase lag is 180˚.
The application of these rules to an actual process requires evaluation of the gain and phase shift of
the system for all frequencies to see if rules 1 and 2 are satisfied. This is obtained by plotting the
gain and phase versus frequency. This plot is called BODE PLOT. The gain obtained here is open
loop gain.

The stability criteria given above represent Limits of Stability. It is well to design a system with a
margin of safety from such limits to allow for variation in components and other unknown factors.
This consideration leads to the revised stability criteria, or more properly, a Margin of Safety
provided to each condition. The exact terminology is in terms of a Gain Margin and Phase Margin
from the limiting values quoted.
 If the phase lag is less than 140˚ at the unity gain frequency, the system is stable. This
then, is a 40˚ Phase Margin from the limiting values of 180˚.
 If the gain is 5dB below unity (or a gain of about 0.56) when the phase lag is 180˚,
the system is stable. This is 5dB Gain Margin.

ALGORITHM
1. Write a Program to (or using SIMULINK) obtain the Bode plot for the given system.
2. Access the stability of given system using the plots obtained.

PROGRAM

%BODE PLOT OF THE SYSTEM%

%Enter the numerator and denominator of the transfer function
num=[0 0 0 242 1210];
den=[1 6 126 121 0];
sys=tf(num,den)
%Specify the frequency range and enter the command
w=logspace(-2,4,1000);
bode(sys,w)
xlabel('Frequency')
ylabel( ' Phase angle in degrees Magnitude of G(s)')
title('Bode Plot of the system 242(s+5)/s(s+1)(s^2+5*s+121)')
%To determine the Gain Margin,Phase Margin, Gain crossover frequency and
%Phase cross over frequency
[ Gm, Pm, Wcp, Wcg ]= margin (sys)

PROCEDURE TO OBTAIN BODE PLOT:

1. Rewrite the sinusoidal transfer function in the time constant form by replacing s by jω
2. Identify the corner frequencies associated with each factor of the transfer function.
3. Knowing the corner frequencies draw the asymptotic magnitude plot. This plot
consists of straight line segments with line slope changing at each corner frequency
 by +20db/decade for a zero and -20db/decade for a pole. For a complex conjugate
zero or pole the slope changes by + 40db/decade.
4. Draw a smooth curve through the corrected points such that it is asymptotic to the line
segments. This gives the actual log-magnitude plot.
5. Draw phase angle curve for each factor and add them algebraically to get the phase
plot.

MANUAL CALCULATION:
i)The sinusoidal transfer function G (jω) is obtained by replacing s by jω in the given s domain
transfer function

G(jω)= 242(jω +5)

jω (jω +1)( jω 2+5 jω +121)
On comparing the quadratic factor of G(s) with standard form of quadratic
factor , ζ and ωn can be evaluated.

s2+5s+121 = s2+2ζωns + ωn2

On comparison
ωn2 = 121 2ζωn= 5
ωn =11 rad/sec ζ = 0.227

G(jω)= 10(1+0.2jω)
jω (1+jω)( 1+0.4 jω -0.0083ω 2)

ii)CORNER FREQUENCIES
The corner frequencies are ωc1=1rad/sec ωc2= 5 rad/sec and ωc3=11rad/sec
Choose a low frequency ωl such that ωl< ωc1 and choose a high frequency ωh> ωc3.
Let ωl=0.5 rad/sec and ωh=100 rad/sec

Term Corner Slope db/dec Change in slope

Frequency db/dec
rad/sec
10 __ -20 __
jω
1 1 -20 -20-20= - 40
(1+jω)
(1+0.2jω) 5 20 -40-20 = -20
1 11 -40 -40-20 = -60
( 1+0.4 jω -0.0083ω 2)

iii)MAGNITUDE PLOTS

Calculate A at ωl, ωc1, ωc2, ωc3, and ωh

Let A= | G(jω)| in db
At ω= ωl A= 20 log(10/0.5)=26.03db
ω= ωc1 , A=20log(10/1)=20db
ω= ωc2 A= -40log(5/1)+20=-7.96 db
ω= ωc3 A = -20log(11/5) - 7.96 = -14.80 db
ω= ωh A = -60log(100/11)-14.80 = - 72.3 db
These values are plotted in the semilog graph sheet taking frequency along the logarithmic scale and
magnitude in db along the linear scale

iv)PHASE PLOT
The phase angle of G(jω) as a function of ω is given by
Φ = ‹G(jω) = tan-1 0.2ω -90 – tan-1 ω – tan-1 0.04ω/(1 – 0.0083ω2)
Ω tan-1 0.2ω tan-1 ω tan-1 {0.04ω/ Φ = ‹G(jω)
2
(1 – 0.0083ω )}
0.5 507 26.56 1.15 -112
1 11.3 45 2.31 -126.01
5 45 78.96 14.04 -138
10 63.43 84.29 63.44 -174.3
11 65.5 84.8 85.8 -195.4
20 75.96 87.14 180-19.98=160 -261.18
50 84.3 88.85 180-6=174 -268.55
100 87014 89.43 180-2.9=177.1 -269.3

These values are plotted in the semilog graph sheet taking the same frequency as before along the
logarithmic scale and phase angle in degrees along the linear scale.

OUTPUT (from simulation)

242 s + 1210
-----------------------------
s^4 + 6 s^3 + 126 s^2 + 121 s

Gm = 2.0273

Pm = 41.8270

Wcp = 10.0961

Wcg = 3.6322

OUTPUT (from graph)

ωgc= Φgc=3.1rad/sec
Phase margin γ=180+ Φgc = 180-134 = 46 degrees
Gain Margin = 12 db
ωpc = 10.1 rad/sec

BODE PLOT

VIVA QUESTIONS:

1. Define stability of Linear Time Invariant System.

2. Give the stability conditions of system using Pole-Zero plot.
3. Define Bode Plot.
4. What is the use of Bode Plot?
5. What are the conditions of stability in bode plot?
6. Define Stability criteria.
7. Define Limits of stability.
8. Define safe regions in stability criteria.
9. Define Phase margin and Gain margin.
REFERENCE

1. NAGRATH & GOPAL,” Control Systems”.

2. MATLAB User Manual .
3. Control Systems by Nagoor gani
4. Control system Engineering by S .P .Eugene Xavier and J.Joseph Cyril babu.
5. Control system Engineering by R.Ananda Natarajan and P.Ramesh babu.

RESULT:
i)The Bode plot is drawn for the given transfer function using MATLAB and verified manually
ii) The system is stable.
 EXPERIMENT 10

Aim: To Transform a given Transfer Function to State Space Model and from State Space Model to
Transfer Function using MATLAB.

RESOURCES:

1. MATLAB 7 Software

2. Personal Computer.

PROCEDURE:

1. Click on MATLAB icon.

2. From FILE menu click on NEW button and select SCRIPT to open Untitled window.
3. Enter the following program in untitled window.

PROGRAM:

For Transfer Function to State Space Model:

%Transfer Function to State Space Model

Clear all;
clc;

disp(‘Transfer Function of given system is : \n’);

Num = [2 3 2];

Den = [2 1 1 2 0];

sys = tf(num,den);

Disp(‘Corresponding State Space Model A,B,C,D are: \n’);

[A,B,C,D] = tf2ss(num,den) A

PROGRAM:

For State Space Model to Transfer Function:

%State Space Model to Transfer Function Clear all;

clc;

disp(‘A,B,C,D Matrices of given State Space Model are :: \n’); A = [1 2;3

4]

B = [1;1]

C = [1 0]
D = [0]

[num,den] = ss2tf(A,B,C,D);

Disp((‘And corresponding Transfer Function is : \n ‘);

Sys = tf(num,den);

Sys

7. Save the above program by clicking on SAVE button from FILE menu (or) Ctrl+S

8. Run the program by clicking RUN button (or) F5 and clear the errors (if any).

9. Observe the output from on the MATLAB Command Window.

OUTPUT:

Transfer Function to State Space Model:

Transfer Function of given system is

Transfer Function:

2s^2 + 3s + 2

------------------------------

2s^4 + s^3 + s^2 + 2s

Corresponding State Space Model A, B, C, D are:

A=-0.5000 -0.5000 -1.0000 0

1.0000 0 0 0

0 1.0000 0 0

0 0 1.0000 0
B= 1

C= 0 1.0000 1.5000 1.000

D= 0

OUTPUT:

State Space Model to Transfer Function:

A,B,C,D Matrices of given State Space Model are :

A= 1 2

3 4

B=11

C = 1 0

D= 0
and corresponding Transfer Function is

s–2
-----------------
s^2 – 5s -2

PRELAB QUESTIONS:

1. What are the advantages & disadvantages of state space analysis?

2. What are the disadvantages of transfer function?

3. What are the different functions in MATLAB?

4. What is workspace and command window?

LAB ASSIGNMENTS:

8s+1

1. ------------------------------ formulate state space model?

9s^3+s^2+s+ 2

s^4+s^3+s^2+s+ 1

2. ---------------------------- formulate state space model?

9s^3+s^2+s+ 2

3. ------------------------------ formulate state space model?

9s^3+s^2+s+ 2
POSTLAB QUESTIONS:

1. How to call MATLAB in batches?

2. Explain Handle graphics in MATLAB?

3. Explain the following commands:

Acker, Bode, Ctrb, Dstep, Feedback, Impulse, Margin, Place, Rlocus, stairs

RESULT:
Hence, the given transfer function to state space model and state space model to transfer function is transformed by
using MATLAB.
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL &ELCTRONICS ENGINEERING

LAKSHMI NARAIN COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY, BHOPAL