Basic Cognitive Processes

DR ABILASH K
Assistant Professor, Department of Psychology,
School of Psychological Sciences,
Christ (Deemed to be University)
Bangalore, Yeswanthpur Campus
Unit I: Foundations of Cognitive Processes
Introduction to Cognition - Historical Perspectives - Basic
Theoretical Frameworks - Sensation vs. Perception - Gestalt
Principles; Emergence of Modern Cognition: Information
Processing approach - Human Cognition and Artificial
Intelligence (AI); Mind, Brain, and Behaviour: Cognitive Science
– Computer Metaphor of the Mind – Cognitive Neuroscience

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Definition of Cognitive Psychology
What is Cognitive Psychology?
● Cognitive psychology studies mental processes such as perception,
memory, reasoning, and decision-making.
● The term has dual meanings:
1. Synonym for cognition.

2. Theoretical approach emphasizing thought processes and knowledge.

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 Components of Cognition
Key Components of Cognition
Cognition involves several processes:
§ Acquisition of knowledge: How we gather information.

§ Storage of information: How we retain information over time.

§ Transformation of information: How we process and manipulate

information.

§ Use of knowledge: How we apply what we know to interact with the

world.
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Importance of Cognition
Why is Cognition Important?
Cognition is essential for recognizing and interpreting stimuli.

• It allows for strategic actions based on environmental input.

• It involves complex coordination of various mental processes to create

conscious experiences.

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Cognitive Processes in Daily Life
Cognition in Daily Life
Every action we perform involves cognitive processes:
• Reading: Recognizing letters and words, understanding language.

• Memory: Recalling past experiences and information.

• Metacognition: Thinking about our own thinking processes.

• Decision-making: Choosing actions based on available information.

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Example Demonstration
Cognitive Demonstration
Activity: Watch a short video, then write down observations.
https://youtu.be/vu4TUHOP4fA?si=JtWwgc3D9Z1TNJMA

Analyse the cognitive processes involved:

• Auditory processing: Listening to sounds and music.
• Visual processing: Seeing and interpreting images.
• Memory: Recalling details after watching.
• Attention: Focusing on specific elements while ignoring others.

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Memory and Knowledge
Role of Memory and Knowledge
Interpretation of stimuli relies on stored knowledge:
Example: Identifying gender, understanding language.
• Memory impacts perception and description of events.
• Knowledge helps us make sense of new information.

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Attentional Processes
Attention in Cognition
Attention is selective and strategic:
• We focus on relevant details and filter out less important information.
Example: Noticing a cough while watching a video despite it being
unrelated to the visual content.

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Cognitive Psychology Applications
Applications of Cognitive Psychology
• Clinical Psychology: Memory recall differences in depression.
• Educational Psychology: Enhancing learning techniques.
• Social Psychology: Influence on judgments and interactions.

Example: Depressed individuals recall general memories, while non-

depressed individuals recall specific events

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Interdisciplinary Influence
Interdisciplinary Impact
Cognitive psychology influences various fields:
• Cognitive Neuropsychology: Studies neurological issues like face
recognition difficulties (prosopagnosia).
• Other interdisciplinary impacts include areas such as artificial
intelligence and human-computer interaction.

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Awareness and Importance
Importance of Studying Cognition
• Cognitive psychology is foundational to many aspects of human
psychology and daily life.
• Understanding cognition enhances personal insight into mental
processes.
• Encourages exploration and application of cognitive principles in various
fields.

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Historical Perspective on Cognitive Psychology
Historical Roots: Traced back to classical Greek philosophers and the 19th
century, with contemporary cognitive psychology emerging in the last 60-
70 years.

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● The Roots of Psychology
• Origin of the term "psychology" from Latin words "psyche" (soul) and "logia" (study of)
• Early concepts of the mind and behavior in ancient Greek philosophy
● Philosophy and Physiology
• Philosophy: Explains human nature through introspection and thought tools like
epistemology and logic
• Physiology: Focuses on the biological functioning of the human body
• Interaction of mind and body as the basis of psychology

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● Early Experiments
• The first reported experiment in psychology from ancient Egypt
• King Psamtik I's hypothesis about the origin of language
• Implications of early experiments on the study of mental processes
• Psammetichus took this as evidence that the Phrygian language was the
original human language, predating Egyptian.

429 BC
664 to 610 BCE "becos,”
"bread."

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● Philosophical Antecedents
• Hippocrates: Mind controls the body, resides in the brain
• Plato: Mind and body are separate; knowledge through thinking
(rationalism)
• Aristotle: Mind and body are one; knowledge through observation
(empiricism)

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● Modern Philosophers
• René Descartes: Introspection and reflection over observation, mind-
body dualism
• John Locke: Mind and body interaction, empiricism, tabula rasa concept
• Immanuel Kant: Mental faculties linking mind and body

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● Development of Psychological Thought
• Early thinkers' contributions to the subject matter of psychology

• The relationship between mind and body as a central question

• Evolution of psychological thought systems

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Historical Perspectives on Cognition
• Ancient Philosophers: Plato, Aristotle
• Nature of the mind, knowledge, and thought
• Medieval Thinkers: Scholasticism
• Integration of philosophy and theology
• 17th-19th Century: Rationalism vs. Empiricism
• Descartes (Rationalism) vs. Locke (Empiricism)

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Origins of Cognitive Psychology
Classical Greek Philosophers
Aristotle (384–322 BCE)
● Explored perception, memory, mental imagery.
● Emphasized acquiring knowledge through experience and observation.
● Advocated for empirical evidence (Barnes, 2004; Sternberg, 1999).

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Aristotle: The First Cognitive Psychologist?
● His emphasis on empirical evidence parallels modern cognitive
psychology.
● Many topics he studied are still relevant today.
● Quote: "Aristotle can reasonably be called the first cognitive
psychologist" (Leahey, 2003).

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Empirical Evidence
● Importance of Empirical Evidence
• Definition: Scientific evidence obtained by careful observation and
experimentation.
• Aristotle’s role in promoting empirical methods.
● Transition to Modern Psychology
• Cognitive psychology as a discipline emerged in the late 1800s.

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Basic Theoretical Perspectives
• Structuralism: Wilhelm Wundt
• Analyzing the structure of conscious experience
• Functionalism: William James
• Understanding the purpose of mental processes
• Behaviorism: John B. Watson, B.F. Skinner
• Focus on observable behavior

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Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920)
● Considered the founder of experimental psychology (Benjamin, 2009;
Pickren & Rutherford, 2010).
● Based in Leipzig, Germany; taught about 28,000 students (Bechtel et
al., 1998; Benjamin, 2009; Fuchs & Milar, 2003).
Wundt’s Contributions to Psychology
● Proposed studying mental processes.
● Advocated the use of introspection.
● Introspection: Carefully trained observers systematically analyse their
own sensations under standardized conditions (Blumenthal, 2009;
Pickren & Rutherford, 2010; Zangwill, 2004b).

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Introspection Technique
○ Observers report reactions to stimuli objectively.
○ Example: Reporting reactions to a musical chord without prior
knowledge of music.
○ Current view: Introspection is seen as subjective by modern cognitive
psychologists.

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Early Memory Researchers
Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850–1909)
• Systematically studied human memory (Baddeley et al., 2009).
• Used nonsense syllables to avoid language-related confounding
factors.
Mary Whiton Calkins (1863–1930)
• Discovered the recency effect in memory (Schwartz, 2011).
• Emphasized studying cognitive processes in real-world contexts.
• First female president of the APA; developed guidelines for teaching
introductory psychology (Pickren & Rutherford, 2010).
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=d_RFWfYAc18
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William James and Everyday Psychological Experiences
Background
• Preferred everyday psychological experiences over introspection and
artificial tasks (Benjamin, 2009).
Contributions
• Authored "Principles of Psychology" (1890).
• Topics: Perception, attention, memory, understanding, reasoning, tip-
of-the-tongue phenomenon (Leary, 2009).

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for example, James’s vivid description of the tip-of-the-tongue experience:

Suppose we try to recall a forgotten name. The state of our consciousness is peculiar.
There is a gap therein but no mere gap. It is a gap that is intensely active. A sort of
wraith of the name is in it, beckoning us in a given direction, making us at moments
tingle with the sense of our closeness and then letting us sink back without the
longed-for term.
(James, 1890, p. 251)

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Behaviorism and Its Influence
● Early memory researchers like Hermann Ebbinghaus and Mary Whiton
Calkins studied how information is stored in the mind.
● Their work laid the groundwork for understanding cognitive processes
but didn’t gain immediate dominance.
● During the first half of the 20th century, behaviorism became the most
prominent theoretical perspective in the U.S.

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● Focus on Observable Behavior:
• Behaviorism emphasizes studying behaviors that can be observed and
measured objectively.
• This perspective rejects introspection, which involves looking inward
to examine one's own thoughts and feelings, considering it too
subjective.
• The idea is that for psychology to be considered a science, it must
focus on observable and measurable phenomena.

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John B. Watson and Early Behaviorism
● John B. Watson (1878-1958):
• Watson is often considered the father of behaviorism.
• He argued that psychology should focus on observable behavior, not
the unobservable workings of the mind.
• Watson and other early behaviorists often conducted experiments on
animals because their behaviors could be easily observed and
manipulated.

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Learning and Behavior:
• Behaviorists were particularly interested in learning—
how changes in the environment affect an organism’s
behavior.
• Example: Rat in a maze experiment.
• A rat is placed in a maze with a piece of cheese at the
end as a reward.
• Researchers measure the number of errors the rat
makes, such as wrong turns, over several days.
• If the number of errors decreases over time, it indicates
that the rat is learning the layout of the maze.

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Experimental Rigor
Objective Measurement:
• Behaviorists used quantifiable metrics to measure learning and
behavior.
• They manipulated variables in the environment, such as the complexity
of the maze, to see how these changes affected learning.
• This rigorous, scientific approach helped to establish psychology as a
credible science.

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Rejection of Mental Representations:
• Behaviorists did not consider that organisms might store information
about their environment.
• For example, they didn't theorize that a rat might create a mental map
of the maze.
• This refusal to acknowledge internal cognitive processes eventually led
to criticism and a shift away from strict behaviorism.

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Shift from Pure Behaviourism
● Evolution of Behaviourist Thought:
• Over time, pure behaviourism declined, and psychologists began to
acknowledge the importance of cognitive processes.
• Example: The Association of Behavioural Therapy renamed itself the
Association for Behavioural and Cognitive Therapies, reflecting this
broader approach.
• Today, cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) is widely used and
integrates both behavioural and cognitive principles.

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Contributions of Behaviourism
● Research Methodology:
•Behaviourists introduced the concept of operational definitions, which
specify exactly how a concept will be measured.
• This precision is essential for replicating experiments and validating
findings.
• They also emphasized controlled research environments, a practice
that continues in modern psychology.
● Applied Psychology:
• The principles of behaviourism have been applied in various fields,
including psychotherapy, education, and business.
• For example, CBT is used to treat a variety of mental health conditions
by changing both thoughts and behaviors. 36
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Sensation vs. Perception
• Sensation:
• Process of detecting physical energy from the environment
• Involves sensory organs (eyes, ears, skin, etc.)
• Perception:
• Process of organizing and interpreting sensory information
• Involves cognitive processes

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Sensation & Perception
● Sensation: receiving physical stimulation, encoding the input into the
nervous system; The processes by which our sensory organs receive
information from the environment.
● Perception: the process by which people select, organize, and
interpret (recognize) the sensory information, the act of understanding
what the sensation represents

Transduction: Physical energy -> neural impulses

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Absolute Threshold:
● The absolute threshold is the minimum amount or level of a stimulus
that is required for a person to detect its presence accurately. In other
words, it is the point at which a stimulus becomes noticeable to our
senses.
● This threshold is often defined as the smallest amount of stimulation
needed for a person to detect a stimulus at least 50% of the time.

For example, in the context of vision, the absolute threshold might refer to
the dimmest light that a person can see or the softest sound that a person
can hear.

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Difference Threshold (Just Noticeable Difference
-●JND):
The difference threshold (or just noticeable difference, JND) is the
smallest change in a stimulus that can be detected by a person. It's the
point at which a change in a stimulus becomes noticeable.
● The JND is not a fixed quantity; it can vary depending on the
magnitude of the original stimulus. This is known as Weber's Law,
which states that the JND is proportional to the magnitude of the
stimulus.
For example, if you are holding a one-pound weight in your hand, adding
one more ounce might not be noticeable. However, if you are holding a
ten-pound weight, adding one more ounce could be noticeable.

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● Absolute threshold: the minimum amount of stimulus required for a
percept (note: “sub-liminal” perception is perception below the
threshold of consciousness); the amount of stimulation required for a
stimulus to be detected 50% of the time.
● Jnd: just noticeable difference: the smallest difference between stimuli
that people can detect 50% of the time.

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 Weber’s law
● Weber’s law: physical intensity vs perceptual (psychological)
experience; the idea that the jnd of a stimulus is a constant proportion
despite variations in intensity. (2% change for weight; 10% change for
loudness; 20% for taste of salt)

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Weber's Law:
● Proportional Sensitivity: Weber's Law indicates that our sensitivity to
changes in stimulus intensity is proportional to the intensity of the
initial stimulus. In simpler terms, the larger the initial stimulus, the
larger the change (ΔI) needed for it to be noticeable.
● Sensory Modalities: The value of the Weber fraction (k) varies for
different sensory modalities and types of stimuli. For example, the
Weber fraction for vision is different from that for hearing or touch.

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Weber’s law (Cont.,)
● Practical Applications: Weber's Law has practical applications in
various fields, including marketing (e.g., pricing strategies based on
perceived value), product design (e.g., adjusting product
characteristics), and the assessment of sensory perception.
● Limitations: While Weber's Law provides a useful framework for
understanding our ability to detect differences in stimuli, it's not
universally applicable. Some stimuli may not follow Weber's Law
precisely, especially at very low or high stimulus intensities.

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 Signal-Detection Theory
● Signal-Detection Theory: a statistical model of decision making
(Sensitivity & Bias)

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Signal-Detection Theory:
The Single Detection Theory (also known as Signal Detection Theory or
SDT) is a psychological framework used to analyze and understand
decision-making and perception in the presence of uncertainty, especially
in situations involving the detection of signals amid noise. This theory is
commonly applied to the study of sensation and perception, particularly in
fields like psychophysics, neuroscience, and cognitive psychology. Here are
the key principles of Single Detection Theory:

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Signal-Detection Theory (Cont.,)
Signal and Noise:
○ In the context of Single Detection Theory, the "signal" refers to the presence
of the stimulus or information that an observer is trying to detect.
○ The "noise" represents all other irrelevant sensory input or background
interference that can affect the observer's ability to detect the signal.
Detection Criterion:
○ In SDT, a critical component is the observer's decision-making process, which
involves setting a detection criterion or decision threshold.
○ The observer must decide whether a given stimulus (or sensory input) is a
signal or not based on their internal criterion. This decision can be influenced
by various factors, including the observer's goals and motivations.
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Signal-Detection Theory (Cont.,)
Four Possible Outcomes:
In SDT, there are four possible outcomes for a detection task:
○ Hit: The observer correctly detects a signal when it is present.
○ Miss: The observer fails to detect a signal when it is present.
○ Correct Rejection: The observer correctly rejects a non-signal when it
is absent.
○ False Alarm: The observer incorrectly identifies a non-signal as a
signal.

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Signal-Detection Theory (Cont.,)
Sensitivity (d') and Bias (c):
○ Sensitivity (d') measures an observer's ability to discriminate between
the signal and noise. It quantifies how well an observer can distinguish
between the two.
○ Bias (c) reflects an observer's tendency to set their decision criterion
more conservatively or liberally. A liberal criterion may lead to more
false alarms, while a conservative criterion may result in more misses.

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Signal-Detection Theory (Cont.,)
Receiver Operating Characteristic (ROC) Curve:
SDT often uses ROC curves to represent an observer's performance
across different levels of sensitivity and bias. These curves provide a visual
representation of an observer's ability to discriminate signals from noise.
- Applications:
Single Detection Theory is widely used in various fields, including
clinical psychology (e.g., medical diagnoses), cognitive psychology (e.g.,
memory research), and human factors engineering (e.g., designing reliable
detection systems).

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 Sensory adaption
● Sensory adaption: a decline in sensitivity to a stimulus that occurs as a
result of constant exposure.
e.g., the perceived loudness of a nightclub or a plane

Sensory adaptation is a phenomenon in psychology and sensory physiology

where our sensory receptors become less responsive or stop responding to a
constant or unchanging stimulus over time. This process helps to filter out
irrelevant or unimportant sensory information, allowing our sensory systems
to remain sensitive to changes and new stimuli in our environment. Sensory
adaptation occurs in all five major sensory modalities: vision, hearing, taste,
smell, and touch.
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Perception
● Introduction
● Meaning
● Formula

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The six Gestalt principles or laws are:
1. Law of similarity
2. Law of prägnanz (simplicity)
3. Law of proximity
4. Law of continuity
5. Law of closure
6. Law of common region

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Proximity:
• Objects that are close to each other are perceived as a group.
• Example: In a cluster of dots, the dots that are near each other will be
seen as a group or pattern.
Similarity:
• Objects that look similar are perceived as part of the same group.
• Example: Circles and squares arranged in rows will be perceived as
separate groups of circles and squares.

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● Closure:
• The mind tends to fill in missing parts of a design or image to create a
complete, whole object.
• Example: A broken circle or an incomplete shape is perceived as a
complete circle or shape by the mind.

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● Continuity:
• The eye is drawn along a path, line, or curve, preferring continuous
figures.
• Example: A series of connected lines or curves will be seen as a single,
continuous figure rather than separate lines.

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● Figure-Ground:
• Elements are perceived as either figures (objects of focus) or ground
(background).
• Example: In the classic vase/face illustration, the figure can be seen as
either a vase (figure) or two faces (ground), depending on focus.

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● Symmetry and Order:
• The mind perceives objects as symmetrical and organized around a
center point.
• Example: Symmetrical shapes and designs are often perceived as
more harmonious and balanced.

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● Common Fate:
• Objects moving in the same direction are perceived as part of a single
group.
• Example: A flock of birds flying together in the same direction is seen
as a single group.
● Prägnanz (Simplicity):
• The mind prefers to interpret complex images in the simplest form
possible.
• Example: A complex shape will be perceived as a combination of
simple shapes.
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1 Figure and ground
2 Perceptual grouping
a ) Law of similarity
b ) Law of proximity
c ) Law of closure
d ) Law of continuation
e ) Law of simplicity
f ) Law of common region
g ) Law of context
h ) Law of symmetry
I ) Law of connectedness
j ) Law of common fate
3 Perceptual constancy
a ) Colour constancy
b ) Size constancy
c ) Shape constancy
d ) Brightness constancy

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1) Figure and ground:
● Meaning
● Example

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Various sensory Modalities
● Sensory modalities refer to the different ways in which we perceive
and experience the world around us through our senses. The human
body has several sensory modalities, each dedicated to a specific type
of sensory input. Here are some of the primary sensory modalities:

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Vision (Visual Modality):
● Vision is the ability to perceive and interpret light waves, allowing us to
see the world. The eyes contain photoreceptor cells (rods and cones)
that detect light and send signals to the brain for visual processing.
Hearing (Auditory Modality):
● Hearing is the perception of sound waves through the ears. The ears
contain specialized cells that convert sound vibrations into electrical
signals, which the brain interprets as sound.

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Taste (Gustatory Modality):
○ Taste, or gustation, is the sense that allows us to detect different
flavors. Taste buds on the tongue and in the mouth are responsible for
detecting sweet, sour, salty, bitter, and umami (savory) tastes.
Smell (Olfactory Modality):
○ Smell, or olfaction, is the sense of detecting and identifying odors in
the environment. Olfactory receptors in the nose respond to various
odor molecules and transmit signals to the brain for processing.

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Touch (Tactile Modality):
○ Touch is the sense of feeling physical contact and pressure on the skin.
It includes sensations of pressure, temperature, pain, and texture.
Specialized receptors in the skin and underlying tissues convey tactile
information to the brain.
Proprioception (Kinesthetic Modality):
○ Proprioception is the sense of the body's position and movement in
space. It helps us maintain balance and coordination and is mediated
by sensory receptors in muscles, tendons, and joints.

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Vestibular Modality:
○ The vestibular system in the inner ear provides the sense of balance
and spatial orientation. It helps us maintain equilibrium and a stable
gaze while moving.
Pain Perception (Nociceptive Modality):
○ Nociception is the ability to perceive pain or noxious stimuli.
Specialized receptors, called nociceptors, detect tissue damage or
potentially harmful stimuli and signal the brain to generate pain
sensations.

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Temperature Sensation (Thermoreceptive Modality):
○ Thermoreception is the ability to perceive temperature variations.
Thermoreceptors in the skin and elsewhere detect changes in
temperature, helping us sense hot and cold.
Pressure and Vibration (Mechanoreceptive Modality):
○ Mechanoreceptors in the skin and tissues detect mechanical pressure
and vibrations. They play a role in sensing textures, pressure changes,
and vibrations.

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Extrasensory Perception
● Extrasensory Perception (ESP) refers to the alleged ability to acquire
information or knowledge through means beyond the five traditional
senses of sight, hearing, touch, taste, and smell.
● ESP is often associated with paranormal or supernatural phenomena
and has been a topic of debate and research for many years. While
there are claims and anecdotal evidence of ESP experiences, scientific
consensus remains skeptical about its existence due to the lack of
reliable and reproducible experimental evidence. Here are the main
types of ESP:

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71
Founder: J.B. RHINE (1930s)

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Telepathy:
● Telepathy involves the direct communication of thoughts, feelings, or
information between individuals without any known sensory channels
or physical interaction.
● Examples might include people claiming to read each other's minds or
send thoughts telepathically.

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Clairvoyance:
● Clairvoyance, often referred to as "remote viewing," is the ability to
perceive information about an object, person, or event that is hidden
from view or occurring at a distant location.
● Some clairvoyants claim to see past or future events or to access
information about people or places they have never encountered.

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Precognition:
● Precognition involves the ability to foresee or predict future events
before they happen, often through dreams, visions, or intuitive
feelings.
● People who report precognitive experiences believe they can
anticipate future outcomes or events.

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Psychokinesis (PK):
● Psychokinesis, also known as telekinesis, is the purported ability to
influence or manipulate physical objects or events with the power of
the mind alone.
● Examples might include moving objects without physical contact or
altering the outcome of random events using mental focus.

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Remote Viewing:
● Remote viewing is a specific form of ESP where a person claims to
access information about distant or hidden targets, often in a
controlled experimental setting.
● This concept gained attention through government-sponsored
programs like the Stargate Project.

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Gestalt Principles
• Principle of Similarity:
• Objects that look similar are perceived as grouped together
• Principle of Proximity:
• Objects that are close together are perceived as grouped
• Principle of Continuity:
• Lines are seen as following the smoothest path
• Principle of Closure:
• Incomplete figures are perceived as complete

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The Gestalt Approach
○ While behaviorism was dominant in the U.S., Gestalt psychology
emerged as a significant movement in Europe in the early 20th century.
○ Gestalt psychology emphasizes holistic processing: "The whole is
greater than the sum of its parts."
Core Principles of Gestalt Psychology
● Active Organization of Perception:
• Humans naturally organize what they see.
• Perception is not just about the individual components, but how they
come together to form a unified whole.

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Example of Gestalt Psychology
Demonstration:
• Show an ambiguous figure (e.g., a simple drawing that can be seen as a
face or as unrelated shapes).

• Discuss how students perceive a human face rather than just an oval
and lines.
• This demonstrates the Gestalt principle of seeing the whole rather than
the sum of its parts.
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Criticism of Other Approaches
• Against Introspection:
• Gestalt psychologists criticized Wundt’s introspective method, which
analyzed experiences into separate components.
• Against Behaviorism:
• They also opposed behaviorism’s focus on breaking behavior into
observable stimulus-response units, ignoring the overall context.

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Gestalt Laws of Perceptual Organization
• Key Laws:
• Law of Proximity: Objects close to each other are perceived as a group.
• Law of Similarity: Similar objects are grouped together.
• Law of Continuity: Elements arranged in a line or curve are perceived as
more related.
• Law of Closure: Incomplete figures are perceived as complete.
• Law of Connectedness: Elements connected by a uniform visual
property are perceived as a single unit.

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Insight in Problem Solving
• Concept of Insight:
• Gestalt psychologists emphasized insight in problem-solving.
• Initially, parts of a problem may seem unrelated, but with a sudden
flash of insight, the parts come together into a solution.
• They conducted much of the early research on problem-solving.

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Importance and Legacy of Gestalt Psychology
• Influence on Modern Psychology:
• Gestalt principles are fundamental in understanding perception and
have influenced various areas of psychology.
• Insight research has paved the way for modern cognitive problem-
solving theories.

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Frederic Bartlett and His Contributions to Cognitive Psychology

○ In the early 1900s, behaviorism was dominant in the United States.

○ Gestalt psychology was influential in continental Europe.
○ Meanwhile, in England, Frederic Bartlett conducted pioneering
research on human memory.

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Bartlett’s Approach to Memory
• Rejecting Ebbinghaus’s Methods:
• Hermann Ebbinghaus used carefully controlled experiments with
nonsense syllables to study memory.
• Bartlett rejected this approach, opting for more meaningful materials,
such as lengthy stories.

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Active, Constructive Process:
• Bartlett discovered that people made systematic errors when recalling
stories.
• He proposed that memory is not a passive recording of information but
an active, constructive process.
• We interpret and transform information, integrating it with our
personal experiences.

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Systematic Errors in Recall:
• Bartlett’s experiments showed that people distort memories to fit
their existing knowledge and experiences.
• This process involves searching for meaning and making new
information consistent with what we already know.
● Schema Theory:
• Bartlett introduced the concept of schemas—organized structures of
knowledge that guide our understanding and memory.
• Schemas help us process and recall information by providing a
framework for understanding new experiences.

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Reception and Impact
• Initial Ignorance:
• Bartlett’s work was largely ignored in the U.S. during the 1930s due to the dominance of
behaviorism.
• Behaviorists focused on observable behaviors and ignored internal mental processes.
• Later Recognition:
• About half a century later, U.S. cognitive psychologists rediscovered and appreciated
Bartlett’s work.
• They admired his use of naturalistic materials and his focus on meaningful information.
• His schema-based approach to memory influenced later research in cognitive psychology.

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The Cognitive Revolution
• Disenchantment with Behaviorism:
• By the late 1930s and throughout the 1940s, psychologists began to
question the behaviorist approach.
• Behaviorism struggled to explain complex human behaviors, thoughts,
and strategies.

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Early Influences on Cognitive Psychology
• Human Memory Research:
• Late 1950s: Focus shifted from animal learning models to human
memory models.
• Interest in understanding how people access and use stored knowledge.

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Jean Piaget’s Contributions:
• Swiss theorist whose work influenced U.S. psychology from the late
1950s onward.
• Emphasized that children actively explore and understand their world.
• Cognitive strategies evolve as children mature, impacting their
understanding and experimentation.

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Linguistics and Noam Chomsky:
• New developments in linguistics further challenged behaviorism.
• Noam Chomsky argued that language is too complex for behaviorist
explanations.
• Proposed that humans have an inborn ability to master language,
contradicting behaviorist views on language acquisition.

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The Cognitive Revolution
● Shift in Focus:
• The cognitive revolution marked a move away from behaviorist
approaches.
• Psychologists began focusing on internal processes like memory,
attention, and language.
● Birth of Cognitive Psychology:
• Cognitive psychology emerged as a distinct field in 1956, marked by
influential publications on attention, memory, language, concept
formation, and problem-solving.
• Ulric Neisser's 1967 book, Cognitive Psychology, provided a
comprehensive overview and popularized the term "cognitive
psychology."
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• Neisser is often referred to as “the father of cognitive psychology.”
Legacy and Impact of the Cognitive Revolution
• Long-term Influence:
• Cognitive psychology continues to shape research and theory in
psychology.
• Focus on internal mental processes has led to advances in
understanding human behavior, thought, and language.

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Cognitive Psychology in Present Times
● Influence of Cognitive Psychology
• Recognition of Mental Representations:
• Cognitive psychology has emphasized the importance of mental
representations, a concept rejected by behaviorists in the 1950s.
• Mental representations are now integral to models of human
development and behavior across all areas of psychology.

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● Applications in Social Interactions:
• Cognitive processes are studied in everyday social interactions.
• Examples of relevant research (e.g., Cacioppo & Berntson, 2005;
Cameron, Payne, & Doris, 2013).

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Criticisms of Cognitive Psychology
• Ecological Validity:
• Research is high in ecological validity if it mirrors natural settings.
• Many early cognitive psychology experiments were low in ecological
validity.
• Example: Memorizing unrelated words in a laboratory setting.
• Laboratory vs. Real-Life Research:
• Prior to the 1980s, much research was conducted in artificial
environments with tasks unlike daily cognitive activities.
• Current research often addresses real-life issues, improving ecological
validity.
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