Bachelor Degree

LEADERSHIP AND CHANGE

MANAGEMENT
BOTSWANA OPEN UNIVERSITY (BOU) Module BLM 711
Bachelor of Administration (Leadership and Change Management)

Leadership and Change Models

Module BLM 711

Felix J. M. B. Tagarira

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Acknowledgements

This course forms part of the Bachelor of Business Administration Degree in Leadership and
Change Management (BBA LCM), developed by the Botswana College of Distance and Open
Learning. Many thanks to the team who collaborated in developing the BBA programme, in the
first instance, and in particular, the team, which was responsible for writing and content editing
the present course.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Acknowledgements

Corse Overview

Course goals

Course Structure

Assessment

Time required

Course Schedule

Academic Support

Reading resources

Overview ........................................................................................................................................ 7

Unit 1 The Concept of Leadership

1.0 Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 11

1.1 Learning objectives .......................................................................................................... 11

1.2 Some definitions of Leadership....................................................................................... 12

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1.3 Qualities of Outstanding Leaders ................................................................................... 13

1.4 An analysis of the definitions of leadership ................................................................... 14

1.5 Leadership Models ........................................................................................................... 15

1.6 Fiedler’s Contingency Model .......................................................................................... 17

1.7 Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational Model................................................................... 19

1.8 Vroom and Yetton Contingency Model ......................................................................... 20

1.9 Decision Rules for the Leader/Manager ........................................................................ 22

1.10 The Vroom and Jago Revised Decision Model .............................................................. 23

1.11 Path – Goal Model ........................................................................................................... 24

1.12 Summary ........................................................................................................................... 26

Unit 2 Leadership in Empowerment

2.0 Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 27

2.1 Learning Objectives ......................................................................................................... 28

2.2 The Concept of Empowerment ....................................................................................... 28

2.3 Empowerment can be summarised as follows; ............................................................. 29

2.4 Cultural Empowerment................................................................................................... 29

2.5 The Role Culture Influence on Empowerment ............................................................. 33

2.6 Approaches to Empowerment ........................................................................................ 34

2.7 Subordinates’ Assumption upon Being Delegated ........................................................ 39

2.8 Empowerment Through motivation ............................................................................... 39

2.9 Empowerment Through Training and Development ................................................... 40

2.10 Empowerment through Allocation and Control of Resources .................................... 41

2.11 Points to remember when empowering through Resource Power .............................. 42

2.12 Barriers to Empowerment .............................................................................................. 42

2.13 Benefits of Empowerment ............................................................................................... 44

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2.14 Summary ........................................................................................................................... 44

Unit 3 Nature and Management of Change

3.0 Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 46

3.1 Learning Objectives ......................................................................................................... 46

3.2 The Concept of Change ................................................................................................... 46

3.3 Types of Change ............................................................................................................... 47

3.4 Reasons for change .......................................................................................................... 49

3.5 Factors that Impact on the Organisational Environmental in the Change Process .. 49

3.6 External And Internal Drivers Of Change .................................................................... 52

3.7 Resistance to change ........................................................................................................ 53

3.8 Readiness For Organisational Change.......................................................................... 54

3.9 Planning and Implementing Change.............................................................................. 57

3.10 Summary ........................................................................................................................... 62

Unit 4 Theories and Models of Change

4.0 Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 64

4.1 Objectives.......................................................................................................................... 64

4.2 Theories Of Change ......................................................................................................... 65

4.3 The cognitive approach ................................................................................................... 69

4.4 The Psychodynamics Approach To Change .................................................................. 72

4.5 Gestalt Approach to Individual and Organisational Change ...................................... 77

4.6 Models And Approaches To Organisational Change ................................................... 80

4.7 Summary ........................................................................................................................... 94

Unit 5 Critical Success Factors for Leadership and Change Management

5.0 Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 96

5.1 Learning objectives .......................................................................................................... 96

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5.2 Vision and Mission ........................................................................................................... 97

5.3 Change Strategy ............................................................................................................... 98

5.4 Change Agent ................................................................................................................... 99

5.5 Decision making ............................................................................................................. 102

5.6 Delegation of authority ................................................................................................. 107

5.7 Team Building ................................................................................................................ 111

5.8 Summary ......................................................................................................................... 116

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Course Overview

This module will be looking at leadership and change management; however this unit will be
handling the concepts of leadership and leadership models. In explaining the concept of
leadership a number of definitions from different scholars will be discussed. It is hoped this can
help us to arrive at some attributes of successful leadership. Some of the models that will be
looked at are the situational theories such as; Fiedler’s contingency model, Hersey and
Blanchard’s situational model, House’s path-goal, Vroom-Yetton and Vroom-Jago leadership
model. Leadership is not static but a dynamic process involving environmental factors such;
attributes of the followers, the situation at hand, maturity and experience of both the leader and
followers. This discussion of the models, it is hoped may be able to bring out the complex nature
of leadership which gives rise to a number of questions on whether it is any of the following; an
art, process, event or accident. On the other hand leaders are expected to be change agents.
Leaders cannot avoid change; they have to plan for it if the envisaged change has to succeed.
There are two main types of change which are planned and unplanned. In this module we shall
focus on planned change and its sub-types. Change is as complex as leadership if not more
complex. Theories and models of change to be discussed will show their complementary role in
the complex change process. Some of the theoretical approaches to be looked at are: the
behavioural, cognitive, psychodynamics, the humanistic and gestalt approaches. Some of the
models that will be looked at have been proposed by Kotter, Nadler and Tushman, Bullock and
Batten, Beckhard and Harris, Senge and Stacey and Shaw. Leadership can never be relevant
leadership until its capabilities in planning, implementing and managing change have tested and
proven.

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Course Goals

Upon completion of this course, future change leaders should be able to:

1. Re-define leadership and change from the viewpoint of the connection with

2. Demonstrate, in practical terms, how an understanding of leadership models can enhance

empowerment within an organization.

3. Review the nature and management of change from the viewpoint of change models.

4. Purposefully focus on theories and models of change in-so-far as they impact on

leadership and change management

5. Relate critical success factors for leadership and change management to change models.

Course Structure

The course is divided into five units:

Unit 1 The Concept of Leadership

Unit 2 Leadership in Empowerment

Unit 3 Nature and Management of Change

Unit 4 Theories and Models of Change

Unit 5 Critical Success Factors for Leadership and Change Management

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Assessment

Assessment takes the form of responding to in-text questions, requiring that you reflect on what
you will be reading. There are activities after reading a heading, and you are expected to respond
to the activity as a way of reflecting on content read. Work on the activity before reading the
feedback, then compare your response with what is given in the feedback. Sometimes the
feedback gives you no more than guidelines on how to formulate your response. The feedback is
not prescriptive. Where you have the privilege to interact with peers doing the BBA programme,
it is helpful to discuss your responses, and compare with what they come up with.

For purposes of final assessment, 30% is allocated for coursework, while 70% is allocated for the
final examination. Where a project/dissertation is a requirement, you will be duly advised. One
tutor-marked assignment, covering all units in the course, will be prescribed.

Time Required

This course is worth 14 credits, and each credit is equivalent to 10 notional hours. You are,
therefore, advised to spend 140 hours of study on the course. This notional time includes:

 Going over activities embedded in the study material;

 Peer group interaction where necessary;
 Face-to-face tutorials (where necessary);
 Working on tutor marked assignments;
 Reading additional resources;
 Preparing for examinations; and
 Sitting examinations.

Course Schedule

A course schedule, also referred to as tutorial cycle, will be supplied by the institution. This
course will be taught in a given semester, together with other courses.

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Academic Support

This is an open and distance learning (ODL) programme, taught through blended learning mode.
This refers to the mixing of face-to-face interventions and self study, using CDs. With improved
technology uptake, the course will be offered online.

The institution has five regional offices where students are provided with tutorial services. In
rendering support, you will be given additional information on the following:

 How to contact your tutor, where there is provision for that

 Any other relevant information through tutorial letters
 How to access library facilities.

Reading Resources

Except in rare cases, all courses of this programme do not have prescribed resources. Instead,
you are given recommended resources from the internet, subject related books, or journals. The
resources listed at the end of each unit or at the end of the course, can also be used as references.
These two are recommended.

Rao, P.S. (2010), Management: Theory and Practice (text and cases) Mumbai: Himalaya
Publishing House.

Boddy, D. (2005), Management: An Introduction. (3rd ed.) London: Pearson Education.

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 UNIT 1

THE CONCEPT OF LEADERSHIP

1.0 Introduction
This is a concept which most people want to comment about or evaluate on a daily basis in the
light of comments such as; “what is a good leader?” or “he is a very weak and ineffective
leader.” Definitions of leadership may show how such loosely made comments may be
misleading in terms of what constitutes “good leadership” or “weak leadership.” Leadership is
not as simple as we cheaply talk about on a daily basis. In this unit an effort will be made to look
at some definitions on leadership and qualities of successful leaders. Although there are quite a
number of leadership models the following are some of the popular ones that will be looked at;
Fiedler’s contingency, Hersey and Blanchard, Vroom and Yetton, Vroom and Jago and the Path
Goal models.

1.1 Learning objectives

After working through this unit you should be able to:
 Work out enriched definitions of leadership from the various definitions given.
 Give the main characteristics of the studied models of leadership.
 Compare and contrast different models of leadership.
 Outline the qualities of a successful leader.

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Activity 1.1
Answer the following questions on your own first and then share your views with a colleague
as a way to find out your views on leadership
1. Can anyone become a leader?
2. What are the essential qualities of a successful leader?
3. Can a manager become a leader or can leader become a manager?
4. Is leadership an accident or a process?

1.2 Some definitions of Leadership

Mullins (2000) views leadership as a relationship through which one person influences the
behaviours and actions of other people. It is a dynamic process not limited to influences over
people in subordinate positions. Mullins sees the leader-follower relationship as a reciprocal,
effective relationship and a two-way process. He concluded by postulating that leadership can be
seen as an inspirational process.

Useem in Mullins (2007) observes that leadership is as a phenomenon involving making a

difference. It entails changing an organisation and making active choices among plausible
alternatives and depends on the development of others and mobilising them to get the job done.

Cole (1994) defines leadership as something more than just personality or accident or
appointment. It is behaviour linked and a human resource process at work in an organisation. He
further observes leadership as a dynamic process in a group whereby one individual influences
others to contribute voluntarily to the achievement of group tasks in a given situation. Cole’s
view was supported by Kotter (1988) when he defined leadership as a process of moving a group
in some direction through non-coercive means. Stogdill in Nyamuda (2002) states that leadership
involves goals-setting, creating and defining a vision. Leaders are futurists dealing with the
actualisation of what was previously unseen. Stogdill quotes Napoleon Bonaparte who viewed
leaders as dealers in hope.

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Rao (2010) regards a leader as an individual who motivates, communicates and influences the
thoughts, feeling, opinions, beliefs attitudes and actions of followers towards the attainment of
defined group or organisational goals. Marshall in Scott and Mitchell (1976) makes a further
contribution to the definition of leadership when he observes that most people define leadership
as the ability to achieve a position and not to be followed. They pursue a rank or a title and upon
attaining a rank they become leaders. He regards this as an approach where “the cart is expected
to pull the horse.” This type of leadership has challenges in that it may be rejected by the
followers. Mullins (2007) cautions against the danger of being an appointed leader when one is
not a leader until their appointment is ratified in the hearts and minds of those they lead. This can
open another area of professional, academic and political debate on where leaders come from
and how they become leaders. Perhaps this may be addressed through models of leadership.

1.3 Qualities of Outstanding Leaders

Rao (2010) and Gratton in Mullins (2007) have come up with qualities and expectations of
successful leaders which can be summarised as follows;

Vision: Formulation of ideological vision in consultation with followers (Rao, 2010). This can
further entail dreaming collectively; that is creating a time for the leader and followers to dream
of the future, create enthusiasm and excitement and a vision of the future. Views the present as a
pathway to the future, allows people to work independently but within the frame of the general
direction, and work to identify and co-ordinate the major theme for action. (Gratton in Mullins,
2007).

Confidence, Determination and Persistence: Display a high degree of faith and have
confidence in themselves in achieving the vision. They require determination and persistence
towards achievement of the vision (Rao, 2010).

Image Building: Building the image for themselves among the followers as competent credible
and trustworthy (Rao , 2010).

Role Modelling: Act as the role models to their followers (Rao, 2010)

External Representation: Act as external representation and spokesperson for their organisation
(Rao,2010).
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Expectations and Confidence in Followers: Has a set of high expectations from the followers
and has strong confidence in its abilities and commitment (Rao,2010)

Frame Alignment: Engages in frame alignment. It makes followers interests, values, beliefs,
congruent and complementary with those of activities, goals and ideology (Rao 2010).

Inspirational Communication: It often communicates messages in an inspirational manner

using vivid stories, slogans, symbols and ceremonies (Rao,2010).

Select Motive Arousal: It identifies the appropriate motivational factors to motivate the
followers for the successful achievement of vision and mission (Rao, 2010).

Build an Organisation that Values People: Treats people with respect and taking their ideas
seriously, allowing them to believe they can make a difference. It is aware of the need to create
communication channels with employees. Demonstrates a commitment to people; treats people
with politely with respect, dignity and be a strong role model to followers (Gratton, cited in
Mullins, 2007).

Activity 1.2

a) Compare and contrast the definitions of leadership.

b) Which definition is applicable to your organisation?

1.4 An analysis of the definitions of leadership

In the outline of the definitions of leadership there was no deliberate attempt to evaluate each
definition or to take a comparative approach of the definitions. To the contrary a summative
approach has been adopted for. The views put forward in the definitions suggest that there is no
universal mathematic definition of leadership. This could come up as a result of varied
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expectations of the followers or the qualities of a leader. There is a triangulated relationship
involving the followers, the leader and the environment, which become the ultimate factors that
shape the concept of leadership. The interplay of these variables shall be examined when a
discussing various models of leadership. The following can be noted as the main points on the
concept of leadership:

 Leadership involves the leader influencing and motivating the followers.

 Leadership takes place in an organisation or particular environmental setting.
 Leaders are visionaries and goal-getters.
 Leaders are informed decision makers.
 Leadership cannot succeed without followers.
 Leadership has to do with change and organisational transformation.
 Leadership is a dynamic process and art which requires special skills.
 Just as the followers, the environment plays a crucial part in the success of leadership.

Useem in Mullins (2007:363) has this to say about leadership in conclusion;

“Leadership is at its best when the vision is strategic, the voice persuasive and the result tangible.
In the study of leadership, an exact definition is not essential but guiding concepts are needed.
The concepts should be general enough to have tangible implications for what we do.”

1.5 Leadership Models

Organisations are set up for a purpose and for them to succeed in their purposes they need
management and leadership. For organisations to survive they have to adapt to changes taking
place in their internal and external environments. The importance of leadership in organisations
cannot be over emphasised. In this modern era of knowledge explosion, business globalisation
and entrepreneurship where competition and change are inevitable, there is need to study models
of leadership. It is their appropriate selection and application that will sustain organisations. The
purpose of this section is to expose budding scholars, leaders, managers and entrepreneurs to
various models of leadership. It is hoped that knowledge and skills will sharpen leadership skills
necessary for running and growing organisations. Such an exposure can make them judicious,
eclectic leaders and researchers.

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It is of interest to note that the terms model and theory can overlap in meaning. One might to
look at a theory as formal statement of rules on which a subject of study is based or of ideas
which are suggested to explain a fact or event. On the hand a model is a true representation on
which a real copy can be based on. A model is usually based on a number of tested theories. For
that reason the terms may be used use interchangeably which could be the position in certain
cases in the discussion of models of leadership and change. As mentioned before there are many
models of change however the following shall be selected be from the contingency and
situational cluster; Fiedler’s, Hersey and Blanchard’s, Vroom and Yetton’s; Vroom and Jago’s
and Path Goal models. These are some of the important models we might need to know at this
stage.

Activity 1.3

a) From your knowledge and experience, would you say there is a difference between a model
and a theory?

b) If you are asked to solve a problem using a model or theory which one would opt for and
why?

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1.6 Fiedler’s Contingency Model

Mullins (2007) is of the opinion that Fielder’s model was one of the first leadership situational
models. The model is based on studies of a wide range of group situations and concentrated on
the relationship between leadership and organisational performance. Nyamuda (2002) sees the
performance of a leader as dependent on two interrelated factors which are;

1.6.1 The degree to which the situation gives the leader control and influence which is the
likelihood that the leader can successfully accomplish the job.
1.6.2 The leader basic motivation which determines whether the leader basic self – esteem
depend primarily on accomplishing the task or on having supportive relations with
others.

Mullins (2007) further observes that there are three (3) main variables which determine the
favourability of the situation and which affect the leader’s role and influence, which are;

1.6.3 Leader- member relations, this refers to the degree to which the leader is trusted and
liked by group members and their willingness to follow the leader’s guidance.
1.6.4 The task structure which focuses on the degree to which the leader task is clearly
defined for the group and the extent to which it can be carried out by detailed
instructions and procedures.
1.6.5 Position power entailing the power of the leader by virtue of position in the
organisation and degree to which the leader can exercise authority to influence for
example rewards and punishments or promotions and demotions.

Nyamuda (2002) observes that the variables can vary resulting in eight different combinations of
situational control as shown in Figure 1 on page 9.

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Table 1.1 Combination of situational control

I. II. III. IV. V. VI. VII.

Situational High high High moderate moderate moderate low Low

Control

Leader- Good good Good good poor poor poor poor

member
Relations

Task structure structured structured unstructured unstructured unstructured unstructured unstructured unstructured

Position power strong weak strong weak strong weak strong strong

Source: Nyamuda ( 2002: 19)

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According to Koontz et.al (1980) a close examination of Fiedler’s model reveals that there is
nothing automatic or “good” in either the task-oriented or people-satisfaction-oriented style.
Koontz (1980) believes that leadership effectiveness depends upon the various factors in the
group environment.

With experience leaders and managers will realize that nature and style of the most effective
leadership will depend on the situation. The main variables in the leadership usually are: leader’s
personality, the nature of the leader- member relations (implying the importance of people being
led), the task and the organisational climate of the enterprise (Koontz, 1980)

1.7 Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational Model

According to Stoner and Freeman (1978) this was the first major Contingency approach to
leadership. The model holds that the most effective leadership style varies with maturity of the
subordinates. Hersey and Blanchard (1982) define maturity not as age or emotional stability but
of desire for achievement, willingness to accept responsibility and task related ability and
experience. The most important variables in the model are: the goal, knowledge of the followers
and effectiveness of the leadership style.

The model perceives the relationship between the manager and subordinates as operating through
a four phase cycle. As subordinates develop and mature, managers are expected to vary their
leadership style at every phase. According to Stoner and Freeman (1982) the phases are as
follows:

1.7.1 Phase 1

When subordinates join the organization, the situation requires a task-oriented leader. The leader
is expected to orient subordinates to their new roles, procedures, rules and routines of their jobs.
Tasks for subordinates should be clear and well-structured to avoid confusion and assist in easy
task accomplishment.

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1.7.2 Phase 2

Subordinates are beginning to understand what they are expected of and still need a task-
oriented manager. As both leader and employees get to learn and understand each other, the
leader may need to initiate employee-oriented behaviours. Subordinates are not yet experienced
to be given or accept full responsibility.

1.7.3 Phase 3

Leader makes more effort to increase ability and achievement motivation and subordinates begin
to seek greater responsibility while the leader becomes less directive to avoid resentment and
continues to be more supportive to strengthen the resolve for responsibility.

1.7.4 Phase 4

As subordinates gradually become more confident, self-directing and experienced, the manager
can reduce the amount of support and encouragement. Subordinates can be ‘weaned off’ since
they no longer need a directive leader. The model has been summarized in Table 1.1.

Activity 1.4

Draw a table to show similarities and differences between Fielders Contingency Model and
Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational model.

1.8 Vroom and Yetton Contingency Model

The three key determinants in this model on arriving at a decision by the leader are the quality
and acceptance of a decision (Mullins, 2007).

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 Decision quality refers to the rationality of the decision and its effect on the group
performance.
 Decision acceptance refers to the motivation and commitment likely to be brought about on
the group members when implementing the decision.
 The third determinant is the amount of time required to make the decision. According to
Mullins (2007:337) the Vroom and Yetton model suggests five main management styles
which are:

1.8.1 Autocratic

A.I: Leader solves the problem or makes decision alone using information available at the time.

A.II: Leader obtains information from subordinates but then decides on solution alone.

Task Oriented

Participating Style Selling Style

Relationship
Oriented

Delegating Style Telling style

Very High High Low Very Low

Figure 1.1
Maturity level of followers (need for achievement, willingness to accept responsibility,
education/experience)
(Source: Hersey and (1977, p.170)

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 Rao (2010:431) summaries the phases as follows:

i. Telling Style: (Phase I in Stoner and Freeman 1978) .This is a high task, low relationship style.
It is effective when followers are a very low level of maturity.
ii. Selling Style: (Phase II in Stoner and Freeman 1978). This is a high task, high relationship. It
is effective when followers are on the low side of maturity.
iii. Participating Style: (Phase III in Stoner and Freeman 1978).This is a low task, high
relationship style. It is effective when followers are on the high side of maturity.
iv. Delegating Style: (Phase IV in Stoner and Freeman 1978).This is a low task, low relationship
style. It is effective when followers are at very high level of maturity.

1.8.2 Consultative

C.I: The problem is shared with relevant subordinates or individually. The leader then makes
the decision that may or not reflect the influence of subordinates.

C.II: The problem is shared with subordinates as a group. The leader then makes the decision
that may or may not reflect the influence of subordinates.

1.8.3 Group

The problem is shared with subordinates as a group. The leader acts as chairperson rather than
advocate. Together the leader and subordinates generate and evaluate alternatives and attempt to
reach consensus as a solution

1.9 Decision Rules for the Leader/Manager

Vroom and Yetton in Mullins (2007) have outlined seven decision rules that can help the
manager/leader to come up with the most appropriate leadership style required for the situation.
The first three rules protect the quality of decisions, while the last four rules protect the
acceptance of decision (Mullins 2007:377).

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 1.9.1 Is there a quality requirement such that one solution is likely to be more rational than
others?
1.9.2 Is there sufficient information to make a high quality decision?
1.9.3 Is the problem structured?
1.9.4 Is acceptance of decision by subordinates critical to effective implementation?
1.9.5 If you were to make decision yourself, is it reasonably certain that it would be accepted
by subordinates?
1.9.6 Do subordinates share the organisational goals to be obtained in solving the problem?
1.9.7 Is conflict among subordinates’ likely preferred solution?

The decision rules in this model indicate decision styles that the manager should avoid in a given
situation opting for the view of others. The model calls for a leadership which places emphasis
on informed decision making.

1.10 The Vroom and Jago Revised Decision Model

Mullins (2007) noted that this model is the revised version of the original Vroom and Yetton
model. The Vroom and Jago model retains five main decision making styles but incorporates a
twelve larger member of contingency variables and model specifies that any of the five decision
styles may be effective in given situations.

1.10.1 The contingency variables according to Mullins (2007:37) relate to:

 Quality requirements;
 Commitment requirements;
 Leader information;
 Problem structure;
 Commitment probability;
 Goal congruence;
 Subordinate conflict;
 Subordinate information;
 Time constraints;

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  Geographical dispersion;
 Motivation time;
 Motivation development;

Activity 1.5

Use a comparison table to summarise the Vroom – Yellow and Vroom- Jago Models

1.11 Path – Goal Model

According to Rao (2010) this model was developed by Martin Evans and Robert House using
contingency approach based on the expectancy theory of motivation. Mullins (2007) goes
further to say that the Path- goal model suggests that the performance of subordinates is
affected by the extent to which the leader/manager satisfies their expectations. The theory holds
that subordinates see leadership behaviour as a motivating influence when;

 Satisfaction of their needs is dependent upon effective performance.

 The necessary direction, guidelines, training and support, which would otherwise be lacking
to be provided.

1.11.1 House has given the four types of leadership behaviour in Mullins (2007:378

a) Directive leadership which involves getting subordinates know exactly what is expected of
them and giving specific direction. Subordinates are expected to follow rules and regulations.
b) Supportive leadership involves a friendly and approachable manner displaying concern for
needs and welfare of subordinates.
c) Participative leadership involves consulting with subordinates and the valuation of their
opinions and suggestions before the manager makes the decision.
d) Achievement-oriented leadership involves setting challenging goals for subordinates seeking
improvement in their performance and showing confidence in subordinates’ ability to perform
well.
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Nyamuda (2002) agrees with Mullins (2007) that using the path- goal model the same leader can
practice, the different types of behaviour at different types of behaviour at different times and
varying situations.
By Using one of the four styles of leadership behaviour a manager/leader can influence
subordinates’ perceptions and motivation by smoothening the path to their goals
(See Figure 1.21 Pg 17)

LEADERSHIP STYLE Outcomes

Jobs satisfaction
Directive
Acceptance of Leader
Supportive
Achievement – Oriented Motivational Behaviour
Participative Expecting that:
1. Effort will lead to
performance
2. Performance will
lead to valued
rewards

Situational Factors
Subordinates Attributes
- Abilities
- Internal or External work setting
attributes
- Task
- Formal Authority Systems
- Work Group

Figure 1.2: Path Goal Model of Leadership

(Source: Rao, 2010 p.420)

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Activity 1.6

a) Compare and contrast the Hersey and Blanchard model with Path- Goal model.

b) Identify a leadership challenging situation and discuss how would apply one of the models
to address it.

c) Outline the main features of the House and the Situational models.

1.12 Summary

Organisations are set up for different purposes and survive in different environments. Their
survival and growth will largely depends on the understanding of the strength and weakness of
these models when applied to different situations. This makes leadership a dynamic behaviour
involving the exercise of power and decision making based on the best-mix of a number of
factors. These includes: leader-member relations, task structure, maturity of followers, quality,
acceptance of leaders decision and favourability of leadership situation. Successful leadership
takes an elect approach to the variable mix from all the theories discussed in this unit

References

Hersey, P. and Blanchard, K. (1997). Management of Organisational Behaviour: Utilisation of

Human Resources. Englewood Cliffs New Jersey. Prentice Hall.

Koontz, H.O’Donnell and Weihrich, H (1980). Management (6th ed) London, McGraw- Hill.

Mullins, L.J. (2007) .Management and Organisational Behaviour (8th edition) London, Prentice
Hall.

Nyamuda, P. (2002). Organisational Leadership. Harare, University of Zimbabwe

26
 Rao, P.S. (2010). Management: Theory and Practice (text and cases) Mumbai, Himalaya
Publishing House.

Scott, G.W. and Mitchell, T.R (1976). Organisational Theory: A structural and Behavioural
Analyses. (3rd edition) Homewood Illinois, Richard D.Irwin, Inc.

UNIT 2

LEADERSHIP IN EMPOWERMENT

2.0 Introduction
Leadership cannot succeed without people, the leader needs the support of those he/she leads. The
leader cannot be with those he/she leads all the time. Subordinates need to be given an enabling
environment, skills, knowledge and power to support their efforts, leader change and transform the
organisation. This is a process of empowerment which involves some of the following;

27
communication, delegation, motivation, training and development and allocation of resources. For
these to take place a well-structured organisation and a conducive environment should be put in
place. A leader who empower their subordinates automatically empower themselves. The main
focus in this chapter is to look at how a leader can be involved in empowerment, how
organisations and leadership benefit from empowerment. The chapter will also explore the barriers
to empowerment.

2.1 Learning Objectives

After working through this unit, you should be able to:

 Identify characteristics of empowering cultures and environments.

 Discuss the role of empowerment in leadership.
 Explain the drivers of empowerment.
 Identify and explain barriers to empowerment as well as suggest how they could be minimized.

2.2 The Concept of Empowerment

Mullins (2007) defines empowerment as a process of allowing employees greater freedom,
autonomy, self-control over their work and responsibility for decision-making. He further
explained that within a context of broad limits executives empower individuals to become self-
managing. This would be an advantage to the organisation in terms of efficiency. Wilkinson in
Mullins (2007) agrees with Mullins (2007) on the purpose of empowerment. He observes that
people see empowerment as a form of a proactive delegation. Delegation is not part of
empowerment but empowerment is not all about delegation.

Nyamuda (2002) postulated that empowerment involves sharing of power and authority between
leaders and subordinates; it should not be left degenerate to counterproductive behaviour. He also
challenges leaders to think about whether empowerment should only empower subordinates in
how they should do their work and allowing them to decide what their job should be (Job design).

28
 2.3 Empowerment can be summarised as follows;
 A vehicle of giving power, not just to do things but also to participate in major decisions and to
treat others as partners.
 The process of shifting authority to decide downwards.
 A way of grooming leadership from subordinates resulting in a situation that can change and
transform the organisation.
 The process that ultimately involves a natural shift of power from position to a knowledge base
that links theory with practice (praxis).

Activity 2.1

1. Does your organisation or home practice empowerment? Justify your

answer.
2. List those areas you feel you have been empowered by your organisation in
as well as those in which you need to be empowered in. Suggest what could
be done in those areas of need.
3. Discuss with colleagues on whether empowerment is a one-way or two-
way process. Give some examples to support your views.

2.4 Cultural Empowerment

The culture of an organisation is not built overnight; it is built over a longer period of time and is
expected to be enduring. It is made up of a language(s), customs, values, beliefs, traditions, religion,
rituals, ceremonies, dress and structure. Nyamuda (2002) suggest that empowerment can be
cultivated in an environment whose individuals are continuously given and receive feedback from
each other and the environment. Handy in ABE manual (2008) regards the culture of an
organization as the deep-seated values underpinning the organisation. It is not necessarily written

29
down or easily stated. It is intangible mixtures of rules, relationships, values, customs and attitudes
which put together and describe the distinctive felt ethos. This usually distinguishes one
organisation from another.

Handy in ABE (Association of Business Executives) manual (2008) has come up with four types of
cultures which are; power culture, role culture, task and person culture. In this unit only the first
two will be summarised since most organisations conform to these.

2.4.1 Power Culture

A power culture can also be regarded as having an entrepreneurial structure. Handy has the
following observations to make:

It has a web-structure as shown in figure below.

30
 Figure 1.3
The Power culture (the spider’s Web)
Source: The Association of Business Executives.

Power comes from the core of the business and the figurehead is seen as very powerful and
influential.

 Rays of power and influence spread out from the centre figure or group.
 There may be a specialist or functional structure; however control is exercised largely through
appointing loyal key individuals.
 Success based on power orientation, political calculations and risk taking.
 Power of members is based control over resources and personal influence with the centre.
 Mainly obtains in small and medium-sized organisations that are evolving, organic and
responsive to change.

Advantage

 Organizations are very strong, proud and dynamic and quickly react to external demands.

Disadvantages
 May suffer from staff disaffection with those in lower ranks feeling they have no power as they
have to constantly refer to the centre.

31
 Can create political cliques striving for power and recognition.
 Organisation is dependent on the ability and judgment of central power; if it is weak the
organisation may struggle and collapse.

2.4.2 Power Culture’s Influence on Empowerment

This culture is not conducive for empowerment for the following reasons:

 Power centralisation stifles empowerment as it never gives the opportunity for power and
authority sharing.
 Does not promote growth and jostling for support of the boss can result with those not close to
power threatening those in power.
 Labour turnover can be very high in power culture organisations when employees to seek for
organisations that will recognise their merit and facilitate growth.
 A neurotic leadership results in neurotic organisational sub-systems which may collapse.

2.4.3 Role Culture

Handy in ABE manual (2008) states that role culture has a bureaucratic structure. It is based on
logic and rationality. Emphasis is placed on roles within an organisation instead of a central figure.
It survives on distribution of power, authority, task and responsibilities. The pillars of bureaucracy
such departments of finance, marketing, design, transport, quality control just to mention a few
represent functions and specialisation.

Role culture communication takes place within well-defined systems and structures based on
reports, procedure manuals, and official memoranda. It provides for mechanisms and rules for
processing decision-making and conflict resolution. The chain of command is well respected.
Provided structures are aimed at achieving and promoting accountability. Appointment to
positions is based on merit, efficiency and experience. Power is distributed throughout the
organisational structure.

32
2.4.4 Advantages of Role Culture
 Promotes transparency.
 The organization becomes efficient.
 Specialisation yields guaranteed end products.
 Facilitates informed decision-making through consultation.
 Stable environment is created.
 Stable environment provides for predictability, standardisation, consistency and conformity of
outcomes.
 There is security, predictability in working patterns, predictable career progression while
remuneration is based on qualifications, experience and competency.

2.4.5 Disadvantages of Role Cultures

 They cannot be easily changed in terms of rules, procedures and tested ways of doing things over
a long period.
 They exercise a lot of red tape which can be frustrating to the use of discretion and being
creative.

2.5 The Role Culture Influence on Empowerment

This type of culture is more conducive to empowerment because of the following reasons:

 The structure of role culture is hierarchical and this facilitates the delegation of power and
authority from higher to the lower echelons of the organisation.
 That power is not in the individual but in the office, it is easier to have it shared there by
empowerment.
 Empowerment implemented through role culture rarely degenerates to counterproductive
behaviour since the system has checks and balances by facilitating accountability, rules,
regulations and procedures in the system.
 Role culture does not only empower subordinates on how to do their work but goes further to
allow them to be creative by exploiting existing procedures and methods. This is possible
when working in committee structures.

33
 Activity 2.2

1. Carefully analyse the structures and practices in your organisation and explain whether it
conforms to a role or power culture environment.

2. What do you suggest could be done to organisations which have environments which are not
conducive to empowerment for example power culture?

2.6 Approaches to Empowerment

Under this section we are going to look at a number of approaches to empowerment which
leaders should acquaint themselves with, critique and apply to their situations. Empowerment is
learning process, which among other important aims should contribute to leadership
development. Effective leadership is not about deliverables. It seeks to empower subordinates by
nurturing them so that they become better leaders.

2.6.1 Empowerment through Effective Communication

Boddy (2005:522) states that; “... communication is the exchange of information through written
or spoken words, symbols and actions to reach a common understanding.”

In other words there is no communication if we do not share the same incoming of the send
message. This view is supported by Scott and Mitchell in Rao (2010:394) when they define
communication as; “... a process involving the transmission and accurate replication of ideas
reinforced by feedback purporting to stimulate actions to accomplish organisational goals”

In the light of the two definitions one can confirm the expression “Information is power” and
more accurately, “Accurate information is very powerful.” Nyamuda (2002) emphasized on the
accuracy and clarity of communication by saying the central aspect of communication is
understanding the different cultural senses of one’s hearer.

34
Leaders empower their subordinates by providing the necessary communication structures and
channels of communication. A well-structured organization provides subordinates with a
foundation for effective communication channels. There is need for communication in each
department, while departments are expected to communicate with each other. No organisation
can survive without communication, let alone can be effective without effective communication.
An organizational structure provides with clear channels of communication within an enterprise.

Effective communication is a two way-process. Channels of communication have three

dimension; the upwards, downwards and horizontal. Communication helps to co-ordinate the
various departments so that all their efforts pulled together can help in the attainment of
organisational goals. This is usually effective in role culture organisations which are bureaucratic
in structure and practice.

2.6.2 Communication in an organisation is summarised in Figure 1.4, which shows the three
dimensions of communication and the type of information that could be carried through each
channel.

35
 Upward
Down ward
Communication
Communication
 Request for
 New policies
additional
and procedures
Budget
 Budget limits
 Customers
 Sales
complaints
Performance
 Scheduled
targets
reports on sales,
 Merger
enquiries
announcement
performance
 Regular Financial
reports
 Progress reports
on projects

Horizontal communication

 Exchanging task – based ideas and information

 Adjusting plans to suit mutual needs
 Exploring how best to deal with changes that affect several departments

Figure 1.4
Directions of formal communication in organisation
Source: Boddy (2005).

36
2.6.3 Barriers to Communication

Nyamuda (2008:69) has identified the following as barriers to effective communication:

 Using excessive authority, hence creating fear of openness in others.

 Preaching open communication while rewarding good news.
 Stifling dissent in the name of teamwork.
 Asking closed questions which elicit only yes or no answers.
 Promoting a culture which places too much emphasis on unanimity.
 Being concerned to win the argument, so not to listening to others.
 Speaking down to people in a parent to child mode.
 Reacting defensively to negative feedback.

Leaders should evaluate themselves to see if they are not the root cause of some of the
mentioned barriers. When each one of them is closely examined one sees that they have
something to do with leadership and organisational underlying challenges. Leaders avoid these
barriers but should address them in a manner that promotes empowerment.

2.6.4 Empowerment through Delegation

As observed in the introduction of this unit, there is a philosophy that empowerment is

synonymous with delegation. It is appropriate that we look at how the two concepts relate to
each other. Mullins (2007) is of the view that, at individual level, delegation is the process of
entrusting authority and responsibility to others, throughout the various levels of the organisation
for the unitary accomplishment of organisational goals. Rao (2010:193) adds the element of
“effective task performance” to the concept of delegation when he observes that; “Delegation is
the process a manager follows in dividing the work assigned to him/her so that he/she performs
only the part which he can perform effectively and so as to get others help him/her with the
remaining work”.

Nyamuda (2002) advises that the approach a leader or superior chooses to take should not have
a negative effect on the subordinates. Subordinates are experienced and can discern when
delegated with work, whether the leader has done so because they are lazy or want to empower

37
them to learn something new. When leaders delegate with fear that work will not be done
properly, they are not likely to get the best out of the process. This negative perception in
delegation arises from Mc Gregor’s theory approach to management .This view looks at
subordinates as lazy without initiative, waiting to be driven all the time in order to make them
work.

Risk and Williams (1981) identified three elements central to delegation which are; the
assignment of responsibility, delegation of authority and creation of accountability. Without
this tracheotomy empowerment is not possible. Boddy (2005) clarifies the process further by
putting it in a production scenario wherein the production set up the production director is
responsible for and accountable for all the work in that area. He delegated work downwards but
still remain accountable for the results, but they shared authority and responsibility to his /her
subordinates. This does not break the chain of command. He further observes that if managers
delegate work to their subordinates this quickens decisions and rapid responses to new
conditions.

2.6.5 Leaders’ Assumptions When Delegating

When the leader delegates they make the following assumptions:

 That leaders are fairly knowledgeable about the competencies of the subordinates
 That subordinates can accomplish the task at hand with the available resources and
according to expected timescales.
 Subordinates are responsible with power and authority availed to them.
 Subordinates are loyal and would not undermine them.
 It is a form of on-job training and development to empower the subordinate for a post of
greater responsibility that could bring about promotion.
 It is a process of incremental human resources development that will enable the system to
effectively run even during the leader’s absence.

38
2.7 Subordinates’ Assumption upon Being Delegated
The delegated subordinates may make the following assumptions to:

 They have distinguished themselves to earn this responsibility and would like to prove the
superior right.
 Some form of recognition would come their way upon successful accomplishment of the
task.
 Necessary resources would be made available to them for successful accomplishment of the
task.
 More responsibility with time makes them eligible for higher posts with responsibility.

2.8 Empowerment Through motivation

Before discussing in process of empowerment through motivation it may be important to visit

one or two definitions of motivation. They may help us to remember what could be expected of
the leader who carries the burden of employee with low-morale.

Berelson and Steiner in Koontz et a l(1980:632) stated that “----motivation is a general term
applying to the entire class of drives ,needs, wishes and similar drives...Managers motivate
the subordinates by doing those things which they hope will satisfy these drives and desires and
induce subordinates to act in a desired manner.”

Marcouse et al (2005) define motivation as the enthusiastic pursuit of the objective or tasks by
the firm and its influenced by the company approach to managing people and financial rewards.
We could go on to give more definitions and perhaps end up confusing ourselves. This is so
because motivation is a complex process that has been addressed by many authors from
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs to Ouchi’s Z theory in a range of perspectives. Some of the
factors that have contributed to the array of definitions are that; individuals are not the same,
organisational cultures are different and leaders lead organisations in different ways. This places
a mammoth task on the leaders to understand some of theories and how they can apply them to

39
their organisations. It follows that subordinates in organisations cannot be motivated in the same
way. To motivate subordinates is to empower them.

2.8.1 Conditions That Could Motivate Subordinates

Leaders should be eclectic in considering that the following could motivate subordinates:

 Working conditions
 Benefits
 Achieving results
 Being valued and respected
 Getting ahead of others
 Gaining influence and status
 Earning more
 Job enlargement
 Job enrichment
 Increase in the span of control
 Bonus related performance
 Salary increments
 Unexpected ’treats’ for target attained
 Company sponsored outings

Leaders are advised to use empowerment by motivation with a lot professional caution since
some of the approaches to motivation can lead to professional mal-practice. One could also ask
the question; “Can the use of some motivation approaches not be regarded as bribery?”

2.9 Empowerment Through Training and Development

Organisations today invest heavily in training and development as a way of empowering the
employee. Employees require training and development because the needs of the organisation
keep on changing. Organisations need to adapt to their internal and external environments in

40
order to survive. One way of achieving this is through training and development .Mathis and
Jackson (2005) as well as William and Sisk (1981) concur that training and development are
management approaches used by leaders to empower their subordinates. Mathis and Jackson
(2005) look at training as involving acquiring skills or knowledge which assist achievement of
goals. It is usually narrower and shorter than development. Training maximizes on human
resources and other resources’ utilisation thereby, increasing productivity. Training increases
productivity when equipment and machinery are used without accidents and breakdowns. The
quality of production and market share of the organization can increase through training. On the
other hand development is broader in scope and focuses on the individual gaining new
knowledge and skills for the present and future. Developments aids sustained competitive
advantage when the workforce adds positive economic benefits to the production of goods and
services, abilities and skills that cannot be duplicated by competitors. At the same time long term
sustainability in production can be guaranteed by development (Mathis and Jackson, 2005.)

2.10 Empowerment through Allocation and Control of Resources

Nyamuda (2002) is of the view that possession of value resources is resource power. He
elaborates that resources power is not only limited only to material, it can also involve status and
recognition. Buddy (2005) sees resource power as two sides of the same coin with reward power.
Mullins (2007) regards resource power as involving control over money, prestige, legitimacy,
rewards and sanctions and expertise that create dependency on the part of other people. If there is
power in resource it therefore follows that a leader who gives power to a subordinate to control
resources is empowering them.

Experience has shown that for leadership to be effective it should have power to make decisions.
Decisions made need the support of necessary resources for their implementation. One of the
elements of empowerment is giving power, not just to do things but also to participate in making
major decisions, it follows that power without the necessary back-up muscle is a mockery Paper-
tigers and decimal place holder delegates are a result of lack of resource empowerment. When
leaders fail to empower subordinates adequately, they frustrate them and lower their status and
recognition from those they are supposed to lead. They become incredible and even more

41
powerless than they were before they were delegated with whatever the responsibility. Resource
empowerment is a way of motivating and building confidence and trusting those delegated with
responsibility.

Many organisations have folded because of poor management of resource power. Powerful as it
is equally a very sensitive area. There is need to provide guidelines, policies and procedures as
well as checks and balances to ensure resource power is not abused or wasted. The following are
some of the points to remember when empowering subordinates through resource power.

2.11 Points to remember when empowering through Resource Power

 Provide policy procedures and guidelines for allocation and utilisation of resources.
 Provide training on use and control of resources.
 Advise on appropriate security and storage of resources.
 Request for a vote or budget for resources for the project or department.
 Provide the correct type and quantity of resources required.
 Insist on accurate maintenance of records of allocated resources.
 Encourage maintenance of correct stock levels.
 Insist on weekly reports on profit, loss, shrinkage and wastage.
 Continue to formulate and review strategies for control of improper use, wastage and
shrinkage.

2.12 Barriers to Empowerment

Nyamuda (2002:58) has identified the following as some of the barriers to empowerment;

 The managers’ fear of losing power.

 Pressure from manager’s boss to be aware of every single detail.
 Rationalisation that employees are not ready for empowerment.

42
 Fear of losing control.
 Fear of becoming redundant or having no purpose.
 Having one’s identity so much in one’s job that one has an inability to function in other roles
when organisational structures change – this results in insecurity.
 Not accepting that subordinate can be more knowledgeable in certain areas and are often
better placed to make certain decisions.
 An organisational culture and structure which requires centralised decision-making which
frustrates empowerment.

Activity 2.3

a) Discuss the role of the terms, delegation, authority and responsibility in the process of
empowerment.

b) With examples from organisations of your choice discuss when you may not find it suitable to
empower subordinates.

c) Suggest ways of over-coming barriers to empowerment give examples in 2.12

d) From your experience what are the other barriers to empowerment?

43
2.13 Benefits of Empowerment
Mullins (2007:704) suggests the following as the benefits of empowerment:

 Every employee will be given the opportunity to be innovative and ensure good
performance.
 Conflict will be abolished as everyone works towards the same goals and training will
increase learning.
 Decision-making process can be speeded up as can reaction times.
 Empowerment provides for greater job satisfaction, motivation and commitment
 Employees gain a greater sense of achievement from their work and this reduces operational
costs by eliminating unnecessary layers of management and the consequent checking and re-
checking of operations.
 Greater use of knowledge, skills and abilities of the workforce encouraging team working.
 It provides one of the most effective tools in raising productivity and profit.

2.14 Summary
Empowerment is a crucial art of leadership development. Nearly all organisations make an effort
to practice it, some under the auspices of delegation. They do so with the view of giving power
to subordinates so that they participate in major decisions that will help to change and transform
organisations. Empowerment is mainly sustained by a role culture environment whose structure
facilitates decentralisation and delegation. Empowerment can be achieved through effective
communication, delegation, motivation, allocation, control of resources and training and
development among other approaches. Leaders need to be aware of the conditions under which
empowerment can take place. It is not a smooth process since there are a couple of challenges
related to the process. Leaders are expected to understand that subordinates seek to be
empowered, have individual differences and expectations in order to achieve organizational
goals. There are also barriers that could frustrate empowerment leaders should find strategies to
overcome these barriers.

References

Boddy, D. (2005), Management: An Introduction. (3rd ed.) London. Pearson Education.

44
Cole, G.A. (1994), Management: Theory and Practice. (4th ed.) London: D.P. Publications.

Hersey, P. and Blanchard, K. (1997), Management of Organisational Behaviour. Utilisation of

Human Resources. Englewood Cliffs New Jersey. Prentice Hall.

Marcouse, I. et al. (2005), Business Studies. (10th ed.) Oxford: Hodder and Stoughton.

Mullins, L.J. (2007), Management and Organisational Behaviour (8th ed.) London, Prentice
Hall.

Nyamuda, P. (2002), Organisational Leadership. Harare, University of Zimbabwe

Rao, P.S. (2010), Management: Theory and Practice (text and cases) Mumbai, Himalaya
Publishing House.

Scott, G.W. and Mitchell, T.R. (1976), Organisational Theory: A structural and Behavioural
Analyses. (3rd edition) Homewood Illinois, Richard D.Irwin, Inc

Sisk, H. L. and Williams, J.C. (1981), Management and Organization. (4th ed.) Cincinnati:
South-Western Publishing Company.

Stoner. J. A. F. and Freeman, R. E. (1978), Management. (4th ed.) Engelwood Cliffs, New
Jersey: Prentice Hall.

Managing In Organisations: Advanced Diploma in Business Management. Business

Management Study Manuals. (2008) Surrey, United Kingdom: The Association of Business
Executives.

45
 UNIT 3

NATURE AND MANAGEMENT OF CHANGE

3.0 Introduction
Change is a reality experienced by all nature, it is time bound or a response to what happens in a
dynamic environment. The world we live in response to forces of existence, which we can never
ignore. To ignore the forces is as good as accepting extinction, while on the other hand adapting
to change becomes the surest way to survival. In order for us to cope with change we ought to
know the following about change; its meaning, the drivers of change, types of change, resistance
to change and how to prepare for change. Understanding these aspects about change will help us
appreciate why scholars have come up with a number of models of change. Since change is a
continuous learning process, we are bound to continue redefining change and examining all the
forces that influence change wherever we are in the environment.

3.1 Learning Objectives

After working through this unit you should be able to:

 Explain the process of change

 Identify and explain the major forces that drive change
 Discuss why there are different types of change
 Discuss how individuals and organisations can be made more responsive to change.

3.2 The Concept of Change

Armstrong (2009:426) has this to say about change; “Conceptually, the change process starts
with an awareness of the need for change. An analysis of this situation and factors that have
created it leads to a diagnosis of their distinctive characteristics and indication of the direction in

46
which actions need to be taken. Possible course of action can then be identified and evaluated
and a choice made of the preferred action.”

Boddy (2005: 408) states that; “Organisational change is a deliberate attempt to improve
organisational performance by changing one or more aspects of the organisation such as
structure, technology or business process.”

The two definitions are looking at positive change, which is progressive as opposed to negative
change which is retrogressive. Change arises out of identified need(s) in a situation, system or
organisation. Central to change is the environment which keeps on changing and whatever is in
the environment is affected by those changes. When change occurs it may be due to internal
environmental or external factors. Living organisms and systems usually have an internal
(immediate) and external (outside) environment they respond to.

Rao (2010) points out that change implies the creation of imbalances in the existent pattern or
situation. When imbalances occur in systems, systems strive for equilibrium. Rao (2010) goes on
to say change is reactive and proactive. Proactive change is planned change that attempts to
prepare for anticipated future challenges. On other hand reactive change may be an automatic
response it is unplanned response to change taking place in the environment. It therefore calls
upon the awareness of the leader to realise that change is complex and not always easy to handle
and can be unpredictable.

3.3 Types of Change

Nyamuda (2002) has identified five types of change which are summaries as follows:

3.3.1 Smooth Incremental Change

It is the type of change that develops gradually in a systematic and predictable way. It involves
planning and regulation to avoid overloading systems. When it is incremental, it involves good
monitoring to meet set calibrations or targets.

47
 3.3.2 Bumpy Incremental Change

It is characterized by periods of relative peace and marked by increased pace of change.

Turbulence is usually a result of the response to the demands in the external and internal
environment.

3.3.3 Discontinuous Change

This occurs when there are marked shifts in strategy, structure and or culture. This is usually as a
sign of not well planned change without good forecasts and projections on the behaviour of
suppliers and customers. They too may be caught unaware by micro and macro forces of the
business environment which results in jerky operations. This could involve unpredictable interest
rates, demand and supply of goods and services.

3.3.4 Planned Change

This type of change involves deliberate and careful think through processes before
implementation. The approach assumes predictability of the environment providing a logical
process of analysing the environment and exploring ways of ensuring that the forces at play are
under control.

3.3.5 Macro Evolutionarily Change

It involves having a closer look at some of the following; total income in an economy, output
economy (GDP). There are factors which feed into the mentioned ones. Changes arise as a result
of business decisions which are increasingly being made in the international context.
International trade and finance flows bring about changes of evolutionary nature in the business
environment.

Rao (2010) suggests that there are two types of change which are, work and organisational
change.

3.3.6 Work Change

It includes change in machinery, working hours, methods of work, job enlargement and job
enrichment, job- redesign or re-engineering. The nature of change would involve working hours

48
like; morning shifts, evening shifts, operations of the organisations on Sundays and public
holidays.

3.3.7 Organisational Change

It can involve some of the following; change in employees due to transfer, promotion,
retrenchments, lay-offs, restructuring or organisation introducing new products or services,
imposition of new regulations, change in the organisational goals, mergers and acquisitions.

3.4 Reasons for change

Changes in organisations are unavoidable whether deliberately (proactively) or unwilling
(reactively) brought about. The following are some of the possible reasons for change; changes
in the business conditions, changes in managerial personnel, deficiencies in the existing
organisational structures, technological and psychological reasons, government policies and size
of the organisation.

3.5 Factors that Impact on the Organisational Environmental in the Change Process
Factors that impact on the organisational environment in process of change can be looked in at
the framework of the acronym PESTL OR SLEPT.

3.5.1 Political/Legal

In most cases it is not easy to separate political from the legal factors. Whatever changes the
government would like to institute it does so using its legal framework. Boddy (2005) posits that
the political environment within which an organisation operates has far reaching consequences in
the change process. Governments through legislative powers, determine the legal and regulatory
framework applying to business and the public sector. They also give direction to a country
through the way in which they exert control over the economy. Leaders need to be aware of the
legal environment within which their organisation operates. Changes in the laws of the country
are likely to bring up changes in the way organisations operate.

49
It is also important to note that change can come up as a result of changes in governments. The
state of the flux and expansion of the European Union with the adoption of super-national laws
and directives and the single market brought changes in the operation of companies in this
region. By the same token the collapse of the communist block and the former USSR, with the
emergence of Taiwan, South Africa, Korea, China and India has brought up some significant
changes in ways which companies operate today.

3.5.2 Technological

This factor includes three aspects; equipment, the method of using the equipment and the
organisational requirements of using the equipment. The technological environment is very
complex and dynamic and its changes inevitably affect how the organisation will go about its
operations. Bennis et al (1985) suggest that some of the main areas likely to be affected by such
change are: production or working patterns for example robotics and containerization for storage.
The area of staffing has been drastically changed by human resources information system
(HRIS). It has been transformed from the cumbersome manual systems to the flexible HRIS.
Networking of personal computers, video conferencing and mobile phone have made it possible
for people to conduct business in the comfort of their homes. Globalisation and e-commerce are
technologically driven, this has changed how organizations conduct their business, and operate
as if they were in one village. This has resulted in one person up to multinationals taking
advantage of the web and start trading. E- Commerce has opened all world markets to everyone
with no worry of political and geographical boundaries.

3.5.3 Social

Advancement in other areas such as technology has resulted in many changes in the social
dimension of people in organizations. Lives of people have changed from fundamentals of life
expectancy and life style choice, ability to buy and possess items, to travel and to be educated.
There is ever-increasing standards of health-care, personal insurance. People are able to access
more information easily in the shortest space of time and there is an increased standard of social
security and stability. Change has resulted in increased leisure time and choice of leisure pursuit
all commensurate with increases in disposable income and purchase power and choices of what
to purchase ( Marcouse et. al 2005).

50
 3.5.4 Economic

Rao (2010) and Boddy (2005) concur that there is an overlap between the political environmental
changes with government economic policies. Significant change is felt in the area of the price of
factors of production, land, labour and capital. There has been an increase of price in these
factors. This increase effect has been observed in the areas of demand, interest rates, exchange
rates, prices, wages and level of competition. In a growing economy availability of funds
increases whereas labour and natural resources may be more scarce and therefore more
expensive. Leaders and economic planners are mostly interested in changes that take place in
factors such as population growth, rates of inflation, interest rates, unemployment rates of
inflation, taxation, government’s subsidies and public expenditure policies.

Activity 3.1
Change can be brought by some of the following factors? For each of the factors explain how
it can bring about change and the type of change that emanates.

a) Changes in top management

b) Increase in factors of production
c) Changes in interest and exchange rates
d) Shortages in supplies
e) Information Technology advancement
f) Changes in Government laws and regulations

51
3.6 External And Internal Drivers Of Change
Nyamuda (2002), Mazhazha-Nyandoro and Matanhire (2002) subscribe to the following as some
of the external drivers of change;

External Drivers of Change

 Demographic – age, education, skills, gender and immigration.

 Technological advancement - automation
 Suppliers
 Government and regulatory bodies
 Trade Union Organizations
 Social and political pressures- war, values, and leadership pressures
 Labour Supply
 Unemployment Rates
 Computing and information systems’ developments
 Organisational markets
 Competition
 Market changes – mergers, acquisitions and recession.

Internal Drivers of Change

Includes some of the following:

 Changes in top management

 Changes in administrative structure
 Job redesigning
 Management decisions
 Human Resource Challenges
 Information Technology
 New Strategies
 Restructuring

52
3.7 Resistance to change
Rao (2010) states that in any change process there are stakeholders whose perceptions on any
type of change is likely to vary depending on how they interpret it. There is positive
interpretation if the stakeholders see the change as bringing some benefit to them, when the
status-quo they use is not disturbed. The opposite is true when stakeholders cannot justify and
understand why the change is being introduced, how it will work to their advantage, they become
skeptic about it and resist. Leaders need to be aware of some of the circumstances that give rise
to resistance to change and forestall them .The following are some of the causes of resistance to
change:

 Climate of mistrust in the organization.

 Lack of tact combined with poor timing of change.
 Fear of failure on the part of those involved in the implementation process.
 Surprise and fear of the unknown.
 Fear of introduction of unfavourable working conditions.
 Possibilities of job insecurity.
 Self-doubt in dealing or coping with introduction of new technological processes requiring
retraining or new training.
 Conflict of interest among the stakeholders.
 Negative peer pressure.
 Credibility of change agent in terms of being an honest broker, qualifications and experience.
 Lack of transparency on the part of management.
 Inadequate or poor preparation of those to be affected by change.
 Failure to market change and explaining to those affected that they have more to gain than
they would lose.
 Failure to give evidence of success change in other similar settings or organizations.
 Lack of adequate resources to support the change.
 Introducing change on full scale creates alarm instead of using incremental approach.
 Lack of consultation and involvement of subordinates in the change process.

53
 3.7.1 Forms Of Resistance To Change

We should not also forget that organizations are political systems as well. There are power
cliques in any organizations which can be latent until they feel that their interests are being
threatened by advent change. When this happens they react with the view to protect their interest.
They do so by using different forms of resistance which include the following; attempts to
completely resist or block the change or diluting the change to reduce its intended effect which
threatens their interest. The following are some of the forms of change that antagonists of change
may attempt to employ as suggested by Boddy (2005).

 Refusing to use new systems or procedures.

 Making no effect to learn.
 Using older systems whenever possible.
 Not attending meetings to discuss the project.
 Excessive fault finding and criticism.
 Deliberate misuse of resources
 Saying it has been tried and did not work elsewhere.
 Protracted discussions and request for more information.
 Linking the issue with pay or other industrial relations matters.
 Not releasing staff for training
 Over-filtering information necessary for change.
 Over-playing failure of similar programmes in the organization as a precedent for failure of
envisaged change.
 Withholding or delaying the release of necessary support resources for change.

3.8 Readiness For Organisational Change

Rao (2010, p.229) has come up with 10 steps to be followed by leaders in order to successfully
implement change.

3.8.1 Participation of Employees:

It is important to consult employees fully before introducing change. They must make an input to
decisions related to change. The meaning and purpose of the change must be fully communicated

54
to those who will be affected by it. There must be adequate time to discuss the advantages and
disadvantages of change with the employees.

3.8.2 Planning for Change:

Management should always plan before implementing change. Employees should be given the
opportunity to participate in both planning and implementing change. It is expected that this will
help the group of the affected employees to recognise the need for change and prepare them for
receiving it without any fear.

3.8.3 Protecting Employees Interest:

It is the responsibility of management to ensure that employees are protected from economic
loss, loss in status or personal dignity. This will help to minimize the degree of resistance to
change.

3.8.4 Group Dynamics:

It refers to the ever changing interactions and adjustments in the mutual perceptions and
relationships among members of the group. Rao (2010) sees such interactions as most powerful
instruments which facilitate or block adaptation to change. Adaptation involves the team when
they conform to the new group norms, moves, traditions and work patterns. This normally brings
about successful and lasting change.

3.8.5 Caution and Gradual Introduction:

Management should avoid introducing change suddenly and abruptly. They should first of all
build an organisational awareness of change and the ability to forecast it. They need to go further
and create an attitude of embracing change. Change needs to be introduced in an incremental
approach with inbuilt mechanisms of monitoring, formative and summative evaluation.

3.8.6 Positive Motivation:

Use of positive motivation by management counter-balances negative resistance. Management

should make effort to make the change manageable and less demanding. Employees should be
given proper training to make sure implementing change will not be frustrated by skills

55
deficiency. Leadership styles to be used should be supported for example by transformational
and transactional approaches.

3.8.7 Sharing the Benefits of Change:

Be it technical, social or economic change, it is likely to receive minimum resistance if the

employees realize that they are also going to benefit from the envisaged change. Management
should ensure that employees are not only given verbal promises but tangible deliverables.

3.8.8 Training and Development:

Management is encouraged to plan for change. Training and development should involve job
redesigning. Employees need to be trained beforehand and prepare them to invite change.
Normally trained and developed employees welcome change because they are keen to apply the
enriched skills and knowledge acquired during training and development.

3.8.9 Career Planning and Development:

Organisations on the basis of change should plan and redesign jobs as expected in their career
planning for employees, showing potential to move employees to higher levels and develop
them. Development of employees for future careers should be part of the implementation of
change.

3.8.10 Organisational Development

It is a process which aims at moulding and developing of employees psychologically and in

their behavioural areas with a view to achieve organisational effectiveness. Employees with
enriched behaviours may welcome change.

56
Activity 3.2

Discuss with your colleagues or manager the reviewing of any major attempts to introduce
change in your organization. Use the following questions and any other to guide you:

 What was the change?

 Why did management decide to introduce it?
 Where the objectives of change specified?
 How did management plan and implement it?
 Were all the stakeholders involved?
 Would you regard the change to have been successful?
 What could have been done to achieve better results from the process?

3.9 Planning and Implementing Change

The discussion so far has shown that in an organization change is necessary for the growth and
self-renewal of the organization. Pragmatism shows that organisations cannot survive if they
ignore or resist change. Organisations have to be aware that change can be activated by forces
within or outside its environment. The proactive approach to change usually does not create
serious shock waves as compared to the reactive approach. To work with plan is better than to
work without any at all. Managers and leaders will find themselves more uncomfortable to deal
with unplanned change. Rao (2010) has put forward a model of implementation of change in an
organization which leaders and managers may like to critically examine for suitability to their
organisations.

57
58
 Support
 Training
 Resources
 Commitment
 Linkages

Planning Monitoring Action Adaptation

 Cases  Implementation  Gener  General & Local

 Process Team al &  Coping with
 Strategies  Minimum Control Local consequences
 Feedback  Copin
 Communication g with
conse
quenc
es

Institutionalisation
Stabilisation
 General & Local
 Coping with 
General &
Figure 1.5
consequences Local
 Coping
Model of Implementation of Change in an Organisation
with
consequenc
Source:
es Rao (2010, p.230)
59
Planning

The purpose of planning is to have overall understanding of the nature of implementation. The
planning process refers to the determining in advance of the entire process of implementation of
change phasing. Planning may be focused on phasing which may either be temporal or spatial.

Processes

This calls for deciding in advance stages to be followed, some of the stages in the process are;
imitation, motivation, diagnosis, information collection, deliberation, action proposal,
implementation and stabilisation. Attention should be paid to the process of collaboration
increasing the capability of the organisation to face the challenges of change and establishing the
norms and values.

Strategies

Management is expected to formulate various strategies for implementation. The strategies

should focus on making outsiders help, change agent, designing permanent organisation
structures, unit/location of the organisation to be selected for initial process and openness with
environment.

Monitoring

It is design as mechanism of making sure everything is running according to given

specifications. It constitutes routine period measurement of programme inputs, activities and
outputs undertaken during programme implementation. Monitoring is normally concerned with
the procurement, delivery and utilisation of programme resources, adherence to work schedules
or production of inputs. Its purpose is to ensure that implementation is effective. It further aims
at ensuring that plans proceed according to the original design. The process should involve a
group tasked with the responsibilities of quality assurance (quality assurance team or circles).

Implementation Team

This is normally a broad based task group charged with monitoring and implementation of the
programme. This responsibility could be given to the Human Resource Development
department.

60
Minimum Control

Controls should be minimum in order to make the monitoring effective. While serving a control
function it also attempts to develop new norms of creativity, diversity and experimentation. The
key roles in the implementation process are the task force, implementation team, Chief
implementer or counterpart consultant and corporate management.

Review and Feedback

The process of implementation requires reviewing various processes and provides feedback. It
involves information and experience, experiences and provides feedback to the people and how
the implementation compares to the design and plans.

Dissemination of Information

Data, information and experiences collected in various units and process of the organisations
may be provided to all the parties of change implementation with a view to reinforces a sense of
success among various people.

Action

It covers all the minute details of what is to be implemented at different stages. This process
involves various phases and steps for people and various tasks in relationship to change
programme.

Adaptation

It combines two main criteria of effectiveness of implementation. Adaptation may be both

general in the sense that some modifications may be more in the original plan while some may
be developed at later stage.

Support

There should be various types of support from all concerned for purposes of the implementation
of change. This normally comes from Human Resource Development.

61
Human Resource Development

Effective implementation of change requires new and varied technical, managerial, behavioural
skills and knowledge. The Human Resource Development department can contribute to the
enhancement of these skills through training, executive development and organisation
development programmes.

Resources

The process of implementation requires the necessary support from other fields such as financial,
human resources, technology and total quality management just to mention a few.

Linkages

Support is also required through synergies with external experts, various external agencies and
internal departments. Synergies among departments, implementation teams, line management
and top management are crucial.

Top Management Commitment

The most important aspects of support essential for implementing change is the support and
commitment of top management. Top management should involve itself in the process of change
implementation, encourage the implementation team and provide all types of resources.

The Fifteen prerequisites by Rao (2010) do not work in isolation but all contribute all to the
successful and effective implementation of change. Their number also reflects the amount of
team work and thinking process required in the management of change implementation.

3.10 Summary
Change is a complex and dynamic process which strives for improvement of organisational
performance. The discussion has outlined the various types of change. Factors that impact on the
organisational environment of change have been discussed in the framework of the acronym
SLEPT or PESTL. External and internal drivers of change were identified as well as factors that
contribute to resistance to change. The sequential and logical relationship between planning and
implementation of change involves many inseparable attributes. Leaders and managers are

62
challenged with the task of continuing to research on the evolving types of change. Their
experiences and competencies are required for marshalling all resources available to be used for
successful implementation of change.

References

Armstrong, M. (2009), Handbook of Human Resources Management Practice (11th edition)

London: Kogan Page.

Boddy, D. (2005), Management : An Introduction (3rd Edition) Essex England: Pearson

Education Limited

Mazhazha-Nyandaro, Z.F. and Matanhire, T. (2000), Change Management: Harare: Zimbabwe

Open University.

Bennis, W.G. Benne, K.D. and Chin, R.(1985), The Planning of Change(4th edition)New York:
Holt Rinchort and Winston.

Nyamuda, P. (2002), Organisational Leadership. Harare: Zimbabwe Open University

Rao, S.P. (2010), Management Theory and Practice; Text and Case( 1st edition) New- Delhi:
Humalaya Publishing House.

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 UNIT 4

THEORIES AND MODELS OF CHANGE

4.0 Introduction

To understand change and transformation in individuals and organisations, there is need to look
at various theories and models of change. On the other hand, models of change give a number of
approaches on how change can be implemented. The main theories that will be looked at are the
behavioural, the cognitive, the psychodynamics and gelstat.

The models of change that might be of interest to discuss are; the Lewin’s three step model,
Kotter’s eight step model, Nedler and Hushman Congruence Model, Bullock and Batten,
Beckhard and Harris and Senge’s model.

The stated theories and models of change suggest how complex the phenomenon of change is in
both individuals and organisations. This poses a challenge to leaders and managers in
understanding people they lead as individuals. Secondly, leaders need to know the structures and
environments of their organisations for them to be able to select relevant models of change for
their organisations.

4.1 Objectives
After working through this unit you should be able to :

• Explain the theories and models of change

• Explain the reinforcement strategies
• Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of implementing any of the theories of change
and models of change

64
4.2 Theories Of Change
The theories of change that will be looked at originate from number of social science disciplines
and traditions. Inspite of their diverse and often conflicting theoretical origins, they aim at
explaining how change in the individual and organisations could be understood, appreciated and
handled. Cameroon and Green (2009) perceive individual change as being influenced by the
following four schools of thought: the behaviourists focus on changing behaviour, cognitivists
are interested in results, while psychodynamics focuses on the inner world of change and
humanistic psychologists seek to maximise profit.

4.2.1 The Behavioural Approach to Change

Cameroon and Green (2009) state that one individual can change another individual’s behaviour
by using reward and punishments in order to achieve intended results. Their views were
supported by Burns (1992) who states that the behaviourist approach is that all behaviour is
learned and that the individual is a passive recipient of external and objective data. It therefore
follows that human actions are conditioned by expected outcomes. The main shortcoming in this
approach is that focus is on changing the behaviour of staff and managers at the expense of
improving processes, improving relationships or increasing goal attainment. It ignores interest
taken in how individuals specifically experience change (Cameroon and Green 2009). Skinner
and Pavlov are some of the leading scholars in this school of thought.

Pavlov conducted a research in which he noticed that when dogs were offered food, they would
salivate. The salivation process was triggered by the association of opening the door which
would be followed by food that would be provided immediately. The association is called
classical conditioning. Skinner (1953) experimented with cats, how to learn to escape from the
box through positive effects (rewards) and negative effects (punishments). He further
experimented with rats and observed that they learnt that an accident operation of a lever resulted
in the provision of food. The repeat of the food led to the rats repeating the behaviour. The
behaviour process is called operant conditioning. Table 1.2 helps to explain four possible
situations that can be used when one wants to encourage specific behaviour.

65
 Table 1.2:Operant Conditioning

Actions Positive Negative

Addition Positive reinforcement Punishment unpleasant (for
Pleasurable and increases example an electric shock)
probability of repeat ‘good’ leading to decrease in repeat
behaviour. ‘bad’ behaviour.

Subtraction Extinction Negative reinforcement

Removal of an unpleasant Removal of pleasant stimulus
stimulus increases the decreases the repeat ‘bad’
likelihood of repeat ‘good’ behaviour,
behavior
Source: Cameroon and Green (2009, p.21

When planning from a behavioural point of view, Cameroon and Green (2009: 21) suggest
that one of the following steps should be followed:

Step 1: The identification of a behaviour that impacts on performance

Step 2: The measurement of those behaviours. How much are these behaviour currently in
use?

Step 3: A functional analysis of those behaviours- that is, the identification of the
component parts that make up each behaviour.

Step 4: The generation of a strategy of intervention-what rewards and punishments should

be linked to the behaviours that impact on performance.

Step 5: The evaluation of the intervention strategy.

4.2.2 REINFORCEMENT STRATEGIES

Financial reinforcement

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Financial reinforcement is one of the traditional mechanisms used in most organisations
especially in sales oriented cultures. This could involve bonus payments, prizes and other
tangible rewards in common. For financial reinforcement to be effective, it needs to be
clearly, closely linked to behaviours and performance that the organisation requires.

Non-financial reinforcement

It usually takes the form of feedback given to an individual about performance on specific
tasks. It can be negative or positive. It is also dependent on the organisational culture and
leadership style in use. The feedback can take the following forms; coaching conversations
aimed at encouraging specific effective behaviours. On the other hand, ineffective
behaviours are discouraged and alternatives are generated.

Social reinforcement

It takes the form of interpersonal actions involving the communication of either a negative
or positive nature. Praise, compliments, general recognition, perhaps greater (or lesser)
attention can all act as a positive reinforcement for particular behaviours and outcomes. It
can be in the form of ‘naming and shaping’ for ineffective performance. The approach can
also be very useful when an organisational culture is underway. Group approval or
disapproval can be a determining factor in defining what behaviours are acceptable or
unacceptable within the culture.

Motivation and behaviour

According to Nyamunda (2002) due to changes in organisational environments in the 1960s,

the behaviourists approach could not address all the motivational needs that were emerging.
This led to further research work by McGregor (1960) and Herzberg to find out how
employees could be further motivated. McGregor put forward the X and Y theories of
motivation summarised in table 1.3 .Theory X according to Cameroon and Green (2009)
was based on the assumption that workers were not inherently motivated. They saw work as
a necessarily evil requiring close supervision. On the other hand Theory Y viewed human

67
 being as generally having a desire to work and when given a conducive environment are
prepared to give more for the success of the organisation.

Table 1.3: Summary of McGregor’s X and Y theories of Motivation

Theory X Assumptions Theory Y Assumptions

 People dislike work  People regard work as natural and

 They need controlling and directing normal
 They require security  They respond to more than just control
 They are motivated by threats and and coercion for example, recognition
punishments and encouragement
 They avoid taking responsibility  They commit themselves to the
 They lack ambition organisation’s objectives in line with

 They do not use their imagination rewards offered.

 They seek inner fulfillment from work
 Given the conducive environment,
people are willing to accept
responsibility and accountability
 People can be creative and innovative.

Source: Cameroon and Green (2009, p..23)

Herzberg researched on what motivated workers to give their best and he came up with two types
of drivers or motivators. They were the desire to avoid pain and depravation (hygiene factors)
and the desire to learn and develop (motivators). The researchers in the 1950s and 1960s
suggested that many organisations provided hygiene factors instead of motivators.

Herzberg’s main observations in his study were that hygiene factors did not motivate the
workforce but their withdrawal would demotivate the workforce. However, later researchers
have not fully replicated his findings. Herzberg’s motivation factors have been summarized in
table 1.4.

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 Table 1.4 : Herzberg’s motivating factors
Hygiene factors Motivators

Pay Achievement
Company policy Recognition
Quality of supervision / management Responsibility
Working relations Advancement
Working conditions Learning
Status Type and nature of work
Security
Source: Cameroon and Green (2009, p.24)

4.3 The cognitive approach

Dodd and White (1980) pointed out that to understand cognition various psychologists put
emphasis on three aspects which are; structure which involves the elements and components on
the intellect and interrelationships. The second element is the process involving particular
activities or operations involved in taking in, interpreting, organising and retrieving knowledge
or information. The third element is the function dealing with the purpose or goals of the person
in dealing with available potential knowledge. The three outlined elements are interrelated and
cannot be separated in the process and functions of the human mind. Cameroon and Green
(2009) see the cognitive approach as having been developed due to frustration with the
behaviourist approach. They agree with Dodd and White (1980) on that the cognitive approach
was interested in learning and developing the capacity for language and the person’s capacity to
solve problems. The approach investigated how the human mind works.

Therefore a cognitive theory was founded on the premise that human emotions and problems are
a result of the way they think. Individuals react in a way that they do because of the way they
appraise the situation they are in. By changing their thought processes, individuals can change
the way they respond to situations” (Cameroon and Green 2009:25) they dovetail. The cognitive
approach places emphasis on the results to be achieved. In order to succeed in achieving results,

69
Cameroon and Green (2009) suggest that the following questions could help in mapping the
route to our goals.

Key questions in achieving informed results

 Self-concept and values: what are my core values and how do they dovetail with those
of the organisations?
 Beliefs and attitudes: what are my limiting beliefs and attitudes and how do I replace
them?
 Feelings: what is my most effective state of being to accomplish my goals and what is
my first step?
 Behaviour: what specifically do I need to do to achieve my goals and what might get in
the way?

The five questions follow a linear order and when addressed in the same order the greater the
chances of getting informed results. Some of the leading researchers who have contributed to the
cognitive theory are Albert Ellis, (1977) with his work on rational emotive therapy and Aaron
Beck (1970) who contributed to cognitive therapy. Beck (1970) sees cognitive therapy as based
on the following underlying theoretical rationale; that an individual’s affect (moods, emotions)
and behaviour are largely determined by the way in which they interpret the world. It follows
that how a person thinks determines how he/she feels and reacts. In the change process, there is a
reflection when one looks back and tries to make sense of the results. This usually involves
talking to oneself for example, a student who has done well in the examination could say; ‘I
know I would be in the top ten’ while another who did not do so well could talk to themselves
saying ‘ I am sure I can do better in the next examination’.

4.3.1 Cognitive Techniques for Change

Cameroon and Green (2009) have come up with eight techniques that could be used for changing
beliefs of people resulting in the improvement of their performance. They include the following:

70
Positive listings: it involves listing all positive qualities one has such as good feelings, good
experiences, and good results, areas of skills, knowledge and expertise. When one takes these to
be part of them it creates the opportunity to reinforce them leading to enhanced beliefs.

Affirmations: these are positive statements describing the way one wants to be. They make you
have a sense of worth and achievement. The statements should be personal, in present tense and
potent. The following are some of the few:

 Personal: “I am always enthusiastic when it comes to work!” (shows one can make it)
 Present tense: “I am always enthusiastic when it comes to work!” (Emphasises current
state of affairs that continue to propel you forward.)
 Positive: “I am always enthusiastic when it comes to work!”(emphasis is in positive
attributes not the absent negative attributes)
 Potent: “I am always enthusiastic when it comes to work!” ( words that evoke something
in you)

They are similar to affirmations but focus on the positive present mental image. Effective
visualisations take place when you are in a very relaxed state imagining what you want to be. It
goes further in imagining what you as a team would see, hear and feel. In the process, one
mobilises and engages all senses they would need to achieve a specific goal. It requires
continuous meditation.

Reframing: It is a technique for reducing feelings and thoughts that negatively impact on
performance. It reduces the size, magnitude and impact posed by the situation before you.
Shrinks it to a manageable situation you will handle with ease and confidence.

Pattern breaking: It is a technique of physically or symbolically taking attention from a

negative state focusing it on a positive. For example, if you have been asked to make a
presentation before a big gathering one may feel nervous. You have to have a positive mindset
through convincing yourself that you would be able to do it. This can be done through talking to
yourself using gesture saying ‘’There is nothing impossible, I am ready for it and will do it’’

Detachment: This, according to Cameroon and Green (2009) is similar to pattern breaking. It
involves moving away from negative motions through a process in which you imagine yourself

71
stepping outside your body abandoning the negativity, becoming move composed and rational
generating confidence to deal with the situation.

Anchoring and resource states: This consists of two techniques in which you remember
positive experiences of the past which are components of success whenever you are presented
with a challenging situation which may seem impossible. Reflect on your past experiences and
identify these elements that brought about your success. Play back that tape recalling some of the
statements, phrases that led to your success. Repeat some of the key statements as you deal with
the new situation.

Rational analysis: Cameroon and Green (2009) view it as based on the notions that are not
always rational especially when we look at the negative outcome of situations. You continue to
convince yourself that whatever happened in the past is unbelievable and the situation outcomes
should have been the positive one. By continually proving that it’s an irrational belief, you will
eventually come to disbelief.

4.4 The Psychodynamics Approach To Change

Cameroon and Green (2009) state that the psychodynamic approach is based on the idea that
when facing change in the external world individuals experiences a variety of internal
psychological states. In this unit the Kubler–Ross and Virginia Satir models will be used to try
and explain the Psychodynamics approach to change.

4.4.1 Kubler Ross Model

The background of the model is a medical or health sector one. Kubler–Ross realised that
terminally ill patients went through different psychological stages in the process of coming to
terms with their conditions. With time this model has been found to be applicable to different
situations where people experience other types of profound change (Cameroon and Green, 2009).
The model suggests that patients go through five stages as they come to terms with their
prognosis. The stages are; denial, anger, bargaining, depression and acceptance.

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Denial

Cameroon and Green (2009) are of the opinion that people facing catastrophic change would not
be at easy to accept the communication. They go through disbelief and deny their situation. They
become emotionally numb since they did not expect to go through such experience. In the job
environment, this can happen when for example they lose their job unexpectedly while they have
a lot of financial commitments. They find it difficult to image what would happen immediately
and in the future.

Anger

When individuals acknowledge what has happened or they are likely to go through, they enter
the stage of anger. They ask themselves such as questions as; ‘why me?’, “ How could I be so
stupid to do such a thing ? ” They try to find someone to blame for their misfortune.
Alternatively, they may blame themselves saying ‘I wish I had listened to the advice I was given
or I wish it had happened after finishing my examinations.’ In a way anger becomes a safety
spout for releasing our real feelings about the situation.

Bargaining

This is the third stage of the cycle which according to Kubler–Ross involves a desperate search
for a remedy for the situation. According to Cameroon and Green (2009) there is deflection of
the gravity of the situation. The bargaining comes as a result of panic and fear of the unknown or
preceding consequences for those about to die. They may enter into a conversation with God
asking for an extension of time ‘ I promise to be good from now God if you forgive me and give
another chance’. For someone who made a foolish mistake and has lost the job they might say: ‘I
wish the manager could allow me to pay for the loss and in return save my job’.

Depression

Kubler–Ross in Cameroon and Green (2009) sees this as a stage when individuals realise that
bargaining would not provide an escape or solution for the situation. It is a period of grieving for
loss. As for those who will be at the point of death, they see themselves losing everything they
had and those they have known. One will have reached a point where they are ready to give up
on everything and grieving for the loss they are about to endure. For some it is a form of apathy

73
or sense of pointlessness while for others it can be taken as a form of sadness or a mixture of
intense emotions and dissociated states.

Acceptance

Kubler-Ross saw many people move out of their depression and enter the fifth stage of
acceptance. While they are not necessarily happy, they begin to come to terms with reality of
their situation and realise they cannot avoid what is going to happen. They have a sense of being
fully in touch with their feelings about the situation, their hopes and fears and anxieties. They
accept and become fully prepared for the inevitable.

The Kubler –Ross process has been given in figure 1.6.

Denial
Anger
l

Acceptance
Self Esteem

Bargaining

Depression

Time

Figure1.6
The Process of Change and Adjustment
Source: Cameroon and Green (2009:34)

74
Implications of the Model

When dealing with management of change it is important to understand the dualistic forms of
change. These can be changes occurring to the individual as well as to the organisation. These
two forms are reciprocal in that change in the individual is likely to be transferred to the
organisation’s operations. On the other hand, whatever happens to the organisation’s structure
and operations it impinges on the individual. It is important for managers and leaders of
organisations to understand that their subordinates face changes which they need to understand
its phases and impact. Such knowledge is likely to help them to assist their subordinates going
through different types of change which are likely to affect the efficiency with which they
discharge their duties.

4.4.2 Virginia Satir Model

The model has its origins in family therapy where Satir et al, (1991) observed individuals and
families experiencing a number of changes. The model has four stages in which there are two
elements that move the individual which are the foreign element and the transforming idea as
depicted in figure 1.7

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 Foreign
Element
Transforming New Status
Idea
Self Esteem

Quo
Old Status Integration
Quo and Practie

Chaos

Time

Figure 1.7
Virginia Satir Model
Source: Cameroon and Green (2009:36)

In explaining the model, Cameron and Green (2009) view the starting point as that of keeping to
the status quo. This he likens to the routine of experience in our homes and at work where we
have things in the same way for quite some time. This happens at work when the industry is
working in is mature with well-established work processes with perhaps no need for change.
Change occurs when the system experiences entry of a foreign element, it could be in the form of
illness, loss of job or failure to succeed in something one was putting a lot of effort and hope in.

While life may continue, the individual life might be upset because of the created disequilibrium.
This could create a disbelief, denial or emotional numbness at first creating some confusion.
Some resistance results with the aim of maintaining the status quo. Systems previously relied on
are shaken and one may not know where to go for help. During the period of chaos, signs of
anger and disorganisation can enter in the individual’s world. As chaos continues, introspection
may eventually ignite a germ idea rekindling hope. This could be equated to Kubler–Ross
model‘s stage where an individual comes to terms with reality involving acknowledgement and

76
acceptance. While a lot of work may still need to be done to transform the situation there would
be some apparent strategy to use to get out of the plight.

Eventually the transformation seed strikes root and the process of restoration and re- equilibrium
starts to take place. It is a period of integration ushering a new world order to be assimilated into
the individual’s world. This could be linked to organisational transformation at one’s place of
work which has given them sleepless nights and scars struggling to see what job could they end
up with and whether they could be accommodated in the new structure. One may end up being
offered a post they have no idea about. This is better than being thrown out of the system. With a
lot of perseverance and tinkering with ideas one finds the new job more exciting with, more
promotion prospects and autonomy.

Implications of the model

Transformational change in organisations comes with inevitable significant disequilibrium or

chaos affecting individuals in the system. They are put in situations of uncertainty accompanied
with a lot of anxiety and confusion at times. Managers require to come up with a change plan
which when availed may seem complex but when gradually implemented restores stability to the
system as well as hope and security for the subordinates.

4.5 Gestalt Approach to Individual and Organisational Change

The founder of the Gestalt therapy was Fritz Perls who believed that what happens to the
individual depended on what he called “ …. the here and now.” According to Cameroon and
Green(2009), “Perls believed that a person’s difficulties today arise because of the way he / she
is acting today, here and now”. Perls(1976) had this to say about the approach:

The goal…. must be to give him the means which can solve the present problems
and any that may arise tomorrow or next year. The tool is self-support and this he
achieves by dealing with himself and his problems with all the means presently at
his command, right now. If he can be truly aware at every instant of himself and
his actions on whatever level- fantasy, verbal or physical-he can see how he is
producing his difficulties, he can see what his present difficulties are and he can
help himself to solve them in the present, in the here and now.

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Bower and Hilgard (1981) further go on to say that Gestalt psychology is primarily interested in
perception and the problem solving process. They add that gestalters begin with certain rather
abstract ideas, concerning nature of perception and thinking and the structure of psychological
experience. They then proceed to interpret familiar observations in terms of these novel concepts
as well as arrange striking demonstrations of the operation of the alleged organising forces to
which their theory refers. Cameroon and Green (2009) emphasise that the Gestalt is experiential,
and not just based on talking, and there is an emphasis on doing, acting and feeling. They further
suggest that gestalters use a cycle of experience to map how often than not they block themselves
from completing the cycle in the process as illustrated in figure 1.8.

Action
Mobilisation
Mobilisatio Action
of energy
n of energy

Awareness

Awareness Contact

Sensation
Sensation Resolution
or closure

Withdrawal
of attention

TIME

Figure 1.8
The Gestalt cycle
Source: Cameroon and Green (2009, p.48)

78
Nevis in Cameroon and Green (2009:49) briefly outlines the following essential stages in the
cycle which influences managerial decision making:

Awareness: Data generation, seeking information , review to past performance , environmental

scanning.

Energy / Action: Attempts to mobilise energy and interest in ideas or proposals, supporting
ideas presented by others, identifying and experiencing differences and conflicts of competing
interests or views, supporting own position and seeking maximum participation.

Contact: Joining in a common objective, common recognition of problem definition,

indications of understanding, not necessarily agreement, choosing a course of possible future
action.

Resolution: Testing, checking for common understanding, reviewing what’s occurred,

acknowledgement of what has been accomplished and what remains to be done, identifying the
meaning of the discussion, generalising from what has been learned, beginning to develop
implementation and action plans.

Withdrawal: Pausing to let things sink in reducing energy and interests in the issue, turning to
others, task or problems, ending the meeting.

Implications of the gestalt approach

Managers and leaders in organisations need to know about the approach since it influences both
themselves and their subordinates when they make decisions. Current situations influence the
choice of their decisions. Sometimes we can blame them or they can blame themselves for lack
of foresight in their decisions. This could have been influenced by the way they perceived,
understood and interpreted the situation at that particular time and not necessarily what things
could be in the future. The gestalt is a self-support tool which needs to be used with a lot of
patience and foresight.

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 ACTIVITY 4.1

a. What are the rewards and punishments used in your organization and how effective
they are in bringing about a change?

b. What are the benefits and limitations of cognitive approach?

c. Think of the current or recent change in your organization.

 Map the progress of the change on to Satir’s model.

 At what points did the change falter?
 At what point did it accelerate?
 What factors contributed to each case?

4.6 Models And Approaches To Organisational Change

Models of change that will be looked at will be presented in association with metaphors of
organisations. Organisations will be looked as machines, political systems, organisms and as flux
and transformation. The analogy of these metaphors helps us to appreciate how they respond to
change and transformation.

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 Activity 4.2

Carry out a research that is likely to help you to explain why the behaviour
of organisations can be explained using the following metaphors:

 Organisms
 Political systems
 Machines
 Flux and transformation
 Cultures
 Brains
 Psychic prisons
 Instruments of domination.

4.6.1 Kurt Lewin’s Model

This model sees organisations as organisms or machines in the way they respond to change. The
idea in the model according to Kurt Lewin (1951) is that in any successful change process,
driving forces for change should outweigh forces that resist change. The interrelationship of
these forces is called the force field analysis illustrated in figure 1.9. Cameroon and Green
(2009) explain this further by saying in a situation where a manager wants to speed up the
executive reporting process, then either the driving forces need to be increased or the resisting
forces decreased. This means that those responsible for making changes to the executive
reporting process are aware of how much time it will free up if they are successful and the
benefits they will get. It could require spending some time and effort managing customer
expectations and supporting them in coping with reducing resisting forces.

81
 Managing board asking for this

Speed up executive reporting process

We have little time free to tackle this
Will free up the time for us

Customers will be disgruntled by

Provides opporunities for
changes
questioning
customer requirements

SAP will override all this in two years.

Good PR for us

Figure 1.9
Lewin’s Force Field Analysis
Source: Cameroon and Green (2009, p.110)

According to Cameroon and Green (2009), Lewin came up with a model which looks at
organisational change taking place in the stages shown in Figure 1.9. The first stage involves
unfreezing the current state of affairs. The current state is defined exposing the driving and
resisting forces and giving a picture of the desired state. In the second stage, is the new state
achieved through participation and involvement. The third stage involves refreezing and
stabilising the new state of affairs by setting policy, rewarding success and establishing new
standards.

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 UNFREEZE
Taken action
Make changes
Involve people

Examine status quo

Increase driving forces
Decrease resisting forces Make change permanent
against change MOVE Establish new way of things
Reward desired outcomes

REFREEZE

Figure 1.10
Lewin’s three step Model
Source: Cameron and Green (2009, p.111

The model works on the basis of the metaphor of the organism where organisations are
perceived to maintain an equilibrium in response to disrupting changes.

Relevance of the model

Cameroon and Green (2009) view the model as providing a powerful tool for organisational
change. The force field analysis can provide management team with a good way to discuss and
agree on the driving and resisting forces existing in a situation. It can further assist a team to
quickly move to defining the next steps in the change process. These steps according to
Cameroon and Green (2009, p.112) would be:

 Communicating the gap between the current state and the end state to the key players in
the process.
 Work to minimise the resisting forces.

83
  Working to maximise on the driving forces.
 Agreeing on a change plan and a timeline for achieving the end state.

Finally it is important to note that the model can be used as a planning tool by managers and
leaders rather than as an organisational development process. The unfreezing becomes a
planning session translating to implementation .The re-freezing is a post-implementation review.

ACTIVITY 4.3

Reflect on an organizational change which you were involved in or which you

have studied that failed to achieve the expected results. Analyse what transpired
with help of Lewin’s force field analysis.

4.6.2 Bullock and Batten Model

This is a model of planned change which draws on the disciplines of project management
working on the metaphor of an organisation as a machine. The model was put forward by
Bullock and Batten in (1985) (Cameroon and Green 2009). The model has four stages which are;
exploration, planning, action and integration.

Exploration: Involves verifying the need for change and acquiring any specific resources
necessary for change such as expertise.

Planning: It is an activity involving key decision makers and technical experts. This is followed
by a diagnosis and sequencing actions of the change plan. The plan is approved by management
before it is put into the action stage.

Action: Actions are completed according to the plan with feedback mechanisms which allow
some replanning if things go off track.

84
Integration: The stage involves aligning the change with other areas in the organisation and
formalising it in some way through established mechanisms such as policies, rewards and
company updates.

Relevance of the model

The model suggests that it is worthwhile to carry out change in a planned way. The origins of
this model is from the project management approach which is useful in that it simplifies the
change process isolating one part of the organisational machinery in order to make necessary
changes. Cameroon and Green (2009) view the organisational change model as a technical
problem that can be solved with a definable technical solution. The approach works with isolated
issues but works less well when organisations are facing complex, unknowable change which
may require those involved discussing and critically analysing the situation before adopting the
approach.

4.6.3 Kotter’s Model

The model operates under assumptions that organisations can operate in three metaphors which
are; a machine, political system and organisms. According to the ABE manual (2008) Kotter’s
model has eight steps which are based on eight lessons he learnt during his research in 100
different organisations going through the process of change. The main issues on which the
models focus on are; importance of a ‘felt need’ for change in the organisation, the need to
communicate the vision and keeping communication levels very high through the process
(Cameroon and Green 2009).

Steps of Kotter’s Model

Step 1: Establishing the issue of urgency-this involves discussing today’s competitive realities,
looking at potential future scenarios and increasing the ‘felt need’ for change.

Step 2: Formation of a powerful coalition-entails assembling a powerful group of people who

can work well together.

Step 3: Creation of a vision. Involves building a vision to guide the change effort together for
achieving this.

85
Step 4: Communication of a vision. Kotter (1995) emphasises the need to communicate at least
10 times the amount an individual is expected to have to communicate. The vision and
accompanying strategies and new behaviours need to be communicated in a variety of ways. In
the process, the guiding coalition should be the first role model of new behaviour.

Step 5: Empowering others to act on the vision. The step includes getting rid of obstacles to
change such as unhelpful structures or systems. Subordinates should be allowed to experiment.

Step 6: Planning and creation of short term wins. This involves looking for and advertising short
term visible improvement.

Step 7: Consolidation of improvements for more changes This involves promoting and
rewarding those with the ability to work towards the vision. The process of change is energised
with new projects, resources and change agents.

Step 8: Institutionalisation of new approaches. It aims at ensuring that everyone understands new
behaviours leading to corporate success.

Observations on the model

The eight stages emphasise that introducing change in an organisation should not be a sudden
storm. It requires planning followed by an implementation process done in gradual stages which
build on each other in order to ensure that those affected by the change are not overwhelmed. If
overwhelmed they are likely to resist the change envisaged.

4.6.4 Beckhard and Harris Model

According to Cameroon and Green (2009) Beckhard and Harris (1987) developed a formula
from the work of Gelicher. The model is in the form of a formula. It focuses on factors that need
to be in place in order to make change happen. The model works on the metaphor of an
organisation as an organism.

86
 C= [ABD]>X

C= Change

B= Desirability of the proposed change or end state

A= level of dissatisfaction with the status quo

D= practicality of the change (minimal risk and disruption)

X= cost of changing.

Figure 1.11
Beckhard’s Formula
Source: Cameroon and Green (2009, p.117)

According to backward and Harris in Cameroon and Green(2009:117) factors A, B, and D must
outweigh the perceived costs [X] in order for change to occur. If any person or group whose
commitment is needed is not sufficiently dissatisfied with the present state of affairs [A], eager to
achieve the proposed end state [B] and convinced of the feasibility of change[D], then the cost
[X] of change is too high, and that person will resist the change. It is important in the process of
change for managers to analyse any form of potential resistance and make an effort to work with
it, minimise it, and make secure the need for commitment from the resistant party.

The same change formula can be presented as (A x B x D)>X. In this form the multiplication
implies that if any factor is zero or near zero the product will be zero or near zero and the
resistant to change will not be overcome. Therefore if the vision is not clear or dissatisfaction
with the current state is not felt, or the plan is obscure, the chances of any change are greatly
reduced.

87
Implications of Beckhard and Harris Model

The model is very useful by nature of its flexibility. It can be used at any point of the change
process to analyse how things are going. However, when the formula is shared with all parties
involved in the change, it can help to show what the parties need to do to make change succeed.
It can highlight problem areas which could include :

 Staff not experiencing dissatisfaction with the status quo.

 Failure to clearly communicate the proposed change to the key people.
 Proposed end state not being desirable to the change implementers.
 The tasks being given to the change implementers being too complicated or not being
defined.

ACTIVITY 4.4

There is a debate whether Botswana College of Distance Open Learning

should be turned into a conventional university or upgraded into a full
university of Distance Open Learning. You have been asked to support the
latter view. Use the Beckhard and Harris Model to defend your case.

4.6.5 Nadler and Tushman Congruence Model

The model suggests that when implementing change in an organisation, the organisation
functions as a political system or organism being driven by sets of interacting subsystems.
Nadler and Tushman (1997) view the subsystems as having the capability to scan and sense
changes in the external environment. The model views an organisation as a system that draws
inputs from both internal and external sources (strategy, resources, and environment) and
transforms into outputs( activities, behaviour and performance levels). Nadler in Cameroon and
Green (2009) emphasises the point that the model should not be taken as prescriptive in
providing solutions. He further suggest that it should be used as an analytic tool for

88
transformation process, a tool for organising thinking as opposed to a rigid template to dissect,
clarify and compartmentalise what we observe.

It is important to emphasise the point that the model accommodates a socio-technical view of
organisations focusing on managerial, strategic, technical and social aspects of the organisations.
Their functions are interdependent and all work for the success and survival of the organisations.
The model has four subsystems that are interdependent which have been outlined as follows in
Cameroon and Green (2009, p. 120):

 The work. These are the actual day to day activities carried out by individuals. Process
designs, pressures on the individual and available rewards must all be considered under
this element.
 The people. Involves the skills and characteristics of the people who work in an
organisation. What are their expectations and their backgrounds?
 The formal organisation. Refers to the structure, systems and policies in place. How are
things formally organised?
 The informal organisation. This consists of all the unplanned unwritten activities that
emerge over time such as power, influence, values and norms.

89
 Informal
organisation

INPUT
Strategy Work Formal OUTPUT
Resources Individual, team

Environment
organisation and
organisational
performance

People

Managing change-transformation process

Figure 1.12
Nedler and Tushman Congruence Model
Source: Cameroon and Green (2009, p.117)

Implications of the model

When using the model, it is necessary to consider that a change in one component has a ripple
effect in other three components. In the process, the system wobbles and oscillates for a while
but eventually all the components will adjust and settle down to their new equilibrium.

If there is a misalignment of the components, the system will return to the old equilibrium with
change fizzling out. It is also important to note that when lack of congruence occurs, energy
builds in the system in the form of resistance, control and power (Cameroon and Green 2009,
p.121).

Resistance: Comes from fear of the unknown or need for maintaining the status quo. Change
from outside has unpredictable effects and decreases the sense of independence. The situation
can be managed by increasing subordinates participation in future plans.

90
Control issue: Results from normal structures and processes being in a state of flux. Therefore
change needs to be managed in different ways for example by employing a transition manager.

Power challenges: Arise where there is a threat that individuals may lose power. This could be
overcome by building powerful coalitions to drive the change process.

Relevance of the Model

The model is useful in providing a memorable checklist for those implementing change. It can be
used as an evaluation tool for a change process that has been carried out, identifying parts that
did not adapt well as well as the knock-on effects of the change in other parts of the system.

4.6.6 Senge et al Model

From Cameroon and Green’s (2009) perspective change conceptualisation and implementation is
better understood when examined in the following metaphors of organisation ; systems, political
, organisms as well as flux and transformation. These approaches underscore the complexity of
change in organisations. The focus of the model is on balancing processes or forces of the
homeostasis which act to preserve the status quo in any organisation.

Senge et al. in Cameroon and Green (2009) observed that efforts to bring about change are
frustrated by embedded issues in existing systems of management. These may include managers’
commitment to change as long as it does not affect them, undiscussable topics that feel risky to
talk about and the ungained habit of attacking symptoms while ignoring deeper systematic
causes of problems.

Senge et al. (1997) have come up with the following guidelines of approaching change:

 Smart small
 Grow steadily
 Do not plan the whole thing
 Expect challenges as it is rare for the whole process to be smooth

The Senge et al approach is interested in long term issues sustaining and renewing organisational
change. They examine challenges involved in initiating, secondly in sustaining and thirdly in
redesigning and suggestions for dealing with the balancing forces of equilibrium as in:

91
  Lack of adequate time. People working on change initiatives need extra time outside to
devote to change efforts, otherwise there will be resistance.
 Lack of new skills. Change can only succeed when new skills and mindsets are
developed in the participants.
 Lack of conviction for the need for change. Unless people are convinced of the need
for change, it will not happen.
 Failure to walk the talk. Unless people are convinced that management is reinforcing
new values and behaviours, there is likely to be resistance to change.

Challenges for sustaining change when it impacts on the whole organisation

Discomfort from new change. This occurs when individuals feel exposed or become fearful
about changes and start to blame the changes for wasting their time and effort.

Impatience about positive results. It usually comes from people outside the pilot group as well
as from some within the group. They want quick results while current progress in change may
not be measured using traditional ways they are used to.

Pilot group claiming ownership of the change. This happens when the pilot group identifies
itself with the change, making themselves the custodians of change ignoring the need to involve
other stakeholders. This automatically generates resistance from outside.

Challenges Relating to Redesigning and Rethinking Change

These normally surfaces when a change achieves some visible measure of success and starts to
impact on the ingrained traditional habits.

Control Rivalry – this type of conflict can arise between successful pilot groups want to do
more and compete with those who see themselves as the governing body of the organization.
This cripples change.

92
Limited communication and dissemination of information. When this takes place, it becomes
difficult to spread knowledge on new ideas and processes around the organization. People who
are distant from the changes may resist change because they do not have accurate information
about what is going on.

Purpose and strategy change. Challenges arise when trying to convince other participants on
the purpose of change as well as strategy to be used. This can create friction and resistance from
management since making decisions is being challenged. This in the majority of situations stalls
the envisaged change process.

Implications of the model.

The model calls for the realistic approach to change which should not be change for the sake of
it. Certain areas of good practice should be preserved and integrated with relevant new ideas.
Senge et al. (1997) have suggested some important signposts in the direction of successful
change which are:

 Consider running a pilot for any large scale organizational change;

 Keep your change process goals realistic, especially when it comes to timescales and
resources;
 Understand your role in staying close to change efforts beyond the kick off;
 Recognise and reward activities that are already going the right way ;
 Be as open as you can about the purpose and mission of your enterprise or change.

ACTIVITY 4.5

Justify which model of organisational change would help you with each of the
following changes:

a. Implementing a merger of two leading retail organisations in Botswana

Spar and Choppies.
b. Combining Zimbabwe Open University with Botswana College of
Distance Open Learning.
93 Airline Quantas.
c. Acquisition of Air Botswana by Australian
4.7 Summary
The concept of change and transformation is quite complex hence the effort to discuss it using
both theories and models of change. Theories of change focused on several approaches that
could be used to explain approaches to individual change. They outlined some of the approaches
organisations could use to change individuals so that they are compatible and useful to
organisations that engage in their services. This was done by looking at the behavioural,
cognitive, psychodynamics and gestalt approaches. These approaches involved a number of
theories that were outlined. It is assumed that when we use the appropriate approaches to make
the individual receptive to change, the individual is in a better position to change the
organization. A few models of change were also looked at. Models of change are very useful in
providing plausible options, managers and leaders could use implementation of change since
change and transformation are unavoidable. Individuals are complex while organisations are
complex and dynamic. Changing individuals and organisations’ compatibility is not easy and
cannot be achieved using a single approach. This justifies the discussion of theories of individual
change and models of organization change.

References

Cameroon, E. and Green, M. (2009), Making sense of management Change. (2nd edition) Kogan
Page. London and Philadelphia.

Dodd, D. H. and White, R. M. Jr. (1980) ,Cognition, Mental structures and Processes. Allyn
and Bacon Inc. Boston.

94
Bower, H.B. and Hilgard E.R (1981), Theories of Learning (4thedition) Prentice Hall, Inc.
Englewood Cliffs, N, J.

Mullins, L.J. (2007), Management and organizational behaviour (8th edition) Prentice Hall,
Harlow England

Nyamunda, P. (2002) ,Organizational Leadership, Zimbabwe Open University, Harare.

Association of Business Executives (2008), Managing in organizations; Advance diploma in

Business Management, ABE, Surrey.

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 UNIT 5

CRITICAL SUCCESS FACTORS FOR LEADERSHIP AND CHANGE MANAGEMENT

5.0 Introduction
Change is necessary and unavoidable for the improvement and survival of an organisation.
Regardless of whether change is planned or not, there is need to manage it in order to yield desired
results while minimising on any resultant side effects. Marcouse et al. (2005:303) posits that; “The
management of change is the process of planning, implementing, controlling and reviewing the
movement of an organisation from its current state to a new position which is believed to be more
desirable. The most extreme change would involve abolishing is the existing way of doing things and
starting again. More often adjustments are made to the present approach in order to fit a new
position.”

There are many factors which contribute to successful change management. Some of them have
already been discussed in the previous units. In this unit, attention shall be given to the following;
vision and mission, change strategy, change agent, decision making, delegation and team building.
The foregoing however are not the only critical success factors for leadership and change
management.

5.1 Learning objectives

By the time you go through this unit, it is expected that you should be able to explain how the
following factors contribute to successful leadership and change management:

• Vision and mission

• Change strategy
• Change agent
• Decision making
• Delegation
• Team building

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5.2 Vision and Mission
5.2.1 Vision

Marcouse et al (2005) view a vision as the company’s projection of what it wants to achieve in
future. They further suggest that it should be ambitious, relevant, easy to communicate and capable
of motivating and inspiring staff. For example Bill Gates’ vision in the 1980s for Microsoft was, ‘a
computer on every desk and in everyone’s home’. While it may seem inspiring and too obvious, in
the 1980s it seemed extraordinary. Boddy (2005) views creating a vision as being closely aligned to
leadership activities. The vision as he sees it provides the purpose and reason for change and
describes the desired future state. When combined together, they answer the “why” and “what” of
planned change. Cameroon and Green (2009) state that in leadership and strategy, vision, mission
and values need to be overt, obvious, communicated and followed. There is need to ensure an
alignment of the vision and the strategy.

According to Cummings and Worley (2000) creating a vision is a very important activity in leading
and managing change. It involves creating a vision of what members want the organisation to look
like or become. They view a vision as describing the core values and purpose that guides the
organisation as well as envisioned future towards which change is directed. It provides a valued
direction for designing, implementing and assessing organisational changes. “The vision can also
energise commitment to change by providing members with a common goal and a compelling
rationale for why change is necessary and worth the effort. However, if the vision is seen as
impossible or promotes changes that the organisation cannot implement, it actually depresses
member motivation” (Worley and Cummings 2000:159)

Cummings and Worley (2000) consider creating a vision as the key element in most leadership
frameworks where the organisation or subunit leaders as responsible for effectiveness and one
required to take an active role in describing a desired future and energising commitment to it. In
many cases, leaders encourage participation in developing the vision to gain wide input and support
through the involvement of subordinates and others who have a stake in the changes.

A misalignment of the vision and change strategy or r the change itself creates frustration and

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conflict on the part of the participants. Resources can also be wasted in the process and the process
of change management becomes a futile exercise.

5.2.2 Mission

According to Marcourse et al (2005:256) “The overall reason for the firm’s existence is known as its
corporate aim or mission. This is often written out in a mission statement. The mission statement is
usually a fairly general target. It sets out the overall purpose of the firm without much detail”. For
example Coca-Cola’s mission is to ensure its products are within ‘an arm’s length desire’. While
such a mission is meant to inspire and define the underlying purpose of the organisation, it lacks the
specific information needed for planning.

To plan properly, the firm needs to turn the mission into a corporate objective specifying what the
firm wants to achieve, which products it will provide, how they will be provided as well as time-
scales to be used. Coca-Cola then turns the idea into a corporate objective. Different functional
managers such as human resources, marketing, production, finance and others work out their targets
which will contribute towards the attainment of the corporate objective. If everyone meets their
target successfully, then Coca-Cola will meet its objective. Marcouse et al further suggest that once
all managers have agreed on their objectives, it becomes possible to develop appropriate strategies
which show how the objectives will be achieved.

5.3 Change Strategy

According to Rao (2010:97) “In simple terms a strategy is planned or an emergent course of action
that is expected to contribute to the achievement of organisational goals. A strategy can also be an
idea or a thought that is viewed to be productive, to complete a course of action”. In its utility
essence, Rao (2010) further refocuses on it as a unified, comprehensive and integrated plan involving
allocation and utilisation of resources to ensure that the basic objectives of the enterprise are
achieved through proper execution by the organisation.

Implications

• In the change management process, success rests on the ability to mesh the vision, mission and
change strategy.

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• A successful change management process requires a visionary and motivating change agent or
leader.

5.4 Change Agent

Rao (2010) cites Robins who defines change agents as persons who act as catalysts and assume
responsibility for managing change activities. They are employees or managers or executives of a
company or outside management consultants. They are expected to be visionaries who can foresee
the possible changes in technology, products and markets. They plan for modifications in the
company and implement modifications.

5.4.1 Roles of Change Agents (Rao,2010:226)

a) Changing the organisational structure: Change agents introduce changes in the
organisational structure of the following nature:

• selecting new approaches of the organisational design like team structure and empowerment

• open and flexible structure

• matrix structure

• flat structure

• simple and dynamic structure

b) Changing Technology: Change agents introduce new innovative technological equipment and
ideas such as ;

• machines

• operating methods

• new ideas

• new knowledge

• automation and information technology based techniques

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c) Changing Physical Settings: change agents introduce changes in the physical layout of;

• factory and store

• office and furniture based on ergonomics

• space configurations

• decorations and colour

d) Changing People: change agents have a significant role in changing;

• attitudes, norms, values, aptitude and behaviour

• leadership skills, team building skills

• openness, communication ability and problem solving abilities

5.4.2 Change Agent Power

In any change management process, it is important to assess change power. This helps to assess their
power bases which they can use to influence others (Cummings and Worley 2000). They see the use
of the following power bases or sources; knowledge, personality and others ‘support. In the change
process then can also identify areas in which they need to enhance their sources of power.

a) Knowledge base power:

It includes having expertise that is valued by others and controlling important information.
According to Cumming and Worley (2000) organisational development professionals typically gain
power through their expertise in the organisational change.

b) Personal sources of power:

This type of power can derive from change agents’ charisma, reputation and professional credibility.
Charismatic leaders can inspire devotion and enthusiasm for change from subordinates.
Organisational development consultants with strong reputations and professional credibility can
wield considerable power during organisational change.

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c) Others’ support

It can also augment individual power by providing access to information and the resource networks.
Others may also use their power on behalf of the agent for example, by calling on their informal
networks for resources and support and encourage subordinates to exercise power in support of the
change

5.4.3 Implications

Without a clearly defined vision and mission supported by a relevant change strategy, the change
management process cannot successfully take off. It requires an identification of change leader,
guider and facilitator who will play the role of a change agent. Not anyone can be given or appointed
to the position of change agent. It has to be someone with special skills, clear vision and mission of
the organisation. Cameroon and Green (2008) suggest that a change agent should be visionary with
the following attributes or qualities:

• Articulating a compelling picture of the future

• Energising groups of people and engaging them

• Ability and skills of holding the vision long enough and strong enough for others to step
into

• Focusing on the ‘buy-in’.

Therefore mission as vision, change strategy and change agent are some of the crucial interrelated
critical success factors for change management.

Activity 5.1

Results from a customer service survey for Botswana Power Corporation

indicate poor customer service. As the Chief Executive of the organisation and
your team of managers. You want to turn around the situation. Discuss the
types of change and change strategies you require to put in place in order for
you to achieve the turn-around. Your efforts should take into consideration the
mission and vision of the organisation. 101
5.5 Decision making
It is one of the critical success factors for leadership and change management. Leaders and managers
have the responsibility to make decisions which affect the success of the organisation as well as the
welfare and professional growth of their subordinates. It is important for leaders to understand what
the process involves so that they have guidance in making relevant and informed decisions that suit
the different challenges they may encounter in change management.

5.5.1 Decision

Boddy (2005; 197) has this to say; “A decision is a specific commitment to action (usually a
commitment of resources). Decisions can be classified as follows; individual, group, organisational,
and societal. In this unit the focus shall be on organisational decisions since the organisation is the
home of leadership/ management and change process.

5.5.2 Decision Making Process

Rao (2011:117) defines decision making as “… the process of choosing the best from among the
alternative solutions under a given set of circumstances”. Scott and Mitchell (1976:210) have this to
say about decision making; ‘regardless of the level of decision making, the process involves certain
common ingredients. They are (a) a search process to discover goals, (b) the formulation of
objectives after the search; (c) the selection of alternative strategies to accomplish objectives and (d)
evaluation of outcomes.”

5.5.3 Search Process

In the process, the individual or organisation undertakes to find a new goal because of dissatisfaction
with outcomes within an existing goal structure. The present payoff or benefit out of the present set
of goals would be less than the individual’s or organisational level of aspiration. This is the gap
between the present state of affairs and the desired state of affairs which results in a call for change.

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5.5.4 Formulation of Objectives

This is viewed by Scott and Mitchell (1976) as a focus on the values which are desired by the
decision maker. This could be viewed as an attempt by the decision maker to maximise or minimise
values such as profits, losses, costs, salary, rate of advancement or output.

5.5.5 Strategies

Once a goal or a hierarchy of goals has been established, the decision maker will have established a
repertory of alternatives for achieving the set goals. Prioritisation of alternatives needs to be done
very pragmatically as judiciously in order to maximise on the chances of the success of the envisaged
change.

5.5.6 Evaluation of Outcomes

This is the final stage in the decision making process after the search has been made, goals set and
strategies selected. It is the measurement of the effectiveness or relevance of the outcomes. This is
done basing on the set standards or criteria or it can be done in comparison with previous state of
affairs before the change management process.

Rao (2011) has gone further than Scott and Mitchell (1976) by adding two more steps after
evaluation which are; selection of the best option (step 5) and implementation of the decision (step
6).

5.5.7 Selection of the Best Option

After the formal evaluation and ranking is completed, managers tend to re-evaluate the solutions
based on the managerial judgement followed by political bargaining. It is so because formal
evaluation is not the predominant criterion for assessing the feasibility in practice. Quinn in Rao
(2011) suggests that successful managers actively adopt consultation bargaining process in order to
challenge prevailing strategic inclinations and generate information from other parts of the
organisation. The solutions may also be referred to senior level for approval.

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5.5.8 Implementation of the Decision or Change

It is part of the decision making process since the process may be required to be recycled due to
impediments in the implementation process. Managers should secure the support of top management
for allocation of resources for implementing change.

There is need to draw a detailed programme of action specifying the executors, time frame, provision
of necessary resources, stages and processes involved and the coordination. Management should put
in place feedback mechanisms on the progress. In the event of the implementation encountering
challenges, the process may be recycled for modification (Rao 2011).

5.5.9 Making strategic decisions

As has been discussed, before understanding change management in an organisation requires a

wholistic understanding of the interplay and symbolic relationship of the following elements; vision,
mission and change strategy. All team managers are responsible for making strategic decisions
whose corporate effect contributes to successful mission and vision attainment. It therefore becomes
very important to outline some essential elements of strategic decisions.

5.5.10 Strategic Decisions

According to Rao (2011) by and large strategic management is executed through strategic decision
making which is a crucial and complex process. Strategic decisions are made by top level
management and strategists. On the other hand operational decisions are made by managers at lower
levels. Rao (2011) further points out that strategic decisions are related to the contribution to the
success of organisational objectives and goals in a significant way. They define and determine the
direction and destination of the organisation.

5.5.11 Characteristics of Strategic Decisions

Rao (2011:124) has out forward the following as characteristics of strategic decisions;

• Strategic decisions affect either the total organisation or a major part of the organisation.

• The impact of strategic decision is phenomenal since they determine the destiny of the
organisation. Their impact is more than that of operational decisions.

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• Strategic decisions can introduce change in the organisational policies, practices, business,
customers, product mix, human resources, finances and other areas as well.

• Strategic decisions interweave a number of factors and require development of alternatives in

view of increasing environmental demands.

• Strategic decision making requires trade-offs between conflicting factors.

In addition Rao (2011:125) has given the characteristics of strategic decisions from Johnson and
Scholes (1988)

Table 1.5: Characteristics of strategic decisions

Strategic decisions are concerned with:

 The scope of an organisation’s activities.

 The matching of organisations activities to its environment.
 The matching of an organisation to its resource capability.
 Allocation and relocation of major resources in an
organisation.
 The values, expectations and goals of those influencing
strategy.
 The direction of the organisation it will move in the long
run.
 The implications for change throughout the organisation –
they are therefore likely to be complex in nature.

Source: Rao (2011, p.125)

5.5.12 Elements of Strategic Decision Making

Rao (2011) has put forward the following as elements of strategic decision;

• Achievement of objectives or desired results through the implementation of the decision ,

result element.

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• A desires course of action or plan indicating the work to be dome in order to achieve the
objective-action element.

• Inculcating the character of commitment among the employees responsible for

implementing strategic decisions- the commitment element.

a) Resultant Element: strategic decisions are formulated with a specific objective of either
grabbing the market leadership or technology leadership or profit leadership. Completeness
of strategy should clearly specify the pertinent result element to be achieved. It requires a
clear specification of a matching action element so as to achieve objectives.

b) Action Element: strategic decisions are element oriented. A decision may be interpreted as
the intervening variable which may ultimately lead to the end result variables. The action
element of a strategic decision clearly states what must be done, how, by whom and when in
order to achieve results.

c) Commitment Element: the commitment element is the most important requirement needed
to put the strategy into action and achieve the results. The commitment element includes
commitment of financial resources, top management, commitment of executives and
employees. Further, specific time period for commitment of resources should be indicated.

5.5.13 Potential Benefits and Limitations of Group Decision Making

Rao (2011) has outlined the following as the benefits of group decision making:

• Group decision making has a greater creativity capacity which provides competitive edge to
the company over its competitors.

• The sum total of the groups’ knowledge and skills are greater that of an individual due to the
impact of synergy.

• The group has a much wider range of alternatives in the decision process than individual
effort.

• Participation in decision making increases the acceptance of the decision by the group

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 members.

• Group members better understand the decision and the alternatives considered.

• Members feel more job satisfaction .

• Extensive information sharing .

5.5.14 Limitations of group decision making (Rao,2010:145)

• One individual may dominate and / or control the group

• Social pressures to conform can develop to such an extent that winning becomes more
important than the issue itself

• Competition can develop to such an extent that winning becomes more important than the
issue itself.

• Group members have a tendency to accept the first potentially positive solution, while giving
little attention to other solutions.

• Group decision making is time consuming.

• Group decision is costly.

• Group decision sometimes results in indecision.

• Argument stiffly creativity.

• Game playing among members through creation of cliques that seek to outdo each other.

5.6 Delegation of authority

Leaders / managers involved in management of change have a lot of work to do which they
cannot do single- handed. To have tasks accomplished effectively and on time they have to
delegate some of the work to their subordinates. Delegation works through the utilisation of
lower levels of the organisation’s hierarchical structures.

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5.6.1 Concept of delegation

Boddy (2005, p.11) is of the opinion that; “Delegation is the process by which people transfer
responsibility and authority for certain parts of their work to people below them in the chain of
command. While the production director is responsible and accountable for all the work in that
area, they are only able to do this by delegating the work downwards. They are still accountable
for the results, but they pass the responsibility, and the necessary authority, to subordinates and
this continues down the hierarchy.

Rao (2010:193) agrees in conceptualisation and purpose of delegation with Boddy (2005) when
he states that; “Delegation is the process a manager follows in dividing the work assigned to him
so that he performs only that part which can perform effectively and do get others to help him
with the remaining work. Delegation is the instrument of responsibility and authority of another
and creation of accountability for performance. It is to be noted that the person who delegates
authority and responsibility will not be relieved of the final responsibility and accountability”.

5.6.2 Nature of Delegation

The following are some of the characteristics of delegation;

• It gives direction to a manager in performing his duties.

• It has dual characteristics in the sense that though the authority is delegated, it is still
retained by the superior.

• It can be modified even after the action is over.

• Managers cannot delegate authority which they do not possess.

• It may be specific or general.

• It is more of an art rather than a science.

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5.6.3 Process of Delegation

Rao (2010) suggest that for delegation to be effective, the following principles could be
followed:

a) Delegation of results Expected: involves knowledge on the part of management on work to

be done and results to be achieved by the subordinates. Managers have to delegate the
necessary authority and responsibility to produce the required results.
b) Co-equal Authority and Responsibility: managers should delegate equal authority and
responsibility. The amount of authority delegated should be enough to discharge the
responsibility. The authority may be misused, if it is more that the responsibility. On the other
hand, if the authority is less than the responsibility, the subordinate cannot discharge the
authority.
c) Absoluteness of Responsibility: the superior holds responsibility though he delegates to the
subordinates. Subordinates remain accountable to their superiors.
d) Creating of Accountability: subordinates assigned authority and responsibility are
accountable for achieving the specified results using their authority and necessary resources.
e) Unit of Command: Unity of command requires that the subordinate should receive orders,
instructions and commands from one superior only. Therefore, the authority and
responsibility should be delegated to a subordinate by only one superior.
f) Limits of Authority: superiors cannot delegate all authority they have to their subordinates
as they are finally responsible for the success or failure of their departmental functioning.
Therefore, they delegate part of the authority to their subordinates. Subordinates should know
the limits of the authority delegated to them while exercising the authority and also
discharging their responsibilities.

5.6.4 Benefits of Delegation

While delegation of authority and responsibility provides the basic energy organisational for
activities, managers have to be aware of the derived benefits of delegation. This helps them to
delegate with conviction and commitment. Rao (2011) views the following as some of the main
benefits to be derived:

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a) Relief to the Manager from Routine Work and Concentration on Policy Issues:
managers are burdened with the heavy work relating to policy matters, strategic issues and
routine activities. Managers normally delegate the responsibility of carrying out routine
activities. Delegation relieves them from the heavy workload and concentrate on important
areas like policy and strategic issues.
b) Basis for Effective Functioning: delegation of authority creates relationships and links
among various jobs in the organisation. This relationship enables the smooth flow of
organisation activities.
c) Effective and Timely Decisions: delegation of authority and responsibility to subordinates
at the lowest level of the organisation reduces decision making overload at all points. Each
decision point has a lesser number of decisions to make. It therefore enables managers at
each decision point to make decisions effectively and timely.
d) Empowerment and Development of Subordinates: delegation provides subordinates with
the opportunity to make decisions relating to their areas. Subordinates are trained and
empowered with skills and knowledge to make and implement decisions. They are further
empowered to decide their activities and develop strategies to implement or execute them.
e) Satisfaction to Subordinates: subordinates derive satisfaction from their power of making
their own decisions in their operational areas. They see themselves as important
stakeholders contributing to meaningful decisions. They also derive satisfaction from doing
meaningful and challenging tasks.
f) Effective Utilisation of Original Human Resources: responsibilities are delegated to all
the subordinates according to their skills, knowledge, abilities, attitudes and emotions. This
leads to effective utilisation of human resources.

5.6.5 Barriers to Delegation

Ideal as the benefits of delegation may seem, it is true that it is a process with its own challenges
or barriers, some of which could be the following according to Rao (2010):

a) Fear of Loss of Power: superiors may feel that they lose power by delegating their
authority. They may feel that their subordinates may become powerful. The fear hinders

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 some of the managers from delegating their authority and responsibility.
b) Avoidance of Risk: some subordinates are not ready to accept responsibility as they do not
want to take risk. Therefore they try to encourage their superiors to exercise authority while
they act as leaders.
c) Lack of Confidence in Subordinates: some superiors always view their subordinates as
immature and not capable of thinking and acting independently. They feel subordinates
have to learn a lot and get experience to accept responsibility. Consequently, such superiors
show lack of confidence in subordinates and as such hesitate to delegate authority.
d) Management Style: some managers are autocrats. They never consult others and do not
allow others to make decisions. They never part with authority.
e) Fear of Misuse of Authority: some managers feel that subordinates misuse authority or use
authority excessively and as such fear to delegate.
f) Overconfidence of Superiors: some superiors have overconfidence in themselves and feel
that they do things better than their subordinates. As such they do not want to delegate their
authority.

5.6.6 Implications

The implementation of the vision, mission, goals, change strategy and corporate objectives of
management of change cannot be done without delegation. The organisational hierarchy of an
organisation presupposes and assumes delegation. The ideals of delegation are efficiency
through accomplishment of manageable tasks through the maximisation of skills, experience and
knowledge of human resources in the organisation. With all other factors at optimum play,
delegation is advocated for its efficiency and speed in decision making. An astute manager
requires to know benefits and challenges.

5.7 Team Building

Before going into team building, it is necessary to define what a team is.

Katzenbach and Smith in Boddy (2005, p. 558) state that “A team is a small number of people
with complementary skills who are committed to a common purpose, performance goals and
approach for which they hold themselves mutually accountable”.

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Mullins (2007, p.300) expresses the same views with Katzenbach and Smith when he defines a
team as follows; “Team occurs when a number of people have a common goal and recognise
that their personal success is dependent on the success of others. They are all interdependent. In
practice, this means that in most teams people will contribute individual skills, many of which
will be different. It also means that the full tension and counter- balance of human behaviour
will need to be demonstrated in the team”.

The concept of a team is further refined by Cohen and Bailey (1997) in Cameroon and Green
(2009) when they define a team as; “… a collection of individuals who are interdependent on
their tasks, who share responsibility for outcomes, who see themselves and are seen by others as
in intact social entity embedded in one or more larger social systems (for example business unit
or the corporation) and who manage their relationships across organisational boundaries”.

Implicit in the concept of a team are the assumptions that; they do not come into existence by
accident. They are created by or with the blessing of management for specific needs. Team
building focuses on maximisation of utilisation skills, talent, experience and expertise in the
management of change in an organisation, ultimately leading to the attainment of goals, mission
and vision of the organisation. Teams are essential for the survival of the organisation. They can
enhance quality and efficiency of the deliverables of change and transformation.

5.7.1 Justification For Teams In Organisations

According to Cameroon and Green (2009) employees need to work in teams because there is
high volume of interconnected pieces of work, or because the work is too complex to be
understood and worked on by one person. They further see a link between the level of
uncertainty of the task being handled and the level of team work needed. They predict that the
greater the uncertainty in the task, the greater the need for team work. They perceive situations
where the majority of management teams deal with both uncertain and certain tasks which calls
for flexibility in the ways teams operate.

Cameroon and Green (2009) are of the opinion that decisions about health and safety, human
policy, report processing and recruitment are relatively easier to handle without the need for
teamwork. There is usually the right answer to these issues while decisions about strategy,
structure and culture are less certain. There is no right answer for these and there is a risk

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element in decision taken. Such circumstances call for team working, sharing of ideas and a real
understanding of what is being agreed upon and what are the possible implications for the team.

5.7.2 Stages In Team Building

Boddy (2005) and Mullins (2007) and Rao(2010) agree that team building takes place in five
stages which are; forming, storming, norming, performing and adjourning. It is essential to look
at what is involved in each of these stages.

a) Forming

• Members choose or are told to join a team.

• Managers’ selection may be based on functional and technical skills or some special skill
members may possess.

• Members get to know each other and what they are expected to accomplish as a team.

b) Storming

• Period of possible conflict.

• Emergence of different views and perceptions on tasks to be done.

• Competing and conflicting views may arise on how work should be done or change be
implemented.

• Differences in personalities, attitudes, values and norms may emerge.

• Disagreements are necessary for the team to move from forming to storming stage.

c) Norming

• Members narrow their differences, accommodate each other and find ways of working
together.

• New team norms are developed and shared with the view of working as a team.

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• Roles and responsibilities are assigned at formal meetings.

• A culture and language of working is established for effective team participation.

d) Performing

• Team works well, the job is done to the expected standards.

• Set targets and objectives are achieved.

• Some teams might fail to get to this stage.

e) Adjourning

• The team may complete its task and disband.

• Members may review how they worked in order to improve their performance in future.

• Some teams disband because they have failed to do the job.

• The surviving team will go through the cycle several times in the course of its life.

• Tasks may change resulting in some members leaving while others join the team.

• A new member joining the team may cause the team to revisit all the stages to make sure that
the member is properly taken on board.

• Changes in task or conflict over priorities can take the team back to the beginning of the
cycle.

5.7.3 Characteristics of an Effective Team

The following have been put forward by Mullins (2007: 311) as characteristics of an effective
team:

• A belief in shared aims and objectives;

• A sense of commitment to the group;

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• Acceptance of group values and norms;

• A feeling of trust and mutual dependency;

• A full participation by all members and decision making by consensus;

• A free flow of information and communications;

• The open expression of feelings and disagreements;

• The resolution of conflict by the members themselves;

• A lower level of staff turnover, absenteeism, errors, accidents and complaints.

5.7.4 Implications

Change management by its very complex nature cannot be the task of an individual. There is no
organisation which can implement or manage change without involving teams. Team building is
another way of providing for specialisation leading to speedy, efficient and economic
accomplishment of tasks in the change management process. Any change envisaged in the
organisation has to be aligned with the vision and mission of the organisation. It is further
cascaded down for implementation as corporate objectives by different functional managers
working through teams. Managers require training to equip them with team building skills which
will enable them to come up with effective team change.

Activity 5.2

The following are essential change agency competences.

 Networking
 Identifying power bases
 Team building
 Communication
 Decision making

Dicuss how you would use each one of them to bring abut a
specific change in an organisation115
of your choice.
 5.8 Summary

In this unit the focus was on explaining the critical success factors for change management and
showing their interrelated contributions to leadership and management of change in the process
of change management and leadership. Management should always be guided by the vision,
mission, goals, change strategy and corporate objectives in its processes. The change agent who
may be the manager or leader has specific roles to play and in doing so they need to exploit
change agency power sources. Team building has been shown as necessary for execution of
tasks necessary for change. Decision making and delegation are also closely linked in their
contribution to the success of leadership and change management. The discussed components
are very closely related and cannot be easily separated. Their effect and contribution to
organisational change and transformation subscribes to the analysis of an organisation using the
metaphor of a machine which is at its maximum efficiency when all the parts are also at their
maximum output.

References

Boddy, D. (2005), Management, An Introduction (3rd edition), Harlow, England, Prentice Hall

Cameroon, E. and Green, M. (2008), Making Sense of Change Management, London and
Philadelphia, Kogan Page.

Cameroon, E. and Green, M. (2009), Making Sense of Change management (2nd Edition)
London and Philadelphia, Kogan Page.

Cummings, T.G. and Worley, G.C. (2000), Organisational Development and Change. (7th
Edition) California South Western England, Prentice Hall.

Marcourse, I. Martin, A.G.B. Wall, M.S.N. (2005), Business Studies (6th edition) Harlow

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England, Prentice Hall.

Mullins, L.J. (2007), Management and Organisational Behaviour. (8th edition) Harlow England,
Prentice Hall.

Rao. P.S. (2011), Management Theory and Practice. (Text and cases), Mumbai India, New
Delhi. Himalaya Publishing House

Rao. P. (2011), Principles of Management (2nd edition) Mumbai India, New Delhi. Himalaya
Publishing House.

Scott, W.G. and Mitchell, T.R. (1976), Organisational Theory. A structural and Behavioural
Analysis (3rd edition) Homewood, Illinois Richard D Irwin Inc.

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