FST5206 2021/2022-1

(Microbiological Food Safety)

Lecture 6. Microbial Control Methods - 2

- Preservation of Food
- Chemical substance
- Bacteriocin and probiotics
- Abscess, detergent and washing method

Prof. Madya Dr. Yaya Rukayadi

[email protected]
01112307964

Department of Food Science

Faculty of Food Science and Technology
Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM)

Tuesday, 24 11 2021
18.30 21.30 (BKS-1. Food 5)
Zoom Meeting
 3.3 Preservation of food
PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PRESERVATION

1. CONTROLLING MICROORGANISMS BY:

- KEEPING MICROORGANISMS OUT OF FOOD

- REMOVING MICROORGANISMS FROM FOODS
- DELAYING MICROBIAL GROWTH
- KILLING MICROORGANISMS OR SPORES

2. CONTROLLING ENZYMES BY:

- INACTIVATING ENDOGENOUS ENZYMES

- PREVENTING OR DELAYING CHEMICAL REACTIONS IN THE FOOD

3. CONTROLLING INSECTS, RODENTS, BIRDS AND OTHER PHYSICAL CAUSES

OF FOOD DETERIORATION
Classification of foods

1. PERISHABLE FOODS: NOT PROCESSED (MINIMALLY) AND HAVE A

SHELF LIFE OF <60 DAYS. Meat, vegetables, fruits, milk

2. SEMI-PERISHABLE FOODS: SHELF LIFE: 2 TO 6 MONTHS AS A RESULT OF A

PRESERVATION METHOD. Ice cream, cheese

3. SHELF-STABLE FOODS: SHELF LIFE > 6 MONTHS. Cereal grains, dehydrated

pasta, frozen food, canned food, dehydrated vegetables

PRESERVATION

- ELIMINATE ANY POTENTIAL MICROBIOLOGICAL HARM TO THE CONSUMER

- MAINTAIN QUALITY OF FOOD (SENSORY PERCEPTIONS)

- MAINTAIN NUTRITIONAL VALUE WITHIN LIMITS DICTATED BY THE PRODUCTION

OF A SAFE FOOD PRODUCT

- NO PRESERVATION METHOD WILL COMPLETELY ELIMINATE SPOILAGE PHENOMENA

Next

Today

Next
 Chemical preservation

Chemical preservation = approved

Frequently has also other effects (e.g., flavour)
Mode of action:
- aw (salt, sugar)
- Influence of ion balance and pH (organic acids, salt)
- Specific antimicrobial effect (salt, nitrites)
Effect can be influenced by temperature, pH, aw, organic components

Chemical preservation
1. Salting
- NaCl: flavouring effect
- antimicrobial effect: aw + specific inhibitory effect
- Cl. botulinum B < 10% NaCl aw <0.94
- L. Monocytogenes also grow in 12% brine
- Staph. aureus aw < 0.90 (18%)
- mesophilic Gram- rods, psychrophilic bacteria more sensitive
- max tolerance: 4-10%
- spore formers sensitivity variable (4-16%)
Salting
Dry / humid varieties
Amounts of NaCl used in food products is limited (meat products: 2-7%)
- Red meat/ comminute products: 2-2.5% moderate preservative effect
- Dry sausages, salami: 4-5% adequate microbial stability of the end
product
NaCl preservation of fish (frequently in combination with other substances)
- Normal Gram- microflora of fish (Pseudomonas/ Acinetobacter)
sensitive micrococci+ halophilic bacteria (Halobacterium, Halococcus)

Frequently in combination with Na-nitrites curing

2. Curing

Meat products (non-comminuted meats): preservation + colour + flavour

improvement

NaCl + NaNO2 curing salt (99.5% NaCl + 0.5%NaNO2)

Frequently combined with other preservation methods (smoking, heat-

treatment, fermentation) variety of different products.
Curing

NaNO2
- Colour forming effect:
- NO2 NO- NO- + myoglobin (oxymyoglobin)
nitroso-myoglobin nitroso-myochromogen (stable, pink)

- Flavouring effect: direct nitrite effect + inhibition of oxidation

processes flavour differs from simple salted products
(+ useful microorganisms of pickle lactobacilli)

- Antimicrobial effect:
Inhibit proliferation and toxin producing of microorganisms
(Cl. botulinum 0.01% NaNO2)
Help to develop the typical microflora of products
(Lactobacillus, Micrococcus, Streptococcus, Enterococcus
and Achromobacter spp.)

- Approved cc: 100-150 mg/kg (2006/52/EC Directive)

- Toxic effects: carcinogenic nitrosamin
Curing technologies
Dry slow curing no subsequent heat
treatment (bacon, ham) curing agents
rubbed onto the surface aw <0.90 high
salt concentration (4-7%)
micrococci, lactobacilli, yeasts, moulds

Conventional, wet curing meats

immersed/dipped into the pickling brine
product or heat treated micrococci,
vibrios

Rapid/fast curing (stitch/stick pumping)

pickle injected into the deeper tissues
by needles subsequent heat-
treatment e.g., canned ham
3. Smoking
Meat products, cheese, fish: preservation + flavour and colour forming
- Smoke: surface drying effect aw ; effect of salting.
- Chemical substances formaldehyde, phenols, organic acids
impregnate mostly the surface bacteriostatic effect
Smoking methods
Cold smoking
< 20oC
Bacteriostatic effect (chemical compounds)
Less effective against moulds (may also be useful salami)
fish salting cold smoking
days/weeks/months
Warm smoking
65-70oC
e.g., comminute/red meat products (cooked, smoked, sausages)
low bacteriostatic effect mostly surface drying (+ heat)
Hot smoking
75-85oC
hours
e.g., sausages
Use of other preservatives (Chemicals)

1. Organic acids
Acetic acid (+ salts) marked antibacterial effect
acidified, pickled products
Propionic acid (+ salts) mainly fungistatic moulds ropiness of bread (max
3 g/kg)
Sorbic acid (+ salts) fungistatic moulds and yeasts
efficacy: pH<6
combined with curing salt Cl. botulinum
cheese, wine, sliced bread (moulds, yeasts)
Benzoic acid (+salts) efficacy: pH 2.5-4
fungistatic
oxibenzoic acid esters more effective (parabens)
2. inorganic substances
Sulphuric acid, SO2 moulds, bacteria (yeasts )
inhibition of enzymatic and nonenzymatic
browning maintain the colour of vegetables, fruits
Nitrites, nitrates
 Chemical Preservatives - CP

deterioration, but does not include common salt, sugars, vinegars, spices,
or oils extracted from spices, substances added to food by direct
exposure to wood smoke, or chemicals applied for their insecticidal or

FDA
Questions to ask when choosing CP
What organisms are the target (Bacteria? Yeast? Mold?)
What are the key properties of the food? (pH, composition)
Is it GRAS?
What concentration is needed?
What concentration is allowed?
Is it natural or synthetic?
Does it kill or just slow/retard growth?
 CHEMICAL PRESERVATIES

To be in accord with good manufacturing practices, the use of preservatives :

1. Should not result in deception.
2. Should not adversely affect the nutritive value of the food.
3. Should not permit the growth of food-poisoning organisms while
suppressing growth of the others that would make spoilage evident.
Chemical preservatives vegetables preservation are sulphur dioxide
(SO2), benzoates, and sorbates.
The efficiency of chemical preservatives depends primarily on the
concentration of the preservative, the composition of the food, and the
type of organisms to be inhibited.
The concentration of preservative permitted by food regulations.
It is essential that the microbiological population of the food to be
preserved is kept to a minimum by hygienic handling and processing.
 GRAS substances
Chemical additives must be listed as GRAS by FDA regulations
GRAS = Generally Recognized as Safe
There is a maximum tolerance for their concentration in foods
Different preservatives target specific organisms
The effect of some preservatives is affected by food characteristics such as pH

Chemical Preservatives
MAJOR
1. Benzoates
Mold inhibitors OTHER
2. Parabens
in acid foods 1. Acidulants
3. Propionates in bakery products
4. Sorbates 2. Antioxidants
General inhibitors
inhibit all types 3. Nitrites
in wines, meats, cheeses
4. Sulfites
 Sodium benzoate was the first
1. Benzoates chemical preservative permitted in
foods by the FDA

The antimicrobial activity of benzoate

is related to pH, the greatest activity
being at low pH values

Used in high-acid products such as

apple cider, soft drinks, tomato sauce,
and salad dressings as mold and yeast
inhibitor

Block the oxidation of glucose and

pyruvate at the acetate level

Maximum level of 0.1%

2. Parabens

Heptyl-, methyl-, propyl-,

butyl-, ethylparabens

Less sensitive to pH

Gram-positive bacteria more

susceptible than gram
negatives

More effective against

molds than against yeasts

Maximum level for methyl-,

propylparabens 0.1%
 3. Propionates
As propionic acid or Ca or Na propionate
Lower tendency to dissociate
Effective in low-acid foods
Mold inhibitor (fungistatic)
Action similar to benzoates
Calcium propionate
White crystalline solid or powder.

Calcium propionate is used in bakery products as a mold inhibitor.

Propionates prevent microbes from producing the energy they need, like
benzoates do. However, unlike benzoates, propionates do not require an acidic
environment.
Sodium propionate is also often used as an anti-fungal agent. Calcium is often
preferable to sodium, both to reduce sodium levels in the diet, but also because
-amylase to act on the starches in
bread, making them available for the yeast, and improving the texture of the
bread. Stale bread is caused by the starch amylose recrystallizing -
amylase converts some of this starch to sugars, preventing the recrystallization.
Natrium or sodium propionate

White crystalline solid or powder.

Uses
Sodium propionate is used in bakery products as a mold inhibitor.
Propionates prevent microbes from producing the energy they need, like
benzoates do. However, unlike benzoates, propionates do not require an
acidic environment.
Calcium propionate is often preferred as an anti-fungal agent, to reduce
sodium levels in the diet, but also because calcium ions are necessary for
-amylase to act on the starches in bread, making them
available for the yeast, and improving the texture of the bread. Stale bread
is caused by the starch amylose recrystallizing -amylase
converts some of this starch to sugars, preventing the recrystallization.
 4. Sorbates
As sorbic acid or as Na, Ca or K sorbate (salts more soluble than acid)
Widely used
One half the toxicity of NaCl
pH dependant - No effect above pH 6.0
May change the taste of foods if added in excess (usually no more than 0.2%)

Effective against spoilage and pathogenic bacteria, esp molds and yeasts
cheeses, bakery products, fruit juices, beverages, salad dressings
In molds, inhibition may be due to inhibition of the dehydrogenase
enzyme system.
In germinating endospores, sorbate prevents the outgrowth of
vegetative cells
Weakening of transmembrane gradient
Sorbic acid
Sodium sorbate

Calcium sorbate

Kalium sorbate
Calcium sorbate is a polyunsaturated
fatty acid salt.
Uses : Calcium sorbate is used to inhibit
molds, yeasts, and fungi in many foods,
such as cheese, wine, and baked goods. It
is the calcium salt of sorbic acid.
 Acidulants
Acids and their salts serve a variety of functions in foods that include the
following:
1. Flavoring to provide a desired taste and serve to intensify, enhance,
blend of modify the overall flavor of the product.
2. Reduction of the pH to prevent or retard the growth of
microorganisms and the germination of spores; and to increase the
lethality of the process.
3. Maintaining or establishment of pH by serving as buffering agents.
Usually a combination of free acids and salts are used.
4. Chelation of metal ions to assist in minimizing lipid oxidation (Cu, Fe),
reducing color changes and controlling texture in some fruits and
vegetables.
5. Alteration of the structure of foods including gels made from gums
(pectin, carrageenan), and proteins.
6. Interaction with proteins and emulsifiers to modify the structure of
foods such as doughs, alter the heat stability of proteins, and to
serve as an emulsifier in processed cheese.
7. Modification of sugar crystallization in hard candy manufacturing.

http://www.foodproductdesign.com/archive/1993/0593DE.html
 Major Differences In Acidulants
1. Flavor pKa of Food Acids
2. Acidity
3. Metal Chelating Activity ACID pKa
4. Anti-microbial Activity Acetic 4.75
Phosphoric 2.1, 7.2, 12.3
5. Solubility
Citric 3.08, 4.74, 5.4
6. Hydroscopicity
Lactic 3.86
7. Cost Hydrochloric -
Sulfuric 1.92
Acids and Taste Carbonic 6.4,10.3
Acetic vinegar like Malic 3.4, 5.1
Citric sharp, clean bite ACID pKa
Fumaric acid taste lingers Succinic 4.2, 5.6
Tartaric 3.2, 4.8
Malic builds slowly and Fumaric 3.03, 4.44
lingers Adipic 4.43, 4.41
Most acids modify the Gluconic 3.60
sweetness of sugar Pyrophosphoric 0.9, 1.5, 5.8, 8.2
 Taste of Acids

Solubility
Varies with acid
Degree and rate varies with temperature
Fumaric poorly soluble in cold water
Encapsulation sometime used to delay solubility
 Solubility of more soluble acids

Solubility of Acids

250
Solubility % (w/w)

200

150 Malic Acid

100 Citric Acid

Tartaric Acid
50

0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120

Temp C
 Solubility of Less Soluble Acids

Solubilities of Less Soluble Acids

60

50

40

Adipic
Solubility (% w/w)

30

Succinic
20
Fumaric

10

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

-10

Temperature (C)
 Moisture Absorption

Moisture Absorption

200 Malic

150
% Gain in Weight

Citric
100
Tartaric
50

Adipic,Succinic,
0
Fumaric
0 50 100 150
Time (Hr)
Citric Acid
Accounts for 60% of all acids used.
Helps preserve color, aroma and and vitamine content of canned foods
pH control, stong chelator, antioxidant, synergist
Excellent solubility
Provided buffering capacity pH 2.5-6.5
Cultured dairy products-substrate for flavor production
Processed cheese-alter protein and emulsify
Evaporated milk-stabilize protein to heat
Honey-retard crystallization

Phosphoric Acid
Phosphoric acid-Accounts for 25%
Major use - cola

Chelator, ionic bridges

Lactic Acid Tartaric Acid
Flavor Moderate chelator
Moderate chelator Buffering capacity pH 3.5-4.5
pH adjustment Baking powder-leavening acid
Anti-microbial activity Fruit butters, jams, sherbets, jellies-flavor, pH
Coagulating agent Hard candies-flavor, crystallization control
Artificial sweetener - bitter masking
Malic Acid
Flavor Glucono Delta Lactone
Moderate chelator Slowly soluble
pH adjustment Soluble in hot water
Hydrolyzes to form gluconic acid
Direct set cottage cheese
and Mozzarella
Tofu (aseptic, instant)
Leavening
Adipic Acid
Gelatin powder-pH control to alter texture
Baking powder-leavening acid
Fruit products-tartness
Processed cheese-sequesterant for better melting
Meringue-whipping aid

Succinic acid
Bread dough-modifies plasticity O O

Gelatin powder-Controlled pH adjustment to regulate texture CH2 CH2

HO OH

Acetic Acid (Vinegar)

Products
Mayonnaise, sauces, pickles, dressings, natural breads
Functions
pH control, flavor, shelf-life
Always a flavor impact
 Nitrites and Nitrates

Na-nitrite or Na-nitrate
Used in curing formulas for meat
Stabilize red color of meat
Na-nitrate
Inhibit spoilage and pathogenic organisms
Contribute to flavor development

Nitrite inhibition of C. botulinum

Prevents germination of spores
Inhibition of vegetative cell growth
Na-nitrite
Also effective against S. aureus
Added to cheeses to prevent gassy spoilage caused by clostridia
More effective at low pH
NO2 inhibits C. botulinum by interferring with iron-sulfur enzymes
(ferredoxin) thus preventing ATP synthesis from pyruvate

Bacteria that lack ferredoxin are resistant to NO2

LAB lack ferredoxin
Lactobacillus and other LAB spoilage in cured meats is reported

Sulfur dioxide and sulfites

SO2 in gas or in liquid form

wines, dried fruits, juices, molasses
Against yeasts, molds, bacteria
Effect greatly favored by low pH
Bacteriostatic against Acetobacter and LAB
Juices and beverages
SO2 can change to sulfurous acid derivatives SO3-2 then to sulfites,
bisulfites and metabisultfites
 NaCl and sugars
Principle of preservation
at high concentrations, salt & sugars exerts a drying effect on both
food and microorganisms
water passes out of the cells at a greater rate than it enters
plasmolysis growth inhibition & poss. death

Other antimicrobials
Ethylene & propylene oxide gases
Highly toxic, but no residues
Antibiotics and bacteriocins
Nisin, natamycin
Antifungals
benomyl, thiabendazole
Antioxidants
Acetic and lactic acids
Low pH inhibits microbes
 3.4 Chemicals Substance
Chemical Methods of Microbial Control
Types of Disinfectants
1. Phenols and Phenolics:
Phenol (carbolic acid) was first used by Lister as a disinfectant.
Rarely used today because it is a skin irritant and has strong odor.
Used in some throat sprays and lozenges.
Acts as local anesthetic.
Phenolics are chemical derivatives of phenol
Cresols: Derived from coal tar (Lysol).
Biphenols (pHisoHex): Effective against gram-positive staphylococci and
streptococci. Used in nurseries. Excessive use in infants may cause
neurological damage.
Destroy plasma membranes and denature proteins.
Advantages: Stable, persist for long times after applied, and
remain active in the presence of organic compounds.
2. Halogens: Effective alone or in compounds.
A. Iodine:
Tincture of iodine (alcohol solution) was one of first
antiseptics used.
Combines with amino acid tyrosine in proteins and
denatures proteins.
Stains skin and clothes, somewhat irritating.
Iodophors: Compounds with iodine that are slow
releasing, take several minutes to act. Used as skin
antiseptic in surgery. Not effective against bacterial
endospores.
Betadine
Isodine
B. Chlorine:
When mixed in water forms hypochlorous acid:
Cl2 + H2O ------> H+ + Cl- + HOCl
Hypochlorous acid
Used to disinfect drinking water, pools, and sewage.
Chlorine is easily inactivated by organic materials.
Sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl): Is active ingredient of bleach.
Chloramines: Consist of chlorine and ammonia. Less effective as
germicides.
3. Alcohols:
Kill bacteria, fungi, but not endospores or naked viruses.
Act by denaturing proteins and disrupting cell membranes.
Evaporate, leaving no residue.
Used to mechanically wipe microbes off skin before injections or
blood drawing.
Not good for open wounds, because cause proteins to coagulate.
 Ethanol: Drinking alcohol. Optimum concentration is 70%.
Isopropanol: Rubbing alcohol. Better disinfectant than
ethanol. Also cheaper and less volatile.
4. Heavy Metals:
Include copper, selenium, mercury, silver, and zinc.
Oligodynamic action: Very tiny amounts are effective.
A. Silver:
1% silver nitrate used to protect infants against gonorrheal eye
infections until recently.
B. Mercury
Organic mercury compounds like merthiolate and
mercurochrome are used to disinfect skin wounds.
C. Copper
Copper sulfate is used to kill algae in pools and fish tanks.
D. Selenium
Kills fungi and their spores. Used for fungal infections.
Also used in dandruff shampoos.
E. Zinc
Zinc chloride is used in mouthwashes.
Zinc oxide is used as antifungal agent in paints.
5. Quaternary Ammonium Compounds (Quats):
Widely used surface active agents.
Cationic (positively charge) detergents.
Effective against gram positive bacteria, less effective against
gram-negative bacteria.
Also destroy fungi, amoebas, and enveloped viruses.
Zephiran, Cepacol, also found in our lab spray bottles.
Pseudomonas strains that are resistant and can grow in presence
of Quats are a big concern in hospitals.
 Advantages: Strong antimicrobial action, colorless, odorless,
tasteless, stable, and nontoxic.
Diasadvantages: Form foam. Organic matter interferes with
effectiveness. Neutralized by soaps and anionic detergents.
6. Aldehydes:
Include some of the most effective antimicrobials.
Inactivate proteins by forming covalent crosslinks with several
functional groups.
A. Formaldehyde gas:
Excellent disinfectant.
Commonly used as formalin, a 37% aqueous solution.
Formalin was used extensively to preserve biological specimens
and inactivate viruses and bacteria in vaccines.
Irritates mucous membranes, strong odor.
Also used in mortuaries for embalming.
B. Glutaraldehyde:
Less irritating and more effective than formaldehyde.
One of the few chemical disinfectants that is a sterilizing agent.
A 2% solution of glutaraldehyde (Cidex) is:
Bactericidal, tuberculocidal, and viricidal in 10 minutes.
Sporicidal in 3 to 10 hours.
Commonly used to disinfect hospital instruments.
Also used in mortuaries for embalming.
7. Gaseous Sterilizers:
Chemicals that sterilize in a chamber similar to an autoclave.
Denature proteins, by replacing functional groups with alkyl
groups.
A. Ethylene Oxide:
Kills all microbes and endospores, but requires exposure of 4 to 18
hours.
 Toxic and explosive in pure form.
Highly penetrating.
Most hospitals have ethylene oxide chambers to sterilize
mattresses and large equipment.
8. Peroxygens (Oxidizing Agents):
Oxidize cellular components of treated microbes.
Disrupt membranes and proteins.
A. Ozone:
Used along with chlorine to disinfect water.
Helps neutralize unpleasant tastes and odors.
More effective killing agent than chlorine, but less stable and
more expensive.
Highly reactive form of oxygen.
Made by exposing oxygen to electricity or UV light.
B. Hydrogen Peroxide:
Used as an antiseptic.
Not good for open wounds because quickly broken down by
catalase present in human cells.
Effective in disinfection of inanimate objects.
Sporicidal at higher temperatures.
Used by food industry and to disinfect contact lenses.
C. Benzoyl Peroxide:
Used in acne medications.
D. Peracetic Acid:
One of the most effective liquid sporicides available.
Sterilant :
Kills bacteria and fungi in less than 5 minutes.
Kills endospores and viruses within 30 minutes.
Used widely in disinfection of food and medical instruments
because it does not leave toxic residues.
Efficiency of Different Chemical Antimicrobial
Agents
CONTROL OF MICROORGANISMS

Canning:
Sealed food is heated to kill or inhibit
microbial growth

Acidic food easier to can; neutral food

heated to > 100 oC; quality and nutritional
value declines

Spoilage of canned food by anaerobic

organisms (Clostridium and toxin
production); gas indicates problems
 Food Preservation
Removal of Microorganisms
usually achieved by filtration
commonly used for water, beer, wine, juices, soft drinks, and
other liquids
Chemical-Based Preservation
GRAS

pH of food impacts effectiveness of chemical preservative

Sodium benzoate
Sorbic acid
Sodium or calcium propionate
Sulfur dioxide
Chemical food preservation
Many are completely safe (sodium propionate); some may affect
human health:
Nitrites (precursors of carcinogens)
Ethylene and propylene oxides (mutagens)
Antibiotics (spread of resistance)
Radiation
ultraviolet (UV) radiation
used for surfaces of food-handling equipment
does not penetrate foods
Gamma radiation
use to extend shelf life or sterilize meat, seafoods, fruits,
and vegetables
products need to be labeled as irradiated
Varied but controlled dozes depending on purpose (e.g., NASA used 10 times
more radiation to treat astronauts food than what we use to treat hamburgers
- 44 kGy vs. 4.5 kGy)
 Microbial Product-Based Inhibition
Bacteriocins: bactericidal proteins active against related
species
some dissipate proton motive force of susceptible bacteria
some form pores in plasma membranes
some inhibit protein or RNA synthesis
e.g., nisin: used in low-acid foods to inactivate Clostridium
botulinum during canning process

Food Spoilage
Approximately 1/3rd of all food manufactured in world is lost to
spoilage
Microbial content of foods (microbial load): qualitative (which bugs)
and quantitative (how many bugs).
-Change in appearance, small, or taste that makes it unacceptable to
consumers - not necessarily harmful to consumers.
-Many food products are terrific microbial growth media.
 Growth of
microbes in food
follows a typical
microbial growth
pattern
Growth rate
depends on
the nutritional
value and
temperature of the
food

Number of microbes depends on both inoculum size and

growth rate
Food spoilage occurs at high populations density (at
stationary phase) - retarding microbial growth delays spoilage
 Food spoilage
involves predictable succession of microbes
different foods undergo different types of spoilage processes
toxins are sometimes produced
algal toxins may contaminate shellfish and finfish
We distinguish:
Perishable food: meats, fish, poultry, eggs, milk, most
fruit and vegetables
Semi-perishable food: potatoes, apples, nuts
Nonperishable food: sugar, flour, rice, dry beans
Related to water content (water activity) and implies storage
conditions
 Microbiological control in fermented foods
Fermentation has been a major way of preserving foods.
Microbial growth causes chemical and/or textural changes to
form a product that can be stored for extended periods.
Fermentation also creates new, pleasing food flavors and odors.

Fermented Foods
Alcoholic Beverages
Alcohol is produced from fermentation by the yeast
Saccharomyces cerevisiae
Bread
Dairy Products
Other Fermented Foods
 Production of Breads
involves growth of Saccharomyces cerevisiae
under aerobic conditions
maximizes CO2 production, which leavens bread
other microbes used to make special breads (e.g., sourdough
bread )
can be spoiled by Bacillus species that produce ropiness

Production of alcoholic beverages

Fermentation of fruit juice results in wine. Most wine is
made from grapes.
Beer and ale is produced by the fermentation of malted
grains.
Distilled beverages are produced by concentrating alcohol by
distillation.
Beer

Produced by the fermentation of malted grain

Malted grain: Grain that has been allowed to germinate,
then dried in a kiln & perhaps roasted
Germinating the grain causes the production of a number
- -amylase
Malted grains that may be used are barley, rye, or wheat
Unmalted grains, such as rice or corn, may also be used

The starch in malt is converted to sugar by natural enzymes.

Sugars are then fermented by yeasts.
The aqueous extract (wort) is separated by filtration, hops
added and boiled for several hours.
Wort is then transferred to fermentation vessel (1-3 weeks).
Yeast used in beer is Saccharomyces carlsbergensis.
Bottom-fermenting yeasts produce lagers
Top-fermenting yeasts produce ales
The beer may be disinfected either by cold filtration through
a 0.45 m filter or by pasteurization
Wine

Produced from the fermentation of fruit juice, usually from

grapes

For white wines, white grapes are usually used, and the
fermentation
For red wines, red or black grapes are used, and the skin
is allowed to remain during fermentation
For rosé wines, red grapes are used and the juice is
allowed to remain in contact with the skins just long
enough for a rose or pink color to develop
 Wine production
Grapes are harvested and crushed by machines and the juice
called must, is squeezed out.
Yeasts used can be of two types wild yeasts and Saccharomyces
ellipsoideus.
Fermentation is carried out in vats of various sizes made of
various materials.
Wine is separated from the sediment and then stored at lower
temperature for aging.
The must undergoes primary fermentation
Natural yeasts on the skins of the grapes may be used, but in
commercial production cultured yeast is often used to give
more predictable results
Malolactic fermentation by bacteria in the must converts
malic acid into lactic acid
After primary fermentation, the must is pressed (red wines)
and transferred to different containers for secondary
fermentation.
Wine
Secondary fermentation and aging -Takes 3 6 months
Done in either stainless steel vessels or in oaken barrels
The vessel is kept airtight to prevent oxidation.
Proteins are broken down, & particles settle
Blending and bottling
Yogurt
Milk is fermented by a mixture of Streptococcus salivarius
ssp thermophilus and Lactobacillus bulgaricus (official
name Lactobacillus delbrueckii ssp. bulgaricus). Often these
two are co-cultured with other lactic acid bacteria for taste
or health effects (probiotics).
Acid produced from the fermentation causes the protein in
the milk (casein) to coagulate into a semisolid curd
For flavored yogurt, fruit are added after the yogurt is
made.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yogurt
 Cheese
Milk is treated with lactic acid bacteria and an enzyme called
rennin that partially hydrolyses the protein and causes it to

The whey is separated from the curds, and the curds are
heated, pressed and then usually aged (ripened).
Different microbes in the early and late stages of processing
give rise to cheeses with different characteristics.
Cheese production
Cheese is one of the oldest human foods and is thought to have
developed approximately 8000 years ago.
About 2000 varieties are produced throughout the world.
All cheese results from a lactic acid fermentation of milk, which
results in coagulation of milk proteins and formation of a curd.
All the major cheeses produced by dairy fermentation are done
by Streptococcus lactis.
 Fermented Milks
Dairy products can be fermented to yield a wide variety of
cultured milk products.
Fermented milks have therapeutic effects.
Acidophilus milk is produced by Lactobacillus acidophilus. L.
acidophilus may exhibit anticancer activity.
Bifidobacterium-amended fermented milk products may also
promote antitumorigenic activity.

Microorganisms as Foods and Food

Amendments
variety of bacteria, yeasts, and other fungi are
used as animal and human food sources
probiotics
microbial dietary adjuvants
 3.5 Bacteriocin and probiotic
Bacteriocins
Antimicrobial peptides produced by some bacteria that inhibit closely related
species
Membrane-active agents that form pores in cytoplasmic membrane and
dissipate proton-motive force
Significant in food safety to control pathogens
Lactococcus lactis subsp. lactis and NISIN

Class I bacteriocin: lantibiotic, <5 KDa

Producer: Lactococcus lactis subsp. lactis
Active against G+ bacteria (Clostridium botulinum, L. monocytogenes, LAB)
Commercially available
Cheese and dairy products, canned foods, mayonnaise
Only bacteriocin approved for use in U.S.
 Probiotics

Probiotics are supplements made of beneficial, friendly

lactic acid bacteria and formulated to reflect the
composition of healthy gut flora
They should be taken 2-3 times per day to restore healthy
intestinal flora. Afterwards, on a daily basis in order to
maintain healthy intestinal flora and help guard against
diseases caused by pathogenic or putrefactive bacteria
 Main Families of Lactic Bacteria

Fig 1: Lactobacilli
(Small Intestine)
Large
Intestine
Small
Intestine

Fig 2: Bifidobacteria
(Large Intestine)
 Lactic Bacteria:
Action Mechanism

Lactic Acid Bacteria

Act like a shield and mask
receptor sites for pathogenic
bacteria

Lactic Acid Bacteria

Act like a shield and mask
receptor sites for
enterotoxinogen pathogens

Lactic Acid Bacteria

Adhere to intestinal cells and
protect them against
pathogenic bacteria
 Lactic Acid Bacteria: Genera
Oenococcus
Pediococcus
Lactobacillus
Leuconostoc
Lactobacillus
Homolactic on hexoses Heterolactic on hexoses
L. bavaricus L. fermentum
L. casei
L. brevis
L. homohoichii
L. buchneri
L. curvatus
L. saki L. fructovorans
L. plantarum L. hilgardii
 Requirements of Probiotics
Probiotics must be alive
Probiotics must be safe
Probiotics must deliver a measured physiological impact
Survival of gastrointestinal tract transit
food applications
Expected Benefits Associated with
consumption of Probiotics
 Probiotics and poultry
A probiotic made up of 29 bacteria (PRE-EMPT) is being used in
chickens.
This establishes a functional microbial community in the cecum
and limits Salmonella colonisation of the gut through competitive
exclusion.

Single cell proteins

Refers to the dried cells of microorganisms such as algae,
bacteria and fungi.
Used as protein sources in animal feeds including human
food supplements.
E.g Pruteen - Made from the bacterium Methilophilus
methilotrophus.
Spirulina cyanobacteria of the genus Arthrospira
Whole cells as well as beta carotenes from spirulina are
available.
 Yeast as a food supplement
Yeast for nutritional purposes is cultivated in large aerated
fermentors in a medium containing molasses as an ingredient.
At the end of the growth period, yeast cells are recovered by
centrifugation and washed.
Nutritional yeast is heat-killed and usually dried.
Yeast cells are rich in B vitamins and in protein.

Mushrooms as a food source

Several kinds of fungi are sources of human food of which the
most important are the mushrooms.
The mushroom commercially grown in most parts of the
world is Agaricus bisporus and is cultivated in mushroom
farms.
Fungus is grown under environmentally controlled conditions
in a mixture of soil and organic matter.
 4.6 Abscess, detergent and washing method
Removal of Visible physical dirt and stains. A clean surface is defined
Cleaning as being free from soil (e.g. food residues), free from bad odours, be
non-greasy to the touch and have no visible oxidation (e.g. rust).
Removal of harmful bacteria / microbes. A sanitized clean surface is
Disinfection defined as a clean surface that is substantially free from pathogenic
microorganisms and undesirable numbers of spoilage
microorganisms.
Process in which most or nearly all micro organisms (whether or not
pathogenic) killed through use of chemicals, heat, ultraviolet rays
Sanitation e.g. Milk is disinfected by heating up to 100degree C for atleast 10
sec. to kill most microbes (but not necessarily their spores) to make
it more stable than pasteurized milk
Total destruction of all microorganisms ( whether or not pathogenic)
and their spores, usually through the use of drastic methods such as
Sterilization concentrated toxic/ non toxic chemicals (Chlorine, formaldehyde,
glutar-aldehydes, etc.), very high temperatures, or intense radiation.
A sterilized item cannot support life in any from.
 Key Terms - Description
Cleaning : The systematic application of energy to a surface or substance ,
with the intention of removing dirt. Cleaning does not kill microbes.
Energy can be : Kinetic energy physical, mechanical or turbulence
Thermal energy hot water
Chemical energy detergents

Disinfection : The process of killing pathogenic bacteria , but not spores

and all viruses by 99.999% during a time frame greater than 5 but less
than 10 mins. Commonly brought about by heat or application of
chemicals. Disinfectants have a higher level of germ kill capability for
pathogenic bacteria as compared to sanitizers.

Sanitation : The process of reducing microbes to safe levels ie a 99.999%

of a specific bacterial test population within 30 secs. Done by heat or
chemicals. A sanitizer may or may not necessarily destroy pathogenic
organisms.

Sterilization : The process of destroying all microbes including spore forms.

Cleaning Removal of Visible physical dirt and stains

Disinfection Removal of harmful bacteria / microbes

Sanitation Process in which most or nearly all micro organisms

(whether or not pathogenic)

Sterilization Total Germ Kill live (including spores)

 Why Clean and Sanitize?
Effective cleaning and sanitation programs are required to achieve the correct
level of hygiene in food handling or production facilities. If these are not
adhered to there is a greater risk of food becoming contaminated by
pathogenic or spoilage microorganisms.

There is also a risk of biofilms forming on factory and food preparation surfaces
if these programs are inadequate. Biofilms are complex aggregations of
microorganisms and other materials which enhance survival and growth of
microorganisms; once formed they are very difficult to remove.

Cleaning and sanitation programs include the following steps:

routine procedures performed throughout and at the completion of
food processing or preparation on a daily basis
periodic procedures required less frequently
monitoring to ensure the procedures are performed correctly
verification to check effectiveness of the program.

The safety of staff must be considered when developing these programs,

including the safe use of chemicals and hot water, and reducing manual
labour.
Cleaning prior to sanitizing is recommended as it increases
the effectiveness of the sanitizing step.
What Should be Cleaned and Sanitized?

All surfaces that may contact the food product, such as

utensils, knives, tables, cutting boards, conveyor belts, ice
makers, ice storage bins, hands, gloves, and aprons. Surfaces
that do not directly contact the product such as walls, ceilings,
floors and drains have a profound effect on environment.

What Else Should be Cleaned and Sanitized?

Cleaning tools like brooms, mops, squeegees, buckets,

sponges, scrapers, foaming equipment, water guns, etc.,
should be cleaned and sanitized. Cleaning tools can be a
major source of microbial contamination if not cleaned.
Cleaning tools should be washed and sanitized after every
use. They should be stored clean, dried, and secured.
 Factors influencing cleaning & sanitation program
Type of soil organic , inorganic
Condition of soil old soils difficult to clean
Supplies of water - Water hardness difficult in hard water due to
formation of scale
Water temperature higher temperatures are beneficial
Cleaning agent v/s surface being cleaned
Agitation or Pressure scouring helps remove outer layer helping
deeper penetration of cleaning agent
Length of treatment longer exposure is beneficial.
Concentration / composition of detergent.
supplies of energy
supplies of machines, equipment etc.
Cultural, religious and traditional values
Climate conditions
Infrastructure of the processing unit and Requirements for buildings
Awareness level of the staff
Definitions
"Food" or : includes any article manufactured, sold or
represented for use as food or drink (including water) for
humans and any ingredient that may be mixed with food for any
purpose whatsoever.

Food Transportation Unit: This includes vehicles, aircraft, ships,

containers, boxes, bulk tanks, trailers and any other
transportation unit used to transport food.

"Perishable Food" means a food item or ingredient that is

susceptible to deterioration or loss of quality due to the
microbial or enzymatic actions when such foods or ingredients
are subjected to temperature abuse.

"Potentially Hazardous Food" means any food in a form or state

which is capable of supporting the growth of pathogenic
microorganisms or the production of toxins. Example for such
foods involve meat, poultry, seafood, milk and its products.
Basic Principles of Cleaning
Clean Surface
A clean surface is one that is,
Free from Residual film or soil
Should not contaminate food products
Free from micro-organisms.
What is Soil?
Undesirable foreign matter on surfaces.
A heterogeneous mixture of many substances
Physical properties
Chemical properties
Cleaning in Aqueous solutions => complex process of interaction
between: physical influences and chemical influences
Cleaning:
the removal of poorly soluble residues by both water and
aqueous surfactant solution (detergent)
dissolution of water-soluble residues
Factors affecting cleaning

Contact time
Detergent
concentration

Detergent Mechanical action

composition

Washing Surface to clean

temperature
Cleaning Performance sensitive to factors like:
Type of surface
Stainless Steel, Mild Steel, Aluminium, Brass, Glass &
Ceramic, Plastic, Wood etc.
Soil type
Water soluble material
Water insoluble material
Chemistry
Water quality
Cleaning technique
Manual or Mechanical.
Factors affecting Cleaning
Temperature Temperature
Mechanical
action Mechanical action

Chemical action
Time
Time Chemical action
Science behind cleaning
Different types of soil
Oily & Fatty soils, Proteinaceous soils, Carbohydrate soils
Different types of surfaces
Fabric, Stone, Metal, Ceramic
Cost and Productivity

Optimization of costs

Current Pressures on Food Industries

Assure the safety of food products
Up-gradation to higher quality products
Reduction in Cost
FSSA had also put pressure on Industries to maintain and
upgrade quality standard.
Factors affecting Quality of a Food Product
Input quality (Raw Material, Packaging Material etc.)
Manufacturing Practices
Personal Practices
Transportation Practices
Cleanliness and Hygiene Standards etc.
It is next to impossible to achieve quality and safe food
without following Proper Cleaning & Hygiene Systems.
Results of Improper Cleaning
Poor Quality Food
Food-Unsafe for Human Consumption
Increased Utility Consumption viz. Steam, Water, Refrigeration etc.
Wastages & Reduced Safety
Increased level of chemical usage
Risk of Brand Damage
Continuous deposition of soil on surfaces, which may become difficult
to remove even manually
Affects economy of production adversely0
A well designed cleaning protocol shall result in:
Improved productivity and organizational profitability
Lesser time for cleaning, thus increased time for production
Better operational efficiencies with savings in Water, Steam, and
Electricity etc.
Peace of mind to management
Improved Employee Satisfaction and Efficiency
Better Safety etc.
An effective cleaning can be defined as cleaning to a satisfactory
level with optimum costing.
Cleaning process comprises of various tools in use, cleaning
process and process parameters and cleaning chemicals.
Effective cleaning is not achievable without putting a system in
place and continuous trainings.
Cleaning and Sanitizing of Food contact Surfaces

Clean, sanitary food contact surfaces are fundamental to the

control of pathogenic microorganisms. The contamination of
food either through direct or indirect contact with insanitary
surfaces potentially compromises the safety of the product for
consumption.

The effectiveness of the cleaning and sanitation program relates to

the implementation of the cleaning procedure, rather than the
type of sanitizer used.

The selection of detergents and sanitizers, their concentrations and

the method of application will depend on factors like
Nature of soil
Degree of cleaning and sanitation required
Type of surface to be cleaned and
Type of equipment used for cleaning and sanitation
Cleaning and Sanitation program
The cleaning and sanitation program of food contact surfaces typically involves
five steps
STEP 1 - Dry clean
STEP 2 - Pre-rinse (brief)
STEP 3 - Detergent application ( may include scrubbing)
STEP 4 - Post rinse and
STEP 5 - Application of a sanitizer
STEP 1 - Dry cleaning
Dry cleaning is simply using a brush or squeegee to remove the food
particles and soil from surfaces.
Different equipments like brooms, cleaners, water sprays may be used to
push the particles form effected surfaces to the drains.
This process may result in significantly removal of unwanted surface matter
and thus reducing the load of contamination.
However, it not planned properly may create problems associated with
clogged drains, handling of wet waste solids. Its also tends to disperse dirt
and bacteria to other areas of plant and may lead to cross contamination to
other areas of plant. ( i.e. walls, equipment and tables)
STEP -2 - Pre- rinsing
Use of water or any other agent to remove small particles missed in the dry
cleaning step and prepares (wet) surfaces for cleaning application.
However, scrupulous removal of particulates is not necessary prior to detergent.

STEP 3 - Cleaning Process

Effectiveness of cleaning process will depend on Type of Soil and Soil Load
Product processed
Point in processing environment
Interior or exterior of equipment
Residence time
Temperature

What is soil?
Soil is any unwanted matter on the surface of an object that one desires to be
clean. It is undesirable foreign matter on surfaces. In general a heterogeneous
mixture of many substances. Special care must be taken to ensure that all soil is
removed and that it is not redeposited on the substrate.
- Physical properties
- Chemical properties
Characteristics of Food Soils
Soil may be classified as visible and invisible, the latter category being
primarily microorganisms, such as bacteria, yeasts, and molds.
Some food soils can be dissolved in water such as simple carbohydrates
(sugars), some simple mineral salts (NaCl), and some starches. There are also
food soils that dissolve in alkali, like proteins, starches associated with
proteins or fats, and bacterial films (biofilms). There are food soils that
dissolve in acid, like hard water hardness salts (calcium and magnesium salts),
and more complex mineral films, including iron and manganese deposits.
Some also that dissolve with surfactants, which include fats, oils and greases,
many food residues, inert soils such as sand, clay, or fine metals, and some
biofilms

Types of soils : - Soils may be either Organic in nature of Inorganic in nature

Organic soils like from Carbohydrates, Proteins, Fats etc.
Such as those found in animal fats - vegetable oils, blood, protein, starch and
sugars.
tannin, which is commonly found in tea - coffee and wine.

Inorganic soils Salts, Minerals, like Water hardness salts etc.

Such as scale in kettle; oxidized metal such as rust mineral deposits from food
/ drink ( phosphates & oxalates )
calcium salts such as milk stones
Cleaning
Cleaning Process
Primary step
removal of soil from substrates
Secondary step
stabilisation of dispersed or dissolved soil in the wash liquor to
prevent re-deposition (long term effect)
Detergents react with soils to change their chemistry so they will dissolve
into the water and be carried away.
Detergents modify the nature of water so that it may efficiently penetrate,
dislodge, disperse and carry away surface soils.

Types of cleaning agents:

Four categories of cleaning agents :

Detergents
Solvent cleaners
Abrasive cleaners
Acid cleaners
Cleaning Agents - Detergents

Detergents - A detergent is a surfactant or a mixture of surfactants with

"cleaning properties in dilute solutions." These substances are usually
alkylbenzenesulfonates, a family of compounds that are similar to soap but
are more soluble in hard water.
Detergents contain surfactants ( surface acting agents ) that reduce surface
tension between soil and surface so that soil can be penetrated and
removed. Types of detergents
General Purpose (GP)
Alkaline
Chlorinated ( Chlorinated alkaline);
Acid
Enzymes
General purpose detergents are mildly alkaline and used to clean up fresh
soil from floors , walls , ceilings, equipment, utensils, etc .
Alkaline or Chlorinated Alkaline detergents are recommended for most
processing plant applications and are effective then . Alkaline
detergents range from moderately alkaline (Caustic). Smoke houses, cooker
surfaces may require highly caustic cleaning chemicals and application
methods.
 Chlorinated products are usually more aggressive in loosening protein based
soils or for surfaces that are difficult to clean due to their shape or size, such
as perforated storage crates and waste containers. They are also alkaline and
many more corrosive. They should not be used on corrodible material such as
Aluminium.
Acid detergents remove inorganic mineral deposits (scale) and stains such as
those associated with hard water.
Emzymes are specific to a given soil type. These detergents are tailored for
protein, oil or carbohydrate based oils. Carbohydrate soils mostly occur
where breading, batters or starches are used.
In situations where exposure to excess alkaline or acid conditions are a
problem, such as with waste water discharge restriction or equipment
susceptible to corrosion enzyme detergents may be an acceptable
alternative.
Cleaning Agents Solvents, Acid cleaners, Abrasive cleaners
Solvent Cleaners :Often called degreasers
Alkaline detergents containing grease dissolving agent.
Useful for grill back splashes, oven doors, range hoods, etc.
Effective usually at full strength
Acid cleaners
Used on mineral deposits eg. Scale
Used in ware-washing machines , steam tables,
Used for rust stains and tarnish on copper and brass.

Abrasive cleaners
Contain a scouring agent like silica that help to remove hard to remove soil.
Often used on floors or to remove baked on food in pots and pans.

Effectiveness of detergents depends upon

For an effective detergent and soil cleaning effectiveness will depend upon several
basic factors
Contact time
Temperature
Physical disruption ( scrubbing) and
Water chemistry
Contact time: - Detergents do not work instantly but require time to penetrate the
soil and release it from the surface. Setting up soak tanks is method to increase
the contact time. When working with alkaline and chlorinated detergents,
employees should wear appropriate clothing such goggles, tall boots or fully
protective suits.
Temperature - Most chemical activities increase with increasing temperature.
This generally holds true with detergent efficiency, but with some more
exceptions. Many styles of steam cleaners are available are available which
allow better penetration of detergents and help in removal of soil. In some
case water is used for initially wetting and detergent cleaning and then rinse
at 140 160 degree F, this improves effectiveness with less risk of food soil
left over.

For certain applications such as smoke houses, highly caustic detergent or alkali
(Caustic soda) is heated to 180degree F or hotter. The conditions chemically
alter and disperse soils such that denatured food residues are not likely to
develop.

Disruption (Scrubbing) Appropriate methods include brushes, pads and

pressure spray depending on the application. The selection of proper
detergent methods will minimize the need for manual scrubbing.

Water Chemistry Final rinsing with water to drain the soil, nature, source and
type of water used effects the method of cleaning and sanitation.
STEP 4 Post Rinse
During post rinse water is used to remove detergent and loosen soil from food
contact surfaces.
This process perpares the cleaned surfaces for sanitation.
All the detergents must be removed in order for the sanitizing agent to be
effective.
STEP 5 - Application of a sanitizer
After the food contact surfaces are cleaned, they must be sanitized to eliminate or atleast
suppress potentially harmful bacteria. Many type of chemical sanitizers are available.
They may or may not require rising before the start of processing, depending upon
sanitizer concentration. All sanitizers must be legally approved and used only as per the
MSDS (Material safety Data Sheet) provided by the chemical manufacturer.
Application method
While using sanitizer a recommended dosage and application method of proportioners and
applicators must be used. These proportioners and applicators can be installed in-line,
on-line or at a separate stations.
A range of procedures can be used from manual mixing to fully automated system may be
applied.
Some sanitizers such as quaternary ammonium compounds (quats or may eb
applied as foam with same equipment used for detergent foam application.
 Effectiveness of sanitation process depends upon: -
Sufficient contact time and
Coverage of the sanitizer
Dosage of sanitizer
Types of microbes and load of
microbes.
Temperature
Sufficient contact time and coverage is
sometimes best assured by the use of Acceptable toxicity
sanitizers dip tanks for utensils and Wide, non-selective spectrum
equipment parts.
Sinks and cleaning sanitations can be Rapid action
applied with protioning devices that Reasonably soil tolerant
mix and deliver sanitizers in the Non corrosive
prescribed concentration
Compatible with cleaning materials
Bulk containers or reservoir fitted with
auto dosers which minimize Useable in ambient conditions
maintenance, control of chemicals Easily measured and monitored
usage and may reduce monitoring. Free rinsing
For control of common soil
microorganisms, such as Listeria and Non-toxic to the environment
E.coli footbaths are frequently used as Cost effective & safe to handle.
a part of plant sanitation program.
 Sanitizers concentration commonly used in Food Plants
Sanitizer Food contact Non food contact Plant water
surface surface
Chlorine 100-200* ppm 400ppm 3-10 ppm

Iodine 25* ppm 25ppm

Quats 200ppm*ppm 400-800*ppm

Chlorine dioxide 100-200* #ppm 100-200# ppm 1-3#ppm

Peroxyacetic acid 200-315*ppm 200-315ppm

* The higher end of the listed range indicates the maximum

concentration permitted without a required rinse ( surface
must drain)
# Includes mix of oxychloro compounds
Source 21 CFR 187.1010
Types of Sanitizers
Chlorine Sanitizers
Unfortunately no deal sanitizer exists for every requirement.
Chlorine sanitizers

Chlorine and products that produce chlorine comprise the largest and most
common group of food plant sanitizing agents. Chlorine sanitizers are
effective against a wide range of bacteria and molds. They work well at cool
temperatures and tolerate hard water. They are also relatively inexpensive.
Household bleach is a solution of sodium hypochlorite, a common form of
chlorine.

Chlorine exists in more that one chemical state when dissolved in water. The
effectiveness of chlorine sanitizers is proportional to the hypochlorous acid in
solution; the most effective chemical form of chlorine.

The percentage of hypochlorous acid increases as alkalinity (pH) is decreased.

The pH of some water supplies is artificially elevated, which reduces the
effectiveness of chlorine. The Chlorine is very unstable at low pH and may
dissipate prematurely without killing bacteria.

Also, NEVER mix Chlorine and Ammonia

Hypochlorite's :- These are the most common chlorine sanitizers. They are
available as liquid concentrates on in dry granular form. The granular
chlorine products are sometimes reffered to as bleaching powders.

Chlorine dioxide : - Chlorine di-oxide does not form hypochlorous acid but
dissolves in water to produce a solution possessing strong oxidizing
properties, It can be more effective that chlorine in terms of ability to kill or
reduce bacteria and retains some anti microbial function in the presence of
organic soils. It is particularly useful for destroying bacteria bio-films. It is
also less corrosive to stainless steel and less pH sensitive than chlorine.

Chlorine di-oxide is unstable and must be generated on site. It is potentially

explosive and very toxic if improperly controlled important consideration
when selecting this sanitizer.

Disadvantages of chlorine sanitizers

They can be corrosive to equipment and may form organochlorine by product
of environmental concern effluent. Chlorine is inherently unstable solution,
requiring frequent monitoring and replenishing to maintaining adequate
concentration.

A common misconception is that the chlorine content of a sanitizer can be

confirmed by odour. A used solution that still smells like chlorine may have
little or no active chlorine available for killing microbes.
 Quaternary Ammonium compounds as Sanitizers

Quaternary Ammonium compounds, or more commonly know as quats or

. These relatively need a longer exposure time to achieve significant
kills. These are very stable and continue to kill bacteria long after most
sanitizers lose their effectiveness. They have a stronger residual effect, even
in the presence of some soil, they are often selected for footbaths, floors
and cooler surfaces. These are effective against Listeria Monocytogenes and
are commonly used in facilities that produce ready to eat products.

Limitations
Quats exhibit selective to different types of microorganisms they kill.
On shifting from other sanitizers to Quats, there may be chance incident of
establishment of coliform or spoilage organisms in the environment, which
may then transfer to the products.
These may exhibit effective results when altered with other sanitizers one or
two times a week.
If detergents are not thoroughly rinsed from surfaces prior to applying quats
or the sanitizer will be chemically neutralized.
Iodine based sanitizers
Iodoine based sanitizers, know as Iodophors are formulated with other
compounds to enhance their effectiveness They offer desirable features in a
sanitizer. They kill most types of micro organisms including yeast and molds
even at low concentrations.
They tolerate moderate contamination with organic soils and less corrosive
and pH sensitive than chlorine and are more stable during storage and use.
They are less irritating to skin than chlorine and often selected for hand dips.
Iodophors have an amber to light brown colour when properly diluted which
can be useful for monitoring since colour indicates the presence of active
iodine. Test strips are available for more precise monitoring.

Disadvantages of Iodophors as sanitizers

The principal disadvantage of iodophors is staining, especially on plastics
These sanitizers take a longer time to kill microorgansms at low
temperatures than does the chlorine and is rapidly vaporized and inactivated
above 120degree F. Iodophors must be specially formulated for use with
hard water.
Acid sanitizers
These include acid anionic and carboxylic and peroxyacetic acid types. The
advantage in application of these sanitizers is that these are stable at high
temperatures or in presence of organic matter. Being acids, they remove
inorganic solid, such as hard water mineral scale, while sanitizing. These are
commonly used in CIP or mechanical cleaning systems.

The Carboxylic acid sanitizers, commonly known as fatty acid sanitizers, these
are generally more effective than acid anoinic against a range of
microorganisms types.

Peroxyacetic acid are produced by combining hydrogen peroxide and acetic

acid. This sanitizers is highly effective against most microorganisms of
concern, especially in biofilms which would otherwise protect bacteria. They
are fast acting even at low temperatures, tolerate some organic soil and
degrade to form environmentally safe products.

Disadvantages of acid sanitizers Water chemistry is important since these

sanitizers are inactivated by certain metal ions, such as iron, and become
quite corrosive when mixed with water containing high chloride levels e.g.
wells with high salinity levels.
Other Sanitizing Agents
Other sanitizing agents include ozone, ultraviolet light and hot water. Ozone
is an unstable oxidizing gas that must be generated on-site, contributing
to its relatively high cost. It is a more aggressive sanitizer than chlorine
but requires careful monitoring to prevent the release of excessive levels
of the toxic gas.

Ozone, like chlorine, is dissipated when in contact with organic soils. It can
be injected into water system, as an alternative to chlorine gas, to make
it safe for processing.

Ultraviolet ( UV ) irradiation is sometime used for treating water, air or

surface that can be positioned in close proximity to UV generating lamps.
Ultraviolet does not penetrate cloudy liquids or below to surfaces of
films or solids.

It has no residual activity and cannot be pumped or applied onto equipment

like most chemical sanitizers.
Sanitizers - sanitizing methods
Spray Sanitizing Use of spray to sanitize equipment surfaces
CIP Sanitizing Sanitizing by circulation of the chemical agent inside pipeline
and equipment.
Immersion / Sanitizing equipment by immersion in a tank of sanitizing
COP Sanitizing solution
Fogging Fogging the chemical agent to sanitize the air and surfaces in
a room.
Chlorine All food contact surfaces, sprays, CIP, fogging
Mixed Halogens All food contact surfaces, CIP, spray sanitizing
Iodine All food contact surfaces, spray, CIP, approved as hand dips.
Peracetic Acid All food contact surfaces, CIP, especially cold temperatures
and Carbon di oxides environments.
Acid Anionics All food contact surfaces, CIP, spray, combined with sanitize
and acid rinse step into one.
QUATS All food contact surfaces, mostly used for environmental
control: walls, drain and tiles
 Cleaning methods in Food industry

Manual & Mechanical

Wet & Dry

Immersion cleaning

COP

CIP

High Pressure sprays

 Manual and Mechanical - Wet Cleaning Methods

Manual - Wet mopping

One/two bucket systems, apply detergent solution
to emulsify/absorb dissolved dirt. Longer dry
time

Manual Scrubbing -
Single disc w/water tank e.g. Stripping coated
floorings

Automatic Scrubbing
Machine scrub/dry floor in one operation.
Cleaning of medium to large areas.

Wet vaccum cleaning

Pick-up residual liquids /water, drying floor
Manual cleaning Advantages and Disadvantages
Manual Cleaning Advantages
Parts can be cleaned without complete immersion in the cleaning
solution.
Additional cleaning equipment, such as wash and rinse tanks, is not
necessary.
Waste disposal requirements are kept to a minimum.

Manual Cleaning Disadvantages

It is a labor-intensive process,
require additional time to complete.
Cleaning efficacy ??
Cleaning Solution consumption is higher,
Limitation on use of aggressive chemical.
There is no reclaim of cleaning solution.
 Mechanical Cleaning and Sanitation
Wet Cleaning - Foam / Gel Technology

Use of high foaming solution to increase the retention time

on the vertical surfaces

Gels are used to further increase over foam the retention

time on the vertical surface
This is how Foam is Generated
Air
Chemical 40 - 60 psi

H20
30 - 50 psi
Advantages of Foam Cleaning Process

Mechanized Cleaning Process

Applied at Low pressures
High chemical / soiling contact time
Safe for operators as little aerosol is formed
Hence more aggressive chemicals can be used
Uses significantly less water than pressure cleaning
Reduces cleaning time
Minimizes risk of cross contamination
Improved Cleaning efficiency
Better cleaning economy
Improved working environment
Satisfied cleaning personnel
Better environmental accountability
 Centralised Foam Cleaning
systems
No concentrated chemicals in
production area.
Less handling of chemicals. One
setting of concentration

De centralized Foam Cleaning

System
Al operators can select rinse, foam
or disinfection.
Detergent at each cleaning point
 Immersion Cleaning
This is the type of cleaning in which the parts to be cleaned are placed in the
cleaning solutions to come in contact with the entire surface of the parts.

Immersion cleaning is preferred for parts that must be placed in baskets and
for processes requiring a long soaking time because of the type of
contamination to be removed or the shape of the parts to be cleaned.

It is the most effective method, even if not the fastest one, and can be used with
any type of cleaner for any process, heated or at room temperature.
Immersion washers can be portable or stationary; single or multi-
compartment; and are available with a variety of options, controls and valve
configurations including CIP capability. The important aspects during design
of immersion washer should be

To minimize cycle time

Lower chemical usage
Reduce water and utility costs
Performance for immersion cleaning can be improved by moving the
parts within the liquid or with agitation of the liquid, mechanically or
with the addition of ultrasonic energy.
 Mechanical COP (Cleaning Out Of Place)

Cleaning Out of Place is defined as a method of cleaning equipment items

by removing them from their operational area and taking them to a
designated cleaning station for cleaning. It requires dismantling an
apparatus, washing it in a central washing area using an automated
system, and checking it at reassembly.

Automated Parts Washer

Automated controls:
- Contact Time
- Temperature
COP Mechanical Action (agitation)

Side Jet Action Push - Pull Action

Combination
 Mechanical cleaning - CIP
Cleaning in place can be described as the cleaning of equipment and vessels
at the same place without movement of them to a different place. The
cleaning agents can be transferred to the vessel or equipment types
either thorough fixed piping or flexible hoses. The CIP process can
consist of the following elements:

Supply pump
Return pump
Heat exchanger with Black/Plant steam supply
Chemical tanks i.e Acid, Alkali tanks
Supply Pressure gauge or transmitter
Supply temperature sensors
Conductivity meter with sensor

Mechanical Dry Cleaning

Manual or Automated
Use of Brooms/ Shovels
Use of automated Vaccum cleaners
Process used where wet cleaning is not possible
Areas manufacturing water sensitive products
C.I.P. Basic Requirements
 Mechanical cleaning High Pressure cleaning
Use of High pressure spray device assists in the removal of soil
High Pressure Advantages
Good for Removal of Difficult or burnt soil
Lowest Water Usage
Works Against Broad Range of Soils

Cleaning Standards
Cleaning standards can be determined through:
Visual test
General appearance
Microbiological test:
contact agar method
swab/rinse method
rapid hygiene test.
 Verification of cleaning and sanitation methods
Monitoring to assure a clean and sanitary processing environment processing is
required regulation. Various methods are used by different organizations to
verify effectiveness of cleaning and sanitation programms.

Commonly used methods include

1. Test strips Strips are simply are soaked directly in the solution to be
tested, a change in colour indicates the presence of the sanitizers, the
shade or intensity of which relating to the concentration of the chemical.
These are very rapid, low cost, do not require any laboratory equipments or
chemicals, can be performed on site, and require very little training. E.g.
Chlorine indicator test strips.
2. Contact plate Contact plates contain agar which has a convex surface.
These plates are pressed against the surface of equipment then incubated.
Examination of the plate will give an organism count and individual colonies
can be lifted from the plate and identified.
The surface of the equipment touched by the contact plate must be cleaned
of any agar residue. This method is used for verifying periodic effectiveness
of cleaning and sanitizing plant surfaces. The test procedure is very simple
and requires no additional special equipment and little training. Most
contact plates are simply touched to the surfaces to be tested then covered
with a protective cap.
3. Swabbing - A sterile cotton or calcium alginate swab is wetted in sterile
buffer, saline solution, or broth and rubbed over a measured portion of
the surface of the sanitized equipment. The swab is then either streaked
across an agar plate or placed into a sterile broth tube.

The plate or tube is incubated for the appropriate length of time. Examination
of the plate will give an organism count and the individual colonies can
be lifted from the plate and identified. Tubes are examined for turbidity.
This is a pass / fail test. Swabbing is very useful for irregular surfaces or
curved equipment

Limitation to microbiological testing methods

1. These are slow and do not reveal problem in time to correct them prio
to processing.
2. Manual errors may lead to variation of results.
3. Test Protocols and test method are easily available. However, results
may not often be conclusive due to lack of reference data.
4. Luminometry (bioluminesence) is based on the enzymatic reaction
responsible for light. In this testing method, the brightness of light is
propotional to the amount of bacteria and food debris on the surface. In a
typical test, a food contact surface is swabbed following sanitation.

Material is swabbed and is placed inside an instrument that measures light

production. The instrument generates a value related to the quantity of
cellular material, such as bacteria. In some instances the residual food can
provide high reading when the load on the surface is quite low.
Microbiological techniques, are required for ore specific testing such as
coliform bacteria count.

5. Final Rinse Test: Water of known microbiological quality and volume is rinsed
through the equipment. The water is recovered and filtered via membrane
filtration technique. The membrane is placed onto a plate and incubated.
Examination of the plate will give an organism count and individual
organisms can be identified. Note that rinse water analysis may not detect
the presence of biofilm on equipment surfaces.
 Cleaning & Sanitation Microbiological Aspect
Microbes need Water and Food for growth.
Most of food products are high in water activity.
Food product contact surfaces may harbor microbes and provide the shield
to exterior factors.
Bacteria take exponential route for the growth and one bacteria doubles in
average 20 minutes.
A non-clean, improperly clean surface may create a risk to food product and
its user.
Critical for surfaces, coming in direct contact with food.
A suitable disinfectant should have
Broad Spectrum for killing microbes (viz. all groups Bacteria,
Yeasts, Molds, Viruses etc., Gm+ve & Gm-ve etc.)
Should be sporicidal if required
Rinse free or easy to rinse
Should not affect MOC
Safe and easy to use
Detergent-disinfectant can provide cleaning and sanitation simultaneously,
thus saves water, energy, time and manpower
Monitoring steps in the cleaning program should include:
Visual inspection post cleaning to ensure any visible food residues have
been removed
Temperature checks for water and chemical solutions (using a calibrated
thermometer or temperature recorder) to ensure they are within the ranges
specified in the Standard Operating Procedures (SOP)
Concentrations of detergents and sanitizers are within the ranges specified
in the SOP
Timing devices used to ensure adequate contact times are operating
correctly
Records are checked against procedures outlined in the SOP.

Verification of the effectiveness of the program is required on an ongoing basis

and ranges from simple procedures that can be performed in-house to more
complex testing that may need to be outsourced:

looking, touching and smelling

Microbiological testing of equipment and surfaces
ATP (adenosinetriphosphate) fluorescence testing can be used to detect the
presence of microorganisms and food residues
Equipment used for cleaning and sanitizing should be kept in good working
order so it does not become a source of contamination itself.
 Cleaning and sanitation schedules
Cleaning and sanitation program and its schedule should be based on the
importance of the processes, its impact on food safety, the intensity and
priority needed.

The schedules should define when and how different items and areas
should be cleaned and who to do the cleaning.

What is to be cleaned
Who is to clean it
When it is to be cleaned
How it is to be cleaned
The time necessary to clean it
The chemicals used
Materials and equipment to be used
The cleaning standard required
The precaution to be taken
The protective clothing to be worn
Who is responsible for checking and recording that it has been cleaned.