Network Technologies 2024

UNIT-3
MOBILE AD HOC NETWORK

Introduction of Mobile Ad hoc Network (MANET)

MANET stands for Mobile Adhoc Network also called a wireless Adhoc network or
Adhoc wireless network that usually has a routable networking environment on top
of a Link Layer ad hoc network. They consist of a set of mobile nodes connected
wirelessly in a self-configured, self-healing network without having a fixed
infrastructure. MANET nodes are free to move randomly as the network topology
changes frequently. Each node behaves as a router as they forward traffic to other
specified nodes in the network.

MANET may operate a standalone fashion or they can be part of larger internet. They
form a highly dynamic autonomous topology with the presence of one or multiple
different transceivers between nodes. The main challenge for the MANET is to
equip each device to continuously maintain the information required to properly
route traffic. MANETs consist of a peer-to-peer, self- forming, self-healing network
MANET’s circa 2000-2015 typically communicate at radio frequencies (30MHz-
5GHz). This can be used in road safety, ranging from sensors for the environment,
home, health, disaster rescue operations, air/land/navy defense, weapons, robots, etc.

Characteristics of MANET –

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 Dynamic Topologies:
Network topology which is typically multihop may change randomly and rapidly
with time, it can form unidirectional or bi-directional links.
 Bandwidth constrained, variable capacity links:
Wireless links usually have lower reliability, efficiency, stability, and capacity as
compared to a wired network
 Autonomous Behavior:
Each node can act as a host and router, which shows its autonomous behavior.
 Energy Constrained Operation:
As some or all the nodes rely on batteries or other exhaustible means for their
energy. Mobile nodes are characterized by less memory, power, and lightweight
features.
 Limited Security:
Wireless networks are more prone to security threats. A centralized firewall is absent
due to the distributed nature of the operation for security, routing, and host
configuration.
 Less Human Intervention:
They require minimum human intervention to configure the network; therefore they
are dynamically autonomous in nature.

Improvement in MANET:
1. Quality of Service (QoS): Researchers are working to improve the quality of
service of MANET by developing efficient routing protocols that provide
better bandwidth, throughput, and latency.
2. Security: To ensure the security of the MANET, researchers are developing
efficient security mechanisms that provide encryption, authentication, and
authorization facilities.
3. Power management: To enhance the lifetime of MANET nodes, researchers are
working on developing efficient power management techniques that reduce
the energy consumption of nodes.
4. Multimedia support: Researchers are working to provide multimedia support to
MANET by developing efficient routing protocols that can handle multimedia
traffic efficiently.
5. Standardization: To ensure the interoperability of different MANET devices,
researchers are working on developing standard protocols and interfaces that can
be used by different MANET devices.
Mobile Adhoc Network (MANET) is a wireless network made up of a collection of
mobile nodes connected wirelessly and free of any fixed infrastructure. It is self-
configuring and self-healing. MANET provides a lot of benefits, but it also has
several drawbacks that need to be fixed. Researchers are always trying to make
MANET’s features better in order to get over these constraints. Future

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advancements in new technology and methodologies might make MANET a
dependable and effective wireless network.

Advantages:

Flexibility: MANETs are highly flexible, as they can be easily deployed in various
environments and can be adapted to different applications and scenarios. This makes
them ideal for use in emergency situations or military operations, where there may not
be a pre-existing network infrastructure.
Scalability: MANETs can easily scale to accommodate a large number of nodes,
making them suitable for large-scale deployments. They can also handle dynamic
changes in network topology, such as the addition or removal of nodes.
Cost-effective: Since MANETs do not require any centralized infrastructure, they are
often more cost-effective than traditional wired or wireless networks. They can also be
used to extend the range of existing networks without the need for additional
infrastructure.
Rapid Deployment: MANETs can be rapidly deployed in areas where infrastructure is
not available, such as disaster zones or rural areas.

Disadvantages:

Security: MANETs are vulnerable to security threats, such as attacks by malicious

nodes, eavesdropping, and data interception. Since the network is decentralized, there
is no central authority to ensure the security of the network.
Reliability: MANETs are less reliable than traditional networks, as they are subject to
interference, signal attenuation, and other environmental factors that can affect the
quality of the connection.
Bandwidth: Since MANETs rely on wireless communication, bandwidth can be
limited. This can lead to congestion and delays, particularly when multiple nodes are
competing for the same channel.
Routing: Routing in MANETs can be complex, particularly when dealing with
dynamic network topologies. This can result in inefficient routing and longer delays in
data transmission.
Power Consumption: Since MANETs rely on battery-powered devices, power
consumption can be a significant issue. Nodes may need to conserve power to extend
the life of the battery, which can limit the amount of data that can be transmitted.

Types of MANET –

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1. Vehicular Ad hoc Network (VANETs) –
Enable effective communication with another vehicle or with the roadside
equipments. Intelligent vehicular ad hoc networks (InVANETs) deals with another
vehicle or with roadside equipments. VANETs use wireless communication
technologies, such as WiFi or cellular, to enable vehicles to communicate with
each other and with infrastructure devices, such as traffic lights or road-side
units.
Uses: VANETs can be used to support a wide range of applications, such as:
 Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS): VANETs can be used to improve traffic
flow and reduce congestion by providing real-time traffic information and routing
advice to drivers.
 Road Safety: VANETs can be used to improve road safety by providing
information about the location of other vehicles, road conditions, and potential
hazards.
 Entertainment and infotainment: providing in-vehicle entertainment and
internet access to the passengers
 Emergency Services: VANETs can be used to support emergency services by
providing real-time information about accidents or other incidents on the road.
 Commercial Services: VANETs can be used for commercial services such as
providing location-based advertisement and other location-based service to
the driver or passengers.
VANETs are considered as one of the most critical application of the Internet of
Things (IoT) technology and the 5G technology.
Advantages:
 Improves traffic flow and reduces congestion.
 Enhances road safety by providing real-time information about road
conditions, potential hazards, and the location of other vehicles.
 Enables in-vehicle entertainment and internet access to passengers.
 Supports emergency services by providing real-time information about accidents
or other incidents on the road.
 Provides location-based advertising and other services to the driver or
passengers.
Disadvantages:
 Vulnerable to attacks and security breaches.
 Requires a large number of vehicles to form an effective network.
 Limited coverage area, as VANETs rely on wireless communication technologies
such as Wi-Fi or cellular.

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2. Smart Phone Ad hoc Network (SPANC) –

To create peer-to-peer networks without relying on cellular carrier networks,

wireless access points, or traditional network infrastructure. Here peers can join or
leave the network without destroying it. Ad-hoc network that utilizes smart
phones as the primary nodes for communication. In SPANC, smart phones can
act as both routers and hosts, creating a decentralized network without the
need for a central infrastructure. This allows for increased flexibility and
scalability in wireless communication, especially in emergency or disaster
scenarios where traditional communication infrastructure may be unavailable.
Some examples of SPANC applications include disaster response, search and
rescue, and urban crowd management.

Uses: Smart Phone Ad hoc Network (SPANC) can be used for a variety of
applications, including:
 Emergency communication: In the event of a natural disaster or other
emergency, SPANCs can be used to establish a communication network quickly,
allowing people to contact emergency services or stay in touch with loved ones.
 Remote areas: SPANCs can be useful in remote areas where traditional wireless
networks are not available, such as rural communities or wilderness areas.
 Event networking: SPANCs can be used to create a temporary network for
events or gatherings, allowing attendees to communicate and share information.
 Military and emergency services: SPANCs can be used by military and
emergency services to establish a quick and reliable communication network in
the field.
 Content sharing: SPANCs can be used to share various types of content such as
pictures and videos, as well as other forms of multimedia.
 Research and Development: SPANCs can be used in various research and
development projects such as security, routing, and energy consumption.
 Crowd sourcing: SPANCs can be used to gather data from a large group of
people, such as in a survey or study.
 Advertising and marketing: SPANCs can be used to deliver targeted advertising
and marketing messages to a specific group of people.

Advantages:
 Enables communication without relying on traditional network infrastructure or
wireless access points.
 Provides a decentralized network without the need for a central infrastructure.

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 Useful in emergency or disaster scenarios where traditional communication
infrastructure may be unavailable.
 Can be used to establish a communication network quickly in the event of a
natural disaster or other emergency.

Disadvantages:
 Limited coverage area, as SPANCs rely on the range of smartphone Wi-Fi
capabilities.
 Requires a large number of smartphones to form an effective network.
 Vulnerable to attacks and security breaches.

3. Flying Ad hoc Network (FANETs) –

This is composed of unmanned aerial vehicles (commonly known as drones).
Provides links to remote areas and mobility. Flying Ad-hoc Networks (FANETs)
are a specialized type of mobile ad-hoc network that are designed specifically
for use in aerial vehicles, such as drones, UAVs, and UGVs. They enable
communication and coordination among a group of flying vehicles in a
decentralized and self-organizing manner.
FANETs provide a flexible and reliable communication infrastructure for aerial
vehicles, allowing for real-time data collection and transmission, as well as
navigation and control. They can operate in a standalone mode or can be connected
to other networks, such as satellite or cellular networks, to provide extended
communication capabilities.
Uses: FANETs have several potential uses in various fields such as:
 Military and defense: FANETs can be used for reconnaissance, surveillance,
and intelligence gathering, as well as for communication and coordination
among military personnel and units.
 Emergency response: FANETs can be used to provide communication and
coordination among emergency responders in the field, enabling effective
response to natural disasters or other emergency situations.
 Civil aviation: FANETs can be used for air traffic management and control, as
well as for communication and coordination among commercial and private
aircraft.
 Environmental monitoring: FANETs can be used to collect and transmit data
for environmental monitoring and research, such as for monitoring air and water
quality, or for monitoring wildlife populations.
 Agriculture: FANETs can be used for precision agriculture, such as for
monitoring crop health and for controlling crop-dusting drones.

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 Search and Rescue: FANETs can be used to provide communication and
coordination among search and rescue teams, enabling efficient and effective
search and rescue operations.
 Infrastructure inspection: FANETs can be used for inspecting and monitoring
large-scale infrastructure, such as bridges, buildings, and power lines.
 Media and Entertainment: FANETs can be used for live streaming and for
capturing high-quality video and images for use in media and entertainment.

Advantages:
 Provides flexibility and mobility as the network can be set up and moved
quickly.
 Suitable for disaster response, search and rescue operations, and remote sensing
applications.
 Can cover large areas with minimal infrastructure requirements.
 Can operate in harsh environments where traditional communication
infrastructure is not available.

Disadvantages:
 Limited endurance of the flying platforms.
 Communication range is affected by weather conditions.
 Lack of standardization in FANETs technology.
 Difficult to maintain and manage due to the dynamic nature of the network.

 Introduction to OSI Model with all layers

 An ISO [International Standard Organization] standard that covers aspect

of network communication is open system interconnection [OSI] model.

 An open system is a model that allows any two different systems to communicate.

 The purpose of the OSI model is open communication between

different system without requiring changes to the logic of the
underlying hardware and software.

 The OSI model is not a protocol. It is a model for understanding and

designing network architecture.

 The open system interconnection model is a layered framework for the

design of the network system that allows a communication across all types
of computer system. Itconsists of seven separate but related layers.

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 LayeredArchitecture

 The OSI model is built of seven ordered layer.

1. Physical Layer
2. Data link Layer
3. Network Layer
4. Transport Layer
5. Session Layer
6. Presentation Layer
7. Application Layer

 As the message travel from A to B, it may pass through many intermediate nodes.
Theseintermediate nodes normally involve only the first three layers of OSI
model.

 In developing the model, the designers distilled the process of transmitted data to its
most fundamental elements. They identify which networking function had
related uses and collected those function into discrete groups that became the
layers.
 Each layer defines a family of function distinct from those of the layers. By
defining andlocalizing in the fashion, the designer created an architecture that is both
compressive and flexible.

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OSI Layers

 Peer to Peer Process

 Within a single machine, each layer calls upon the services of the layer just below it.
 For example, Layer 3 uses the service provided by Layer 2 and provides
services forLayer 4.
 This communication is done by protocols.
 The processes of each machine that communicate at given layer are called Peer
to Peer processes.

 Interface Between Layers

 The passing of the data and network down through the layers of the sending machine
and backup through the layers of the receiving machine is made possible by an
interface betweeneach pair of the layer.

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 Each interface defines what information and services a layer must provide for the
layer above it. Well-define interface and layer provide modularity to the network.

 Organization of the Layers

 The seven layers divided into three subgroups. Layer 1, 2, and 3 that is physical,
data link and network are the network support layers; they deal with the physical
aspects of movin gdata from one device to another. Layer 5, 6 and 7 that is
session, presentation and application are the users support layer’s, they allow
interoperability among unrelated software system. Layer 4 the support layer,
ensure reliable data transmission.

An exchange using OSI model

 In above figure gives the overall view of the OSI layers, L7 data means the data unit at
layer7, L6 data means the data unit at layer 6 and so on. The process start out at
layer 7 that is application layer then moves from layer to layer in descending
sequential order.

 At each layer, a header is added to the data unit. At layer 2 a trailer is added as
well.When the formatted data unit through the physical layer, it is change into an
electromagnetic signal and transported along a physical link.

 As a reaching its destination, the signal passes into layer 1 and is transformed
back into bits. The data units then move back up through the OSI layers. As each
block reaches the next higher layer, the headers and attached to it at the
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corresponding sending layer are removed and actions appropriate to that layer are
taken. By the time it reaches layer 7, the

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message is again in a form of appropriate to the application and is made available
to thatparticular user.

o Header: Control information added the beginning of a data packet.

o Trailer: Control information appended to the data unit.

Functions Of the OSI model

1. Physical Layer

1. The physical layer is the first layer of OSI model. It deals with the
mechanical and electrical specifications of the interface and transmission
medium.
 The physical layer receives a data unit from the data into signal that can be
transmitted on a transmission medium.
 The physical layer is concerned with following:

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i. Interface and medium: The physical layer defines the characteristics of the
interface between the device and the transmission medium. It also defines the types
of transmission medium. (Guided media & Unguided Media)
ii. Representation of the bits: The physical layer data consist of stream of bits,
to be transmitted, bits must be encoded in to signal.
iii. Data rate: The transmission rate that is number of bits sent in each second.
iv. Synchronization of the bits: The sender and the receiver must be synchronized at
bit level that means sender and the receiver clocks must be synchronized.
v. Line configuration: The physical layer is connected with the connection of the
devices to the medium. There might be a point to point configuration.
vi. Physical Topology: The physical topology defines how devices are connected
to make anetwork.
vii. Transmission mode: The physical layer defines the direction of transmission
between two device, that is simplex, half-duplex or full-duplex. In the simple
mode is only one device can send, the other can only receive. The simplex mode
is a one way to communication. In the half-duplex mode, two devices can send
and receive but not at the same time. In full- duplex mode, two devices can
send and receive at the same time.

 Physical Layer Devices: NIC [Network Interface Card], Transceiver, Hub, MAU
[Multisession Access Unit], Repeaters.

 Physical Topology: Bus, Star, Ring, Mesh.

2. Data Link Layer

Data Link Layer

 The Data link Layer is the second layer of the OSI model. When the data link layer
accepts the data from the network, it adds meaningful bits at the beginning and
end of the data. This bit known as the header and trailer.

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 The header contains bits that after the receiver about the arrival of the frame. The
trailer contains information related to error. The data link layer makes the
physical layer errorfree.

 Responsibility of the data link layer

1. Framing: The data link layer divided the stream of bits received from the
network layer into manageable data units called frames.

2. Physical Addressing: if frame are to be distributed to different system on the

network, the data link layer adds the header to the frame to define the
physical address of the sender (source address) and receiver (destination
address) of the frame. (MACAddress)

3. Flow Control: If the rate at which the data are absorbed by the receiver is less
than the rate produced in the sender, the data link layer force a flow control
mechanism to prevent over traffic to the receiver.
4. Error Control: The data link layer adds reliability to the physical layer by
detecting and retransmits damage or lost frame, it also use to prevent duplication
of frames. Error control is achieved by trailer.

5. Access Control: When two devices are connected to the same link, data link
layer protocol determines which device has control.

 Data Link Layer Devices: Bridges, Switches, NIC(Network Interface Card)

 The data link layer detects the logical topology that is the way packet move through a
network, There are three media access method are used at data link layer that is
CSMA/CD.

3. Network Layer

 The network layer is third layer of OSI model. This layer provides services for routing
and logical addressing. Routing is a process of selecting the best path of the
available path inordered to send the packet.A message is different into server
packets.A packet can be sent through diffraction path. Each packet may take different
route to the destination.

 At the destination this packet are collected reassemble into the original order. The
Process of routing requires addition of header. This header holds the source and the
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destination address of the packets. The network layer ensures that each packet gets
fromorigin to its final destination.

 If two systems are connected to the same link, there is usually no need for
network layer. If the two system are attached to a different networks, there is
often a need for a network layer to accomplish source to destination delivery
network layer has a followingresponsibility.

1. Logical Address: The physical addressing implemented by the data link layer
handles theaddressing problem locally. If a packet passes a network boundary we
need another addressing system to define the source and destination system. The
network layer header tothe packet coming from the upper layer, which includes
logical address of sender and receiver. (IPAddress)

2. Routing: When an independent network or link are connected together to create an

inter network (a network of networks) or a large network, the connecting device route
the packetsto their final destinations. This function is provided by the network layer
mechanism.

Network Layer

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Network To Network [Example]

4. Transport Layer

 The transport layer is the fourth layer of OSI model. The transport layer is
responsible for source to destination delivery of entire message. The network
layer ensures end to enddelivery of individual packets. Where it does not
recognize any relationship between those packets. The transport layer on the
other hand, ensures that the whole messagearrives in order.

 For added security, the transport layer may create a connection between the
two endports. Creating a connection involves three steps:
1. Connection establishment
2. data transfer
3. connection release
 The transport layer divides each messages into segments and assigns a sequence
numberto each segment, so when the message is being received by the clients, it is
sequentially arranged.

 The transport layer the following responsibilities:

1. Service point addressing: Computer often runs program at the same time. For this
reason, source to destination delivery means delivery not only form one computer to
the next but also from specific process or running program on one computer to a
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specific a processor running program on other. The transport layer header
therefore must include a type ofaddress called a service point address (or port
address or socket address).The network layer gets each packet to the correct
computer and the transport layer the entire message to the process on that computer.

2. Segmentation and reassembly: A message is divided into transmitted segments, each

segment containing a sequence number this number enable the transport layer to
reassemble the message correctly destination. From the sequence number it will also
identifyand replace packets that were lost in the transmission.

3. Connection Control: The transport layers can either connection less or connection
oriented. A connection less transport layer treats each segment as independent
packets and deliversit at the destination machine. A connection oriented transport
layer makes packets. After data are transferred, the connection is terminated.

4. Flow control: Like the data link layer, the transport layer is responsible for flow
control. Flow control at this layer is performed end to end rather across a single
network or signal.

5. Error Control: Like the data link layer, the transport layer is responsible for error
control. Error control at this layer is performed end to end rather across a single
network or signal link. The sending transport layer makes sure that the entire
message arrives at the receivingtransport layer without error.

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Transport layer example

5. Session Layer

 The session Layer is a fifth layer of OSI model.

 It controls the communication between the applications on the host. The session
layer isresponsible to validate and establish a connection between the users.

 Responsibilities of the layer are as following:

1. Dialog Control: This session layer control which user will send data and at what
time. It allows the communication between two processes to take place either in
half-duplex or full-duplex.

2. Synchronization: At this layer, each session is dividing into sub session by

inserting check points into the stream of data. For example, if a system is sending a
file having 2000 pages, it is advisable to insert check points after every 100 pages, to
ensure that each 100 pages unit is received. In this case, if a crash can happens
during the transmission ofpage 523, retransmission begin at page 501 means 1 to
500 need not be retransmitted.

3. Closing the session: ensure that the data transfer is completed before the session close.

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Session Layer

6. Presentation
Layer

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Presentation Layer

 The presentation layer is the sixth layer of the OSI model. This layer responds to the
requestsend by the application layer.

 It is responsible for delivering information to the application layer. It defines that

forms oftext, graphics, video or audio information is to be sends to the user.

 Responsibility of the presentation layer are following:

1. Translation: the processes (running program) in two systems are usually exchanging
information in the form of character string, number and so on. The information should
be changed to bit streams before begin transmitted. Because different computers use
different encoding systems, the presentation layer is responsible for interoperability
the information from its sender depended format into a common format. The
presentationlayer at the receiving machine changes the common format its
receiver depended format.

2. Encryption: to carry sensitive information, a system must able to assure privacy.

Encryptionmeans that the sender transforms the original information to another form
and sends the resulting message out over the network. Decryption resaves the original
process to transform the message back to its original form.

3. Compression: Data compression reduce the number of bits to be transmitted. Data

compression become particularly important in the transmission of multi media such as
a text,audio and video.

7. Application layer

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Application Layer

 The application layer is the top most layer of OSI model. The application layer act as a
link between the user and presentation layer. The application layer enables the user,
whether human or software to access the network. It provides user interface and
support for servicessuch as an electronic-mail, remote file access and transfer,
shared database management and other types of distributed information services.

 Services provided by the application layer are as following:

1. File transfer, access and management [FTAM]: This application allows a user to
access files in a remote computer to retrieve files from, a remote computer and to
manage or controlfiles a remote computer.

2. Mail services: this application provides the base for email forwarding and storage.

3. Directory Services: This application provides distributed database source for

globalinformation about various object and services.

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Summary of Layer Function:

 Introduction to TCP/ IPModel

The OSI Model we just looked at is just a reference/logical model. It was designed to
describe the functions of the communication system by dividing the communication
procedure into smaller and simpler components. But when we talk about the TCP/IP
model, it was designed and developed by Department of Defense (DoD) in 1960s
and is based on standard protocols. It stands for Transmission Control
Protocol/Internet Protocol.The TCP/IP model is a concise (smaller) version of the OSI
model. It contains four layers, unlike seven layers in the OSI model. The layers are:

1. Process/Application Layer
2. Host-to-Host/Transport Layer
3. Internet Layer/Network Access Layer
4. Link Layer/ Physical Layer
The diagrammatic comparison of the TCP/IP and OSI model is as follows:

Protocols and networks in the TCP/IP model:

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TCP/IPmodel layers

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TCP/IP functionality is divided into four layers, each of which includes specific
protocols.
 The application layer provides applications with standardized data exchange.
Its protocols include the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP), File Transfer
Protocol (FTP), Post Office Protocol 3 (POP3), Simple Mail Transfer Protocol
(SMTP) and Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP).
 The transport layer is responsible for maintaining end-to-end communications
across thenetwork. TCP handles communications between hosts and provides flow
control, multiplexing and reliability. The transport protocols include TCP and
User Datagram Protocol (UDP), which is sometimes used instead of TCP for
special
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purposes.
 The network layer, also called the internet layer, deals with packets and connects
independent networks to transport the packets across network boundaries. The network
layer protocols are the IP and the Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP),
which is used for error reporting.
 The physical layer consists of protocols that operate only on a link -- the
network component that interconnects nodes or hosts in the network. The
protocols in this layer include Ethernet for local area networks (LANs) and
the Address Resolution Protocol (ARP).

 Differences between OSI Model & TCP / IP Model

TCP / IP OSI
TCP / IP refers to Transmission Control OSI refers to Open Systems
Protocol / Internet Protocol. Interconnection.
TCP/IP has 4 layers. OSI has 7 layers.
TCP/IP is more reliable OSI is less reliable
TCP/IP follows a horizontal approach. OSI follows a vertical approach.
TCP/IP uses both session and presentation OSI uses different session and
Layer in the application layer itself. Presentation layers.
TCP/IP developed protocols then model. OSI developed model then protocol.
TCP/IP model is based on protocols and OSI provides layer functioning and also
Protocols are not flexible with other layers. Defines Functions of all the layers.

 Data communication Model, Digital and Analog data and signals, Bit rate, Baud
rate,Bandwidth, Nyquist Bit Rate

Data Communication Model

Telecommunication – Communication at a distance.

Data – Information presented in whatever form agreed upon by parties creating and using
theData.
Data Communications – Exchange of data between two devices via some form of
transmission medium.

Components of Data Communication – Message, Sender, Receiver, Transmission

Medium,Protocol

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Dataflow

Simplex – communication is unidirectional. Only one of the two devices can

transmit; the other must receive.
Half Duplex – Each station can transmit or receive, but not at the same time.
Full Duplex – Both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously.

Types of Connection

There are point-to-point and multipoint.

Point-to-point: Dedicated link between the two devices. The entire capacity of the link
is reserved for the only two devices on it.

Multipoint: More than two specific devices share a single link.

Fundamental characteristics of data communications

1.Delivery: The data must be delivered in correct order with correct

destination.
2.2. Accuracy: The data must be delivered accurately.
3. Timeliness: The data must be delivered on time. Late delivered Data will be lost.

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Digital and Analog

Signals
Analog Signal
An analog signal is continuous wave. There are many examples of analog signals
around us.The sound from a human voice is analog, because sound waves are
continuous, as is our ownvision, because we see various shapes and colors in a
continuous manner due to light waves. It is used when bandwidth is low.

Digital Signal
A digital signal - a must for computer processing - is described as using binary (0s and
1s).As illustrated in the graphic below, digital signals retain a uniform structure,
providing a constant and consistent signal. Because of the reliability of the digital
signal, technology using it is rapidly replacing a large percentage of analog
applications and devices. For example, the wristwatch, showing the time of day, with
its minute, hour, and sweeping second hands, is being replaced by the digital watch,
which offers the time of day and other information using a numerical display. A
typical digital signal is represented below. Note the equally dispersed 1s and 0s.It is
used when bandwidth is high.

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 Network Technologies 2024

Bit Rate - The number of bits per second that can be transmitted along a digital network.
(Rate at which data is
sent)BR = D ÷ T
Where:

BR = Bit Rate
D = Amount of Data

T = Time (usually seconds)

Bit Rate – 1 Bps Bit Rate – 2 Bps

Baud Rate – 1 Bd Baud Rate – 1 Bd
Baud Rate - A baud is the number of signalling elements per second sent
by a communications device such as a modem. (Rate at which signals can
change)

Baud Rate – 1 Bd Baud Rate – 3 Bd

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 Network Technologies 2024

Bandwidth

Bandwidth describes the maximum & minimum rate of data transfer in a

network or Internet connection. It measures maximum how much data can be sent
over a specific connection in a given amount of time. Bandwidth is shared, so if many
people are using a network, then their individual bit rates will be less than the
bandwidth. E.g. network’s bandwidth could be 100 Mbps, but an individual’s bitrate
36.38 Mbps.

Nyquist Bit Rate - Nyquist gives the upper bound for the bit rate of a
transmission system by calculating the bit rate directly from the number of bits
in a symbol (or signallevels) and the bandwidth of the system. (calculate by bit
rate & bandwidth)

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