(ATOMIC STRUCTURE) H2 CHEM NOTES

1. Properties of the 3 sub-atomic particles

Relative charges Relative masses

Proton +1 1

Neutron 0 1

Electron -1 1
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●​ Identifying an atom or isotope

●​ Behaviour of beams of the sub-atomic particles in an electric field:

-​ e⁻ are deflected to a larger extent as they have charge of the same magnitude as protons but are

much lighter than protons.

●​ Angle of deflection of particle:

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2. Ionisation energies

3. Arrangement of electrons

●​ Determined by → Principal quantum shell, subshell & orbitals. (Where e⁻ occupies)

●​ Principal quantum shell → Takes integral numbers called principal quantum number in ascending

order. (n=1 etc.)

●​ n → Determines energy level of e⁻ shell. The closer Q.S is to the nucleus, attraction betw e⁻ &

nucleus ↑, the lower the energy of the e⁻. (n=1 has a low energy compared to n=2)

●​ Max number of e⁻ that can occupy each principal quantum shell:

●​ Sub-shells → Found within each P.Q.S. In n = 1, there are 2 sub-shells. n = 2, 2 sub-shells etc.

-​ Sub-shells are denoted by letters s, p, d, f & g etc.

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●​ Energy level of sub-shells:

●​ Atomic orbitals → Region of space where there’s a 95% probability of locating a particular e⁻ in

atom.

●​ Number of orbital(s) in each type of subshell:

-​ Orbitals in the same subshell are equivalent in energy (Degenerate) but differ in orientation in

space.

-​ Each orbital can hold a max of 2 e⁻.

●​ s - orbitals → Spherical in shape & non-directional. n ↑, size of orbitals ↑/more diffused & dist of

e⁻ from nucleus also ↑.

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●​ p - orbitals → Dumb-bell in shape & there are 3 types. (Diff orientation) n ↑, size of orbitals

↑/more diffused.

●​ d - orbitals → 5 types. Orbitals dxy, d𝑥𝑧 , d𝑦𝑧has 2 dumb-bell shapes pointing between 2 of the

axes. d𝑥2 − 𝑦2 has 2 dumb-bell shapes pointing along the x & y axes. d𝑧2 has 1 dumb-bell

shape along z-axis & a torus of e⁻ around its middle.

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●​ Anomalies in energy of orbitals → When empty, 4s orbital has a lower energy level than 3d

orbitals.

4. Electronic configuration → 3 rules have to be applied to work out electronic configuration.

●​ Aufbau principle (Building-up principle) → Writing order: 3d, 4s etc. (In terms of increasing n)

-​ When e⁻ in an atom occupy the lowest energy levels, atom is said to be in its ground state.

●​ Pauli Exclusion Principle → Orbital can accommodate max of 2 e⁻, which must have opp spins.

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-​ 2 e⁻ in orbital → referred to as paired electrons.

-​ Only 1 e⁻ → Referred to as unpaired e⁻.

●​ Hund’s Rule → e⁻ occupy degenerate orbitals singly & with the same spin before pairing occurs

to minimise inter-electronic repulsion.

●​ Exceptions to the rules → Does not apply to Cr, Cu & elements in the same grp.

●​ ‘Electrons-in-box’ diagram → Each box represents an orbital. Half arrows represent e⁻.

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5. Ionisation energy

●​ First ionisation energy → Energy required to remove 1 mole of the outermost e⁻ from 1 mole of

M atoms (g) to form 1 moie of M⁺ cations (g).

●​ Second ionisation energy → Energy required to remove 1 mole of the outermost e⁻ from 1 mole

of M⁺ cations (g) to form 1 moie of M²⁺ cations (g).

●​ Factors influencing magnitude of ionisation energy

i) Effective nuclear charge = Size of +ve nuclear charge & shielding effect of inner e⁻.

-​ Nuclear charge → Dependent on the number of protons. Number of protons ↑, NC of particle

gets more +ve & ∴, attraction of the nucleus for the e⁻ ↑. ∴, I.E ↑.

-​ Shielding effect → Presence of e⁻ in inner shells between valence e⁻ & nucleus shields the

valence e⁻ from the attraction from the nucleus. ∴, ↓ the attraction betw them. ∴, number of

inner shells of e⁻, the ↑ the S.E & I.E ↓.

-​ Effective nuclear charge = N.C - S.E.

-​ Elements with higher E.N.C will lead to a stronger attraction of valence e⁻ to the nucleus & ∴,

requires a higher amount of energy to remove the valence e⁻.

-​ Higher S.E outweighs an element’s higher N.C.

ii) Orbital where the e⁻ comes from (Only if e⁻ to be removed comes from the same quantum shell

but diff sub-shells) →

The further the dist from the nucleus of orbital, amount of energy required to remove the e⁻ in it ↓.

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 -​ E.G e⁻ in 2p orbital requires less energy to be removed than e⁻ in 2s orbital as average dist from

the nucleus of 2p orbital is slightly ↑ than that of 2s orbital.

iii) Inter-electronic repulsion betw e⁻ in the same orbital (Only if e⁻ removed come from the same

orbitals) → I.E can be lowered if e⁻ removed is from a paired orbital compared to an orbital containing a

singly unpaired e⁻.

iv) Charge of cation → As charge of cation ↑, a ↑ amt of energy is required to remove the subsequent e⁻

due to an ↑ in attraction by the same number of protons on a fewer number of e⁻. ∴, E.N.C ↑.

●​ Trends in ionisation energies

-​ 1st I.E of elements generally ↑ across a period → Number of protons ↑, N.C ↑ while S.E

remains approx constant as elements have the same number of e⁻. ∴, E.N.C ↑ & amt of energy

required to remove valence e⁻ ↑.

-​ 1st I.E of grp 13 element is lower than expected compared to grp 2 element → E.G Be & B.

Valence e⁻ in Be is in 2s subshell while valence e⁻ in B is in 2p subshell. As average dist from

nucleus of 2p orbital is slightly larger than that of 2s orbital, less energy is required to remove 2p

e⁻ in B.

-​ 1st I.E of grp 16 element is lower than that of grp 15 element → E.G N & O. e⁻ to be removed

in N is 1 of the 3 2p e⁻ & is unpaired & mutual repulsion betw these e⁻ is minimised. In O, e⁻ to be

removed in 2p𝑥 orbital is paired & exp inter-electronic repulsion. ∴, it’s easier to remove 1 of

them than the p e⁻ in N.

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-​ 1st I.E of elements generally ↓ down a grp → N.C of elements ↑ since number of protons ↑ &

S.E also ↑ as number of inner shells of e⁻ ↑. ↑ in S.E outweighs ↑ in N.C. ∴, E.N.C ↓.

●​ Increase in successive I.E →

-​ Due to ↑ +ve charge on the cation. As successive e⁻ are removed, the same number of protons

are attracting fewer e⁻. ∴, ↑ in E.N.C on cation & more energy is required to remove the next e⁻.

-​ + Due to ↓ in the dist betw e⁻ to be removed & the nucleus.

●​ Big jump in ionisation energies → Indicates e⁻ removed come from a diff quantum shell & ∴,

S.E ↓ significantly while N.C remains constant. ∴, E.N.C ↑ & more energy is required to remove

the e⁻ in the inner quantum shell.

●​ Gradual jump in I.E → e⁻ removed come from 2 diff sub-shells as they have diff energy levels. 2

sub-shells are within the same quantum shell.