A.

Character Formation: An Introduction

For some reason we have lost sight of character. Perhaps this is

because our educational system and organizations are so competency
focused; perhaps because we just don’t know what to think about character;
perhaps because character seems such an old-fashioned word; perhaps
because we are reluctant to discuss examples of poor character with our
colleagues in the workplace, or because we believe we cannot assess
character objectively.

Yet character is such a central, important element of leadership —

particularly for the kind of cross-enterprise leadership that is essential in
complex, global business organizations — which it should not and cannot be
ignored. Character fundamentally shapes how we engage the world around us,
what we notice, what we reinforce, who we engage in conversation, what we
value, what we choose to act on, how we decide…and the list goes on.

B. Defining Character and its Characteristics

 Character is a psychological notion that refers to all the habitual ways of

feeling and reacting that distinguish one individual from another.
Sigmund Freud had a sustained interest in the question of character
formation, since it touches on the major themes that interested him:
"anatomo-physiological destiny," memory traces, and, more generally,
the role of acquired traits, as well as the function of sublimation with
regard to the "remains" of the pre-genital libido.

 However, there is no consensus on a definition of character. In fact

there seems to be as many definitions as there are scholars whose
research and writing focus on character. In our discussion of character,
we focus on traits, values and virtues.

 Traits

 Traits are defined as habitual patterns of thought, behavior and emotion that
are considered to be relatively stable in individuals across situations and over
time. Traits are not fixed. For example, introverts may be able to learn how to
behave in a less introverted way, while extroverts may learn how to control and
moderate their extroverted behaviors when situations require it.

 There are, literally, hundreds of personality traits from A (ambition) to Z

(zealousness) that have been described in the psychology literature. However,
through statistical techniques such as factor analysis, five broad domains, or
dimensions, of personality have emerged, and are now widely used in various
forms in employee selection and assessment.

The Big Five is a Big Deal because, out of the major personality inventories
floating around, it is the only one that was created empirically, as opposed to The
Enneagram and the MBTI. Psychological researchers took major adjectives out of the
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English dictionary, under the assumption that, if people are a certain way, language
should eventually reflect that truth.

They then had survey-takers sort all those adjectives into different categories,
putting in one pile all the words that meant the same thing. It took a lot of math (trade
secret: most of psychology is statistics), but eventually psychologists determined that
those adjectives fell into 16 categories, which with even more math got refined into a
basic five. Whether the 16-factor model or the 5-factor one is more accurate is still
being debated by academic psychologists today.

The Big Five traits provide "an OCEAN of possibility", though we can use a
different acronym if that one doesn't float your CANOE. The “Big-Five” traits are:

1. Openness to Experience determines an appreciation for variety of experience.

A Cloud Cuckoo Lander is likely to score high on Openness, whereas lower
scorers prefer the traditional, the obvious and the familiar. It relates also to
creativity, appreciation of art and imagination; according to what
Englishspeakers say about themselves, both stem from a single central trait.

2. Conscientiousness describes how likely someone is to act with self-discipline,

responsibility and an interest in achievement. Essentially it describes selfcontrol,
from the chaotic and spontaneous people on the low side to the analretentive,
obsessive-compulsive workaholics on the high side.

3. Extraversion describes a sense of exuberance and willingness to be involved

with the world around them. There is actually a physiological explanation for this
phenomenon: there are differences between the brain of an Introvert, which is
more likely to be overwhelmed by excess stimulation, and that of an Extrovert,
which is more likely to be bored by lack of it. Having said that, the Big Five's
version of Extraversion also correlates with energy and positivity.

 On the other side of the coin are introverts. These people have less
exuberance and energy than extraverts. They are less involved in social
activities, and tend to be quiet and keep to themselves. An introvert
does

not require the external stimulation that extraverts do. Find out more
about your other Big Five characteristics and test personality by taking a
free personality test. 2eg
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CCJ 2020 Outcomes Based Module for Character Formation 2

  Sub traits of the extraversion trait

4. Agreeableness, measures whether you're a Friend to All Living Things or

Properly Paranoid. People who score high on Agreeableness are pleasant,
cooperative and willing to compromise. People who score low on Agreeableness
are suspicious of others' motives and place their own interests first.

5. Neuroticism, sometimes called Emotional Instability, measures how well you

deal with adversity. People who score high on Neuroticism are easy to knock
out of equilibrium; prone to anxiety, depression, stress and so forth; and more
likely to overreact to bad news. Low Neuroticism scores indicate stability, calm,
and ease at shrugging off negative feelings. This does not mean they feel lots of
positive feelings (that's what Extraversion is for); an Introvert with low
Neuroticism just doesn't feel much at all.

These five traits feature prominently in tests or inventories and they have come
to be known as the FFM, or the five-factor model, a robust model of personality.
Although the Big Five dominate the personality literature, there are various other traits
that warrant consideration and measurement, such as self-confidence, ambition,
perfectionism, dominance, rigidity, persistence and impulsivity.

Some personality traits can be inherited. For example, studies have shown
that identical twins that have the same genes show more traits that are similar than
nonidentical twins. Traits, of course, also evolve through life experiences and
deliberate developmental exercises such as coaching.

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 Values

 Values are basic and fundamental beliefs that guide or motivate attitudes or
actions. They help us to determine what is important to us. Values describe the
personal qualities we choose to embody to guide our actions; the sort of person
we want to be; the manner in which we treat ourselves and others, and our
interaction with the world around us. They provide the general guidelines for
conduct.
 Values in a narrow sense is that which is good, desirable, or worthwhile. Values
are the motive behind purposeful action. They are the ends to which we act and
come in many forms. Personal values are personal beliefs about right and wrong
and may or may not be considered moral. Cultural values are values accepted by
religions or societies and reflect what is important in each context.
 Values are essential to ethics. Ethics is concerned with human actions, and the
choice of those actions. Ethics evaluates those actions, and the values that
underlie them. It determines which values should be pursued, and which
shouldn't.
 Value specifies a relationship between a person and a goal. It is relational in the
sense that what one person values may not be what another person values even
in the same situation. For example, a person who values honesty might blow the
whistle on financial wrongdoing by a superior whereas another person who
values loyalty may remain silent. This is an example of values conflict. The
honest person may believe there are limits to loyalty and keeping quiet about a
wrongful act out of loyalty might harm others. The loyal person may believe in the
importance of keeping one’s confidence even if it might harm others because of
the trusting relationship.
 From a virtue perspective, it is most important to distinguish intrinsic from
extrinsic value. Intrinsic value is something that has value in its own right, such
as honesty and kindness, whereas extrinsic value is doing something for another
reason (i.e., wealth and fame).
 Values are beliefs that people have about what is important or worthwhile to
them. Values influence behavior because people seek more of what they value.
If they can get more net value by behaving in certain ways, they will. Values
therefore can be seen as the guideposts for behavior. Some people value their
autonomy very highly, some value social interaction, some value the opportunity
to be creative, some value work-life balance, and so on. Values may change
with life stages and according to the extent to which a particular value has
already been realized. For example, a new graduate strapped by student loans
may value a high starting salary. That same person 30 years later may well pass
up a high-paying job for one that paid less, but allowed him to live close to his
grandchildren or somewhere with greater access to recreational activities.
 An individual’s values are in large part derived from the social environment in
which he or she lives. In Western democracies, life, liberty and the pursuit of
happiness are some of the things we value. Other societies value order,
harmony, non-violence and equality. If we are brought up with strong religious
traditions, some of us develop values based on the teachings of those religions.
Similarly, our value frameworks may be influenced by our home life, fraternal
societies we join, experiences obtaining an education, the companies we work
for, our friends, and many other social influences.

 An important sub-set of values consists of those with ethical or social

dimensions, such as honesty, integrity, compassion, fairness, charity and social
responsibility. Such moral values may be strongly or weakly held and influence
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  Values may be espoused though they may not necessarily be manifested. For
example, it’s not unusual for people to experience value conflicts in certain
situations. When loyalty conflicts with honesty, when fairness conflicts with
pragmatism, or when social responsibility conflicts with obligation to
shareholders, people become conflicted. And when their actions are inconsistent
with their values, they either experience guilt, anger and embarrassment. People
try to minimize such cognitive dissonance by rationalizing or even denying their
behavior, discounting the consequences of it or simply blaming others.

 Virtues

 From the time of the ancient Greeks, philosophers have defined certain clusters
of traits, values and behaviors as “good,” and referred to them as virtues.
Virtues are like behavioral habits – something that is exhibited fairly
consistently. For example, Aristotle wrote that: “We are what we repeatedly do.
Excellence, then, is not an act, but a habit.”

 Aristotle identified and defined twelve virtues: Courage, Temperance,

Generosity, Magnificence, Magnanimity, Right ambition, Good temper,
Friendliness, Truthfulness, Wit, and Justice. The twelfth virtue is Practical
Wisdom, which is necessary to live the “good life” and thus achieve happiness
or well-being.

 Consider the virtue of Courage. Traits such as openness to experience,

selfconfidence and persistence contribute to individuals acting in distinctive
ways – for example, putting themselves on the line and acting in a courageous
fashion. Having values such as integrity, treating individuals with respect and
achievement predisposes individuals to demonstrate courageous behavior.
Furthermore, a person with integrity tends to act in a different way than a
person who lacks integrity, even if both individuals find themselves in the same
situation. Then there is a set of actual behaviors that individuals engage in –
on a fairly consistent basis (meaning across situations and over time) – and
that friends, colleagues and observers characterize or describe as courageous.
These behaviors may have become societal expectations.

6. Character Development

 Individuals can develop their own character strengths, leaders can help
followers develop their character, and organizations can and should enable
character development to take place.

 Some dimensions of character, specifically some traits, are inherited. Virtues,

values and many other traits are developed during early childhood, and
modified as a result of education, family influences, early role models, work and
social experiences, and other life events.

 The early philosophers viewed character as something that is formed,

subconsciously, through repetitive behavior that is either rewarded or by finding
what works through experience. The habit of character is formed along with a
myriad of other habits which both enable and constrain us, and that can be both
productive and counterproductive.
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  As Robert Kegan, a developmental psychologist, said, we need “to resist our
tendencies to make right or true that which is merely familiar and wrong or false
that which is only strange.” At the core of this capacity is character; hence,
character shapes thoughts, words, actions, and so on. Yet, habits may prevent
the development of character. For example, a strong ego that has been built to
defend one’s identity makes it difficult to develop humility and thus be open to
learning experiences. So, when people believe that character is developed at
an early age, they are in part correct, since there comes a time when habits are
difficult to break. It is not surprising then that it often takes profound life events
to liberate us from the cages we have constructed for ourselves.

 Even normal everyday occurrences offer the opportunity for character

development, since it is not something separate from one’s job or life, but rather
a part of them. Reflection about why you might be impatient, excessive,
stubborn or careless provides the raw material for examining and developing
character.

 Senior Leadership and Organizational Commitment to Character Development

 There is much that senior leaders in organizations can do to develop leadership

character in others.

 Simply talking about character, making it a legitimate and valued topic of

conversation, stimulates discussion and facilitates individual reflection. When
organizations develop leadership profiles and address leadership character in
those profiles, they emphasize the importance of leadership and promote
discussion of it, especially in the context of developmental coaching.
Conversely, when leadership profiles only address competencies and
commitment, they implicitly, if unintentionally, suggest that character is not
important.

 Even explicit values statements in organizations often turn out to be nothing

more than posters or plaques on the wall. Unless they are formulated in the
context of the work that people are doing, and in a meaningful way, they tend to
be ignored. Anything that senior management attends to is considered
important; anything ignored is marginalized. For the most part, people do not
learn values and virtues by osmosis. Values need to be addressed explicitly in
the organization’s coaching and mentoring, reinforced through training and
development, and actively used in recruitment, selection and succession
management.

 Personal Commitment to Character Building

 Warren Bennis addressed the role of individual responsibility in becoming a

better leader when he said: “The leader never lies to himself, especially about
himself, knows his flaws as well as his assets, and deals with them directly.
You are your own raw material. When you know what you consist of and what
you want to make of it, then you can invent yourself.”

 This is relevant to leadership character as much as it is to competencies and

commitment. It requires a degree of self-awareness, a preparedness to
examine habitual behaviors and consider whether there may not be better ways
of leading than the ones that have worked, more or less, for you in the past.
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 We limit our development as leaders by not having the discipline and courage
to assess ourselves honestly.

 Why Character Really Matters?!

 When it comes to leadership, competencies determine what a person can do.

Commitment determines what they want to do, and character determines what
they will do.

 Character is foundational for effective decision-making. Clearly, mistakes are

made because of a leader’s shortcomings in his or her competencies. More
often, the root cause is a failing of character. For example, not recognizing or
not willing to admit that you don’t have the requisite competencies to succeed
in the leadership role is rooted in character. Not willing to listen to those who
can do well because of the perception that it would undermine your leadership
is a problem rooted in character. Challenging decisions being made by others
but which you feel are wrong requires character. Dealing with discriminatory
behaviors by others requires character. Creating a culture of constructive
dissent so that others may challenge your decisions without fear of
consequences requires character.

 The question is not really why character matters, but why it does not get the
attention and respect it warrants. For character to find the spotlight it
deserves, leaders need to illuminate it. We can see some light shed in
organizational statements of values and leadership competencies, but the
practice is not widespread. We believe organizations should move beyond
statements of organizational values to anchor leadership development in
profiles that define what makes a leader good, in addition to defining what
good leaders do and how they can lead better.

 Character is not something that you have or don’t have. All of us have
character, but the key is the depth of development of each facet of character
that enables us to lead in a holistic way. Character is not a light switch that
can be turned on and off. There are degrees, and every situation presents a
different experience and opportunity to learn and deepen character. In
particular, and for better or for worse, character comes to the fore when
managing a crisis. No one is perfect when it comes to character, and given
that its development is a lifelong journey, we will rise to the occasion in some
situations and disappoint ourselves and those around us in others.

 Numerous examples come to mind where good people do inappropriate

things! They get derailed because they stop listening; they become
overconfident in their decision-making skills; they become blind to important
contextual variables; their emotions hijack their self-control, and so forth.
Even good people are fallible. But since we tend to judge ourselves by our
intentions and others by their behavior it is easy to become jaded about
character. How could someone preach one thing and do another? The point
is that in this lifelong journey, we need to appreciate what it takes to develop
the habits around character, and to enable the conversations within ourselves
and with others that strengthen rather than undermine character.

LESSON 2. THE CHARACTER OF LEADERSHIP

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A. Concept of Character in Leadership
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 Not surprisingly, the importance of the character of leadership is making
inroads in the business world, Johnson & Johnson (J&J), the major manufacturer of
health care products in the United States, views character as a leadership essential.
Former Chairman Ralph Larsen believes that people with character can give a
company a significant competitive advantage. The company actively seeks to recruit
and be represented by people of exceptional character. Johnson & Johnson’s stance
is supported by research which suggests that in leadership, good character counts.

According to Frances Hesselbein, the author and chairman of the Drucker

Foundation, leadership that achieves results goes beyond how to be, and becomes
how to do; this type of leadership is all about character. So in other words, in order to
get things done personally and organizationally, one first needs to get in touch with his
or her character.

Leaders with character achieve results that transcend everyday organizational

imperatives and outcomes. A study of world leaders over the past 150 years asserts
that managers who possess strong character will create a better world for everyone,
while leadership generally is vital to the social, moral, economic, and political fabrics
of society.

However, we often take the character of leadership for granted. We expect

good leaders to be strong in character, that is, to have a moral imperative underwrite
their actions. These leaders with character have been identified as authentic leaders:
They are what they believe in; show consistency between their values, ethical
reasoning and actions; develop positive psychological states such as confidence,
optimism, hope, and resilience in themselves and their associates; and are widely
known and respected for their integrity.

B.The three underlying dimensions of leadership character

1. Universalism

 Universalism is the outward expression of leadership character and is made

manifest by respectfulness for others, fairness, cooperativeness,
compassion, spiritual respect, and humility.

a. Respectfulness

 Receiving respect from others is important because it helps us to feel safe

and to express ourselves. Being respected by important people in our lives
growing up teaches us how to be respectful toward others. Respect in your
relationships builds feelings of trust, safety, and wellbeing.

b. Fairness

 Fairness usually comes down to applying the same rules, standards and
criteria in similar situations. The purpose is to reduce the role of bias in
one’s decision making, thus “leveling the playing field”.

 Fairness is important. It takes place in all our lives. If we did not have
fairness our lives would be crazy. Fairness is when everyone is treated 1
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equally and no one is left out. People that are fair follow the rules in sports,
games, activities, and in their community. They are honest and trustworthy.

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 They follow Eleanor Roosevelt’s quote “It is not fair to ask of others what
you are unwilling to do yourself.”

 Fairness is very important in a community. Everyone needs to follow the

rules, be respectful of one another and work together to build a strong and
beautiful community. They can do this by getting together in a friendly way
to solve problems and make rules that are fair to everyone.

c. Cooperation

 The actions of someone who is being helpful by doing what is wanted or

asked for : common effort

 Cooperation is people working together to achieve results or people helping

each other out to achieve a common goal.

 Cooperation is important because it allows people and groups to work

together to achieve a common goal or derive mutual benefits. ...
Cooperation allows participants to exchange valuable information that helps
both sides improve their knowledge bases and work in a time- and
resource-efficient manner.

d. Compassion

 The etymology of "compassion" is Latin, meaning "co-suffering." Compassion

involves "feeling for another" and is a precursor to empathy, the "feeling as
another" capacity for better person-centered acts of active compassion; in
common parlance active compassion is the desire to alleviate another's
suffering.

 The meaning of compassion is to recognize the suffering of others and then

take action to help. Compassion embodies a tangible expression of love for
those who are suffering.

 To be compassionate is to feel deeply for another person as they experience

the ups and downs associated with life. To be compassionate is to not just tell
someone that you care, but also to show them that you care by being there
before they even ask for it

 Compassion motivates people to go out of their way to help the physical,

mental, or emotional pains of another and themselves. Compassion is often
regarded as having sensitivity, an emotional aspect to suffering, though when
based on cerebral notions such as fairness, justice, and interdependence, it
may be considered rational in nature and its application understood as an
activity also based on sound judgment. There is also an aspect of equal
dimension, such that an individual's compassion is often given a property of
"depth", "vigor", or "passion".

 Compassion involves allowing ourselves to be moved by suffering and

experiencing the motivation to help alleviate and prevent it.

 An act of compassion is defined by its helpfulness. Qualities of compassion are

patience and wisdom; kindness and perseverance; warmth and resolve. It is
often, though not inevitably, the key component in what manifests in the social 2
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 context as altruism. Expression of compassion is prone to be hierarchical,
paternalistic and controlling in responses.

 Difference between sympathy and compassion is that the former responds to

suffering from sorrow and concern while the latter responds with warmth and
care.

e. Spiritual respect

 Receiving respect from others is important because it helps us to feel safe and
to express ourselves. Respect means that you accept somebody for who they
are, even when they're different from you or you don't agree with them. Respect
in your relationships builds feelings of trust, safety, and wellbeing.

 Spiritual respect is not earned in the sense of what you know or what you
achieve on your life path journey. It does not come from judgment, expectation,
the need for control, the need to be right, negative emotions like jealousy or
worry about what other people think, rationalization, attitudes or feelings on
what you want or think "respect" should be. It is not used for personal gain, ego
or power.

 Spiritual respect is a God-given right held by all living things that should be
honored, esteemed and regarded by everyone at all times. It is not demanding.
It does not encompass judgment from human mores and values. It is the
awareness of seeing beyond human limitations and conditions to the positive
life force in every living thing.

f. Humility

 Humility is considered a state of being, highlighted by your behavior and

approach to things. It's also considered one of the virtues of the human
condition, along with kindness, patience, diligence, charity, temperance and
chastity. Humility is often thought to occur in the absence of pride.

3 signs of a humble person

1. They don't go around saying they're humble. ...
2. They talk less and listen more. ...
3. They choose being at peace over being right

 Humility is in fact, one of the most powerful and important attributes of growth.
Being humble helps to build trust and facilitates learning, which are key aspects
of leadership and personal development.

 Humility is the feeling or attitude that you have no special importance that
makes you better than others or having a lack of pride. At first glance, humility
seems like a negative quality, almost like a sign of weakness rather than a
strength. In reality, humility is a type of modesty that will get you very far in your
life as a person, a contender, and a leader. Let’s look at it another way. A
person who lacks humility is arrogant. It is a person who only thinks of
themselves and sees themselves as higher and better than others.
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CCJ 2020 Outcomes Based Module for Character Formation 2

 2. Transformation

 Transformation is how leaders achieve universal and benevolent outcomes, and

is the second main factor of leadership character. Transformational leaders with
character have courage, passion, wisdom, competency, and self-discipline in
their leadership repertoire.

a. Courage

 From organizational perspective, courage is having strong convictions about the

strategic objectives of the organization and being prepared to harness the
minds of workers and organizational resources to achieve those objectives.

b. Passion

 Passion is about energy and deeply committed enthusiasm to producing the

best one can.

 Leadership guru Warren Bennis thinks passion is inherent in effective

leadership: “We are productive when we do what we love to do.

c. Wisdom

 Wisdom is the ability to draw on one’s knowledge and experience to make

wellformed judgments. It also involves the use of one’s power and personal
authority to implement an effective course of action.

 Wisdom underpins major decisions.

d. Competence

 Those actively pursuing a career as a leader need to be competent in order to

maintain the confidence of others. They need to be expert in something to the
extent that their expertise commands the respect of peers and followers.

 The first and most important ingredient of leadership seems to me to be to

possess a rounded and comprehensive knowledge of the subject matter with
which you are dealing and about which you want others to act in a particular
way.

e. Self-discipline

 Leaders with self-discipline exercise appropriate personal control over their

thoughts and actions and are able to manage and express emotions in
constructive ways. They are well organized and able to persist in the face of
difficulties. Through self-discipline, leaders engender confidence in their
followers that they can be relied upon to make rational and logical decisions. As
a consequence, their capacity to influence others often increases. Lao Tzu
proposed that through mastering ourselves we find true power.

 Self-discipline requires the maturity to do what is needed, not always what is

desired in the present moment.

CCJ 2020 Outcomes Based Module for Character Formation 2

  As a means of maintaining a balance between professional and personal roles,
self-discipline is an important component of effective leadership.

3. Benevolence

 The third major dimension of leadership character is benevolence, and is

associated with loyalty, selflessness, integrity, and honesty.

a. Loyalty

 Leaders who demonstrate organizational loyalty show a deep commitment to building

organizational sustainability. Such leaders have been described as having the resolve
to do whatever it takes to make a company great irrespective how hard the decisions
or how difficult the task.

b. Selflessness

 The character attribute of selflessness requires leaders to put others’ interests

ahead of their own.

c. Integrity

 The word integrity comes from the Latin word ‘integritas’, meaning wholeness,
coherence, rightness, or purity. Integrity has been defined as consistency
between word and deed or “the perceived degree of congruence between the
values expressed by words and those expressed through action.”

 Integrity is the most often cited element of corporate mission statements. In

most cases, integrity refers to honest representation of a company’s values and
operating protocols.

d. Honesty

 Honesty is absolutely essential to leadership and character. People value

working for leaders they can trust.

 Successful leaders are open and honest with others, but they also understand
that maintaining trust requires them to exercise discretion in how they use and
disclose information. They take care to avoid violating confidences and do not
carelessly divulge potentially harmful information.

C. Future of leadership with character

Leadership is inherently viewed as positive and good. The reality, of course, is

something quite different. There are good leaders and there are bad leaders, male
and female. There are those who believe that any action by leaders is better than no
action at all. This is wishful thinking and absolute nonsense.

If leaders make bad decisions, those actions paralyze the organization, its
members, and damage the public and society in many cases. If bad leaders are not
told by their followers that they are bad, they will continue to be bad leaders. In the 5
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  Important aspects in future leadership with character
 Character is fundamental to effective leadership because good character
builds trust, and without trust, people will not follow you. Without followers,
obviously, one cannot lead. ... Another way to define good character is to
ask what makes a person trustworthy, as we already defined that good
character enables trust.

 Leaders of the future are all about motivating their people to be innovative
and create new ideas. In order to do this, it is important to relinquish total
control and power. Humble leaders are accessible: they sit among
employees and initiate dialogue with them

 Future leaders need to learn to listen respectfully, consult with others, work
as part of a team, and take responsibility for their actions. Leaders will need
to be able to optimize today's only constant: change. They will need to thrive
on chaos.

 Leaders of the future are extremely likely to be personable and proactive,

with clear ethics and values. They'll be motivational and will strive to
empower their staff – if they're not, it's possible they won't have any staff at
all. But leadership is possibly not restrictive to just a select few anymore.

The three underlying dimensions or factors of leadership character.

Universalism represents an understanding, appreciation, and tolerance for the welfare
of people generally, and is a macro perspective approach to work.

Transformation is consistent with the concept of transformational leadership as

an activity that inspires others in the achievement of long-term, visionary goals.
Transformation is a situation-specific process that relies on the competence and
selfreliance of the incumbent in their delivery of inspired and values-driven strategic
direction for the enterprise.

The third dimension, Benevolence, is a micro approach to work, and focuses

on concern for the welfare of others through one’s daily interactions. As a process,
Transformation can be seen as the link between Universalism as the
externallyfocused manifestation of leadership character and internally-focused
Benevolent intentions.

Leaders who manifest courage (setting a long-term direction and taking people
along without fear) with passion (energy and enthusiasm) are more often associated
with outcomes that have external as well as internal benefits, and are typical of
character-led organizat

Lesson 3. VIRTUES OF A CROSS-ENTERPRISE AND ETHICS IN LAW

ENFORCEMENT LEADER

A. Cross-Enterprise Leadership and its Significance in all Organizations

Enterprise leadership is one of the latest organizational performance
buzzwords, and for good reason. ... Put simply, enterprise

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 leadership encourages leaders to focus on organizational outcomes and working on
behalf of the whole organization, rather than only focusing on their own
organizations or team.

The virtues of a cross-enterprise leader can also be applicable in different types

of organizations as it promotes the appropriate virtues that must possess by all
leaders in organization.

Character is fundamental to effective leadership because good character builds

trust, and without trust, people will not follow you. Without followers, obviously, one
cannot lead. ... Another way to define good character is to ask what makes a person
trustworthy, as we already defined that good character enables trust

B. The ten virtues of a cross-enterprise leader which can be applicable in

different organizational set-up.

 The cross-enterprise leaders who focus on the long-term performance of their

organizations must demonstrate ten virtues.

1. Humility is essential to learning and becoming a better leader

2. Integrity is essential to building trust and encouraging others to collaborate

3. Collaboration enables teamwork

4. Justice yields decisions that are accepted as legitimate and reasonable by

others

5. Courage helps leaders make difficult decisions and challenge the decisions or
actions of others

6. Temperance ensures that leaders take reasonable risks

7. Accountability ensures that leaders own and commit to the decisions they
make and encourages the same in others

8. Humanity builds empathy and understanding of others

9. Transcendence equips the leader with a sense of optimism and purpose

10.Judgment allows leaders to balance and integrate these virtues in ways that
serve the needs of multiple stakeholders in and outside their organizations.

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 a. Effects when the leaders do not have the virtues.

 But if you consider what may happen when leaders lack these virtues, the
effects become more obvious.

1. Without Judgment leaders make flawed decisions, especially when they must
act quickly in ambiguous situations, namely when faced with the many
paradoxes that confront all leaders from time to time.

2. Without Humanity leaders are unable to relate to others, see situations from
their followers’ perspectives or take into account the impact of their decisions
on others. Without humanity leaders will not act in socially responsible ways –
they will alienate people.

3. Without a Sense of Justice leaders are unable to understand the issues of

social inequality and the challenges associated with fairness. Such leaders act
in unfair ways and reap negative consequences in the form of poor employee
relations or reactions by customers, governments and regulators. People will
rebel and find ways to undermine the leader.

4. Without Courage leaders will not stand up to poor decisions made by others
and will lack the perseverance and tenacity required to work through difficult
issues. They will also back down in the face of adversity and choose the easy
route. But in doing so they only postpone the inevitable.

5. Without Collaboration leaders will fail to achieve those worthwhile goals that
require more than individual effort and skills. They don’t use the diversity of
others’ knowledge, experience, perceptions, judgments and skills to make
better decisions and to execute them better.
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 6. Without Accountability leaders don’t commit to, or own, the decisions they
make, and cannot get others to do so. They blame others for poor outcomes
and in doing so create a culture of fear and disengagement. People stop
caring, with potentially disastrous consequences.

7. Without Humility leaders cannot be open-minded, and solicit and consider the
views of others. They can’t learn from others, they can’t reflect critically on their
failures and become better leaders as a result of those reflections. They
become caricatures of themselves. Isolation results.

8. Without Integrity leaders cannot build good relationships with followers, with
their organizational superiors, with allies or partners. Every promise has to be
guaranteed and the resulting mistrust slows down decisions and actions.

9. Without Temperance leaders take uncalculated risks, rush to judgment, fail to

gather relevant facts, have no sense of proportion, and make frequent and
damaging changes or even reverse important decisions. Their credibility
suffers.

10.Without Transcendence leaders’ goals become narrow and they fail to elevate
discussions to higher-order goals. They don’t see the bigger picture and hence
their decisions may reflect opportunism only. They don’t think outside the box
or encourage others to do so.

 Aristotle was clear in stating that virtues become vices in their excess or
deficiency. Courage in its excess is recklessness while in its deficiency it is
cowardice. Collaboration in excess, ungoverned by judgment as to when it will
result in benefits, leads to numerous unproductive meetings and organizational
inefficiency. But without it, teamwork is difficult or impossible.

 Too much humility may lead followers to question the leader’s toughness,
resulting in a lack of confidence. But without it, leaders make ill-advised
decisions and are unable to learn. Transcendence in excess can result in
leaders becoming vacuous visionaries, unable to focus on the here and now
and the more mundane decisions that need to be made. But without
transcendence, leaders focus on narrow, short-term goals.

 Temperance or Justice in excess may lead to extreme risk aversion and

paralysis in decision-making; without them, reckless or grossly unfair decisions
are made. Even extreme Accountability may subvert required actions when the
penalties for failure are unreasonable or extreme; but without it, empowerment
and delegation are not possible.

 Judgment under conditions of uncertainty or ambiguity is the essential

requirement of organizational leadership; but excessive judgment may lead to
indecisiveness or dithering.

 Even an excess of integrity can lead to self-righteousness and total inflexibility;

but organizations could not function without rules and regulations that set
boundaries.

 The challenge for leaders, therefore, is to deepen or strengthen a virtue through

reflection, and hence avoid turning a virtue such as Courage into the vice of 2
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  Psychologists, sociologists, organizational theorists and others who study
behavior in organizations have been interested in traits, values and virtues
associated with good leadership.

 Virtuous leaders are influenced by their traits and values but they balance and
integrate them in ways that are appropriate to the situations in which they
operate. For example, while leaders may be transparent by nature, they are
able to keep a confidence or secret when it is appropriate to do so. While they
may be courageous, they will understand which battles to fight and which to
avoid.

Summary when leader’s Virtue is Present or Absent C.

Virtues and Ethics in Law Enforcement

 Virtue ethics has its historical background in ancient Greece and was primarily
developed by Aristotle. For the purposes of law enforcement, the major
foundation in virtue ethics is the idea that if you are a good person, you will do
good things, and to be good, you must do good (Pollock, 2007).

 In essence, we do not do good things because of an analysis of the end result

or of an equation to decide how many people to help versus harm. Rather, we
do the right thing, or good thing, because of our good character as
demonstrated throughout our life.
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  Therefore, the good act is an automatic response requiring little thought.
However, when faced with complex ethical dilemmas, the person who has
demonstrated a life of good character will show good character, using
temperance and intellect. The real question for Aristotle was not, “what should I
do?” but rather “what type of person ought I be?” When our answer is that we
ought to be a virtuous person, we are likely to act in a virtuous manner, and
therefore in an ethical manner.

 Hinman (2013) writes of different types of virtues that Aristotle proposed:

1. Executive virtues are examples of “strength of will,” such as courage

and perseverance.

2. Moral virtues are related to moral goodness. Examples are

compassion, generosity, truthfulness, and good temper.

3. Intellectual virtues are related to the ability to consider options.

Examples are wittiness, wisdom, and understanding.

 Virtues of Law Enforcement Leaders / Personnel

 In a law enforcement context, society has expectations of officers who:

1. Are courageous. Officers who are willing to put themselves in harm’s way, in
order to enforce the law, to protect people and property and to prevent crime.

2. Demonstrate perseverance. Officers who are not easily deterred from doing
the right thing or investigating crimes.

3. Exhibit compassion. Officers who are able to empathize and sympathize

with lawbreakers and victims and who understand that situations are complex
and that everyone deserves respect.

4. Act with generosity. Officers who offer themselves off duty by volunteering
and who try to better the lives of others through community service.

5. Show truthfulness. Officers who are trustworthy and who can be counted on
to speak the truth, even when the truth is embarrassing, or results in a
notguilty decision in a case that is important to the officer.

6. Display good temper. Officers who, when confronted with difficult situations,
stay calm and who are able to withstand pressure to react physically or
verbally.

 The virtues listed above are attractive to law enforcement agencies, and
people who demonstrate these virtues are those who law enforcement
agencies and all other branches of public service want.
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 Law Enforcement Core Virtues

 Vichio suggests a list of core virtues that law enforcement personnel should
possess (Fitch, 2014). They include:

1. Prudence. Officers with the ability to decide the correct action to take when
rules and policy are not present.

2. Trust. Officers with the ability to be relied upon for truth. This must exist
between officers and civilians, officers themselves, and officers and the
courts.

3. Effacement of self-interests. Officers who do not abuse their position of

authority or gain favoritisms due to their position.
4. Courage. Officers who place themselves in danger intellectually and
physically. Officers who are not afraid of testifying in court and/or making
arrests in tense and intimidating settings.

5. Intellectual honesty. Officers who act while weighing what they learned in
training and whose actions reflect their training and their academic abilities.

6. Justice. Officers who treat everyone fairly, regardless of personal biases,

and who act toward individuals as if looking through a veil of neutrality.

7. Responsibility. Officers who understand what is right and that there are
other courses of actions, but have the intent to do right. Officers who can be
counted upon to keep oaths, and to be accountable.

D. Six Pillars of Character in Law Enforcement

 The Center for American and International Law identifies what they term the
Six Pillars of Character. They created these pillars with the assistance of 30
national leaders and ethicists. The six pillars that they identified as being the
most important characteristics of an ethical police officer are:

1. Trustworthiness. Includes integrity, promise-keeping, and loyalty.

2. Respect. Treating everyone with respect, regardless of any biases or

provocations.

3. Responsibility. Includes accountability, pursuit of excellence, and

selfrestraint.

4. Justice and fairness. Includes equity and demonstrating due process.

5. Caring. Showing concern for others. Showing consideration for decisions that
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 6. Civic virtue and citizenship. Being socially conscious. Demonstrating
concern for one’s community.

 How can virtue ethics assist law enforcement in moral dilemmas?

 As mentioned previously, law enforcement agencies place a great emphasis
on good behaviour of their officers. One way to ensure a strong likelihood of
good behaviour is to hire those who have moral character that reflect the
values of the agency. In clearly identifying these characteristics, agencies are
likely to attract those who also identify with these characteristics.

1. Virtue ethics, at its core, is also simplistic, having two tenets that are
important for law enforcement. There is no need to measure
consequences or the morality of the action. Simply, the task is to be good
and do good acts. If officers are good, they will act in a virtuous manner.

2. There is a need to practice virtue. By practicing being virtuous, you will

become virtuous in difficult situations automatically. Given this view, it is
critical for law enforcement agencies to ensure that applicants wanting to
join the agency have practiced being virtuous to the point where it has
become a habit. Applicants who have practiced the virtues listed above
will be officers who demonstrate those virtues by habit.

Lesson 4. FUNDAMENTALS OF LEADERSHIP

A. The General Concept Leadership

Effective leadership isn’t about doing big things; it is about doing small things
that have a huge impact on organizational performance. It's about doing those small
things consistently until they eventually become instinctive and natural in your
everyday behavior.

Think about it this way: what if you wanted to learn how to play a musical
instrument? There are basic fundamentals that you will need to learn before you apply
anything more advanced. The same lesson can be applied in leadership – get the
fundamentals right first and the rest will follow.

Sometimes real leadership innovation isn’t about creating something bright and
shiny and new. Perhaps it’s about dusting off an old piece of wisdom that others have
forgotten in the rush toward novelty. Or maybe it’s about taking lessons long
recognized in other disciplines but not applied in our own, whether that means
learning something from a different area of business or from an entirely separate field.

Articles from the Harvard Business Review to understand the recurring

messages from academics and practitioners about what leaders should do. Our
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and organizational advisors, was that the best leaders with the most outsize impact
almost always deploy these six classic, fundamental practices:

1. uniting people around an exciting, aspirational vision;

2. building a strategy for achieving the vision by making choices about what to do
and what not to do;
3. attracting and developing the best possible talent to implement the strategy;
4. relentlessly focusing on results in the context of the strategy;
5. creating ongoing innovation that will help reinvent the vision and strategy; and
6. “leading yourself”: knowing and growing yourself so that you can most
effectively lead others and carry out these practices.

Sure, sometimes the starting point is different, or one of the six areas requires
more heavy lifting than another, or the sequence of activities varies. And yes, leaders
go about these practices in different ways depending on their personalities and their
situations. But the same handful of practices are always present.

B. The Four Fundamentals of Good Leadership

1. HUMILITY

 When you’re at the top and everyone is looking up to you for guidance it can
be easy to think that leadership is about you. But that’s a deceptive and
destructive way of thinking.

CCJ 2020 Outcomes Based Module for Character Formation 2

  As historic leaders such as George Washington have realized, leadership is
about the people around you. Recognize their concerns. Live with the
difficulties they face. Make your focus on them rather than on yourself, your
ideas, and your status. If you do those things then people will follow you no
matter what it takes, just like they did for Washington.

 Remember, leadership is about the led.

2. COMMUNICATION

 Good communication is central to every human relationship, and so to every

business relationship. Whether it’s with customers, colleagues, or suppliers,
clear communication builds trust, improves productivity, and ensures that the
job is done right.

 Good communication is about listening as much as speaking; planning as much

as delivering; personal moments as much as addressing the room. There are
lots of details to work on, but they all come back to the fundamental point of
communicating well.

3. TRUST

 Trust is vital to leadership and it isn’t something that just happens. You have to
earn people’s trust, and to practice the skills that will help you to do this–
communicating clearly, listening to others, setting and living up to clear
expectations.

 But trust is a two-way thing. If you don’t show others that you trust them then
you reduce their ability to do their best work and you prevent them from ever
fully trusting you. So you also have to learn to trust others, and to act on that
trust. Don’t try to control the details. Recognize that solutions other than your
own may be good enough or even better than what you came up with. Let
others do their best without you peering over their shoulders. In the end you’ll
all get more done.

4. INNOVATION

 It’s easy to get stuck in familiar patterns. After all, following the same routine is
easy and it feels safe. But anyone can follow a routine. A leader needs to
innovate and to show others how this is done, or the whole organization will slip
into complacency and stagnate.

 Practice trying new things and developing new ideas. Apply skills from outside
of your field. Develop new thinking habits. Train your brain to innovate.

C. Four Ways that Good Leaders Achieve Success

More specifically, leaders share similar goals and standards to abide by. Here
are four ways that good leaders achieve success:

1. Leaders better their environment 0

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  Leaders do not exist to order their workers around. While they oversee their
team, a true leader takes initiative and trusts their employees to perform
efficiently and independently.

 "Leaders are coaches with a passion for developing people, not players," said
Randy Stocklin, co-founder and CEO of One Click Ventures. "They get
satisfaction from achieving objects through others. Leaders inspire people
through a shared vision and create an environment where people feel valued
and fulfilled."

When a company has a positive culture, employees are more motivated and
confident in their work. It's through supportive leaders that a company finds the most
success. According to Richard Kissane, executive chairman of Premium Franchise
Brands, leaders are responsible for setting the tone for their team and organization.

"As a leader, it is your responsibility to establish goals, innovate, motivate and

trust," he said. "A passionate and compassionate leader can energize a company."

2. They know their team and themselves well

 Good leaders want their entire company to succeed, including everyone

involved. They take the time to understand every worker so they can help them
achieve their personal goals in line with the company's.

 "A leader places the people around him or her in a position that sets them up
for success," said Andor Kovacs, "This is a difficult task, because a leader must
have an in-depth understanding of each individual, such as understanding their
career goals and knowing what motivates them. By being committed to helping
each person achieve their own personal goals, the leader sets the organization
up for greatness."

This translates to providing tools that workers need to succeed, offering praise
when things go right and taking responsibility when things go wrong, said Jordan
French,

3. Leaders maintain a positive attitude

 Businesses face ups and downs. Without someone to take the reins and push
forward in optimism, the company will likely be unsuccessful.

 "A good leader can hold his or her emotions in check, especially in tough
situations," said David Moore, Regardless, it's important for leaders to guide a
team through challenging times, encouraging them and remaining positive
along the way. Team morale is heavily contingent upon a leader's attitude."

 This is done without pride standing in the way. While no one likes to admit
defeat, sometimes it's inevitable. Good leaders recognize that.

 According to Darcy Eikenberg, a leader should be confident enough to know

when they're wrong so they can move past a mistake.

"Leadership is the ability to see a problem and be the solution," said Andrea
Walker-Leidy, owner of Walker Publicity Consulting. "So many people are willing to
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4. They build the next generation of leaders

 Leaders can't, and shouldn't, stand alone. A company doesn't need just one
influential individual. Leaders should want to develop more leaders from the
get-go.
 "Great leaders also hire and inspire other great leaders, whom they trust to
carry out the company mission and instill a sense of purpose that touches each
and every staff member," added Tom Villante,

 According to J. Kelly Hoey, author, "Build Your Dream Network"

(TarcherPerigree, 2017), a leader builds their employees so they can be as
successful as, if not more than, the person in charge. "A leader is someone
who builds their team, mentors them and then advocates for them," she said.
They are not in competition – they are part of a team.

D. Common Style of Leadership

 Whether you are leading a small group or a large organization, the leadership
style you implement can greatly impact the effectiveness of your efforts.
Although there are several types of leadership, the most effective one depends
on you and your team

 Although becoming an effective leader can take time and effort, it will be worth
it to see your team succeed. Christie Lindor, solution principal at Slalom
Consulting, described some common traits of an effective leader.

 "Effective leaders demonstrate the political will to make tough decisions and are
accountable enough to follow through on promises," Lindor told Business News
Daily. "Transparent communication styles also make leaders effective."

 There are nine different leadership styles, and the type you use to direct your
team can greatly impact the success of your organization.

 Each leadership style has its strengths, although some styles – like
transformational, democratic and situational leadership – are commonly seen
as more desirable.

 Understand and harness the strengths of your leadership style to communicate

effectively and motivate your team.

 There are several different leadership styles that can be unique to each
individual; however, experts agree that most leaders fit into at least one of
these nine different leadership styles. When you analyze which leadership style
you use, Lindor said, keep in mind that there are no right or wrong styles.

 "It's all about pairing leadership styles with the right organizational fit, market,
timing and needs in a way that drives successful outcomes," said Lindor.

 Leadership Style
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1. Autocratic leadership
 This is one of the strictest types. Autocratic leaders tend to have complete
control over the decision-making process. This leadership style can be effective
when decision-making is urgent or workmanship is routine.

2. Bureaucratic leadership
 Although not as strict as autocratic leaders, bureaucratic leaders also tend to
strictly enforce regulations and statuses in the hierarchy. This leadership style
can be effective in healthcare and safety environments.

3. Charismatic leadership
 Charismatic leaders have an infectious presence that motivates their team to
follow their lead. Their likability helps them and their teams achieve success in
business. This leadership style can be effective in high-energy work
environments that need a lot of positive morale.

4. Democratic leadership
 Unlike autocratic or bureaucratic leaders, a democratic leader often welcomes
subordinate participation in decision-making. This leadership style is often
admired and can be effective in creative work environments that don't require
quick decisions.

5. Laissez-faire leadership
 Laissez-faire leaders have a hands-off approach and let their employees
assume responsibility in the decision-making process, although they must still
set employee expectations and monitor performance. This leadership style can
be effective when working with highly experienced and confident employees.

6. Servant leadership
 Servant leaders share power and decision-making with their subordinates and
often direct the organization based on the interests of the team. This leadership
style can be effective for humanitarian organizations, nonprofits, and teams that
need to create diversity, inclusion, and morale.

7. Situational leadership
 Situational leaders can implement a range of leadership types and modify their
style based on the needs of their employees and the environment. Because of
its versatility, this type of leadership can be effective in most organizations.

8. Transactional leadership
 A transactional leader uses a reward/consequence system to motivate
employees to achieve success and discourage them from failure. This
leadership style can be effective for teams who are motivated by rewards.

9. Transformational leadership
 Similar to charismatic leaders, transformational leaders use their inspiring
energy and personality to create an infectious workplace. This type is often
more effective than charismatic leadership, as it also motivates teams to build
confidence and accountability. It can be effective in organizations that have
intellectual team members who thrive in interactive environments.

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 Each style of leadership has its own advantages and disadvantages, although
some styles are commonly seen as more desirable. For example, most small
businesses can benefit from transformational, democratic or situational leadership.

"The leadership styles that I most admire are transformational, which is about
articulating an inspiring vision and helping people reinvent themselves and their
company; servant leadership, which is all about taking care of your clients, employees
and the general community; and situational leadership, which is all about creating an
agile way of leading and thinking depending on the needs of the organization or
marketplace," said Lindor.

 Why it is important to understand your leadership style?

 According to Lindor, self-awareness is the foundation of a good leader. When

you understand what leadership style works best for you and your team, it's
much easier to be an effective leader.

 "It's important to know what type of leader you are (or are not) in order to show
up effectively in an organization," Lindor said. "Knowing your leadership style
also helps you decide which organizations might be a better cultural fit."

 Norah Nicholls, principal at Deloitte Tax LLP, said a good understanding of your
leadership style can help you communicate with your team more effectively.

 "It's important that you maintain transparency about what you're focused on as
a leader, and to help create alignment around your vision and objectives," she
said. "It's important to create a culture where people understand the strengths
that they collectively bring to the team."

 Nicholls said that effective leaders are able to set a vision, align people to that
vision and show them how they can achieve that vision together. However, you
must play to the strengths of your leadership style to achieve that goal. "If you
can better understand your leadership strengths and harness them, you will
continue to grow and succeed."

Lesson 5. ADVANCE LEADERSHIP STYLES OF A GOOD

AND ETHICAL LEADERS

A. 10 Ways to Become a Better Leader

 Learning how to be a good leader can greatly impact the success of your team,
your organization and yourself.

 To be an effective leader, you must understand your own motivations, strengths

and weaknesses.

 Great leaders connect with their team by facilitating open communication,

encouraging employee growth and development, and giving and receiving
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 Anyone can sit in a corner office and delegate tasks, but there is more to
effective leadership than that. Effective leaders have major impacts on not only the
team members they manage, but also their company as a whole. Employees who
work under great leaders tend to be happier, more productive and more connected to
their organization – and this has a ripple effect that reaches your business's bottom
line.

According to CEOs, directors and leadership experts to learn what those

leadership strategies are and how you can incorporate them.

1. Engage in honest, open communication.

 One of the most important elements of effective leadership is creating an open

line of communication with your team members. Sanjay Patoliya, the founder
and director of Teclogiq, said that your own honesty and transparency should
serve as an example for your team members.
 "When you are responsible for a team of people, it is important to be
straightforward," he said. "Your company and its employees are a reflection of
yourself, and if you make honest and ethical behavior as a key value, your
team will follow."

 Brownlee added that great leaders are able to customize their interactions and
communication styles to suit each situation and team member, based on
individual preferences. "This means they take the time to figure out which
communication mode is preferred by each team member – e.g., are they a text
person, email, phone, or face-to-face? They're also great listeners and are
authentically interested in other people."

 Displaying active communication skills and transparency can build trust among
your team and improve overall morale. Ruslan Fazlyev, CEO and founder of
ecommerce solutions provider Ecwid, said that in all your communications, it's
important to be genuine above all else.

 "There are many leadership styles; there's no right and wrong," he said. "But
there's genuine, and there's fake. There's no following to fake leadership."

2. Connect with your team members.

 Leading a group of people requires a mutual sense of trust and understanding

between the leader and their team members. To achieve this, leaders should
learn to connect.

 Terry "Starbucker" St. Marie, a leadership writer and consultant, said that being
a "more human" leader requires positivity, purpose, empathy, compassion,
humility and love. These key traits will put you on the road to genuine
connections with the members of your team.

 "Building a real, personal connection with your teammates is vital to developing

the shared trust necessary to build a strong culture of accountability and
exceptional performance," St. Marie said. "With that culture in place, the team
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  To build a connection with each of your team members, focus on getting to
know their personality, interests, strengths, weaknesses, hobbies and
preferences. This can give you insight into their goals and motivations.

 Patoliya said that successful leaders allow their teams to develop autonomy
and add value according to their own personal strengths. "Being able to
recognize the strengths of individuals within their team, and allowing them to be
responsible and accountable, not only increases employees' confidence in
themselves and their leader, but also increases their performance."

3. Encourage personal and professional growth.

 Acting as your team's cheerleader is an important part of being an effective

leader. You should be invested in their success and growth.

 Keri Ohlrich, the CEO of HR consulting company Abbracci Group, said that
leaders should set aside a budget, if only a small one, to dedicate to the growth
of their employees.

 "With options as varied as on-demand, virtual [and] in-person options, there's

ample opportunity to continue learning new skills or further developing existing
ones," she said. "Empower your employees to take the time to learn and infuse
that in the work they do."

 In addition to investing in your employees' growth financially, you should invest

emotionally. John Rampton, founder and CEO of Calendar, said that great
leaders empower their employees to grow by giving them challenging
opportunities and guiding them as needed.

 "To motivate and inspire employees, leadership strategy is about empowering

others to do their best and take on new challenges," he said. "Employees like
challenges and feeling the satisfaction of overcoming them. Whether it's a
tough client, a difficult sale, a hard situation or whatever the case, it's always
good to let them take on these challenges."

 When leaders believe in their employees and give them the opportunity to learn
and grow, they might be surprised how much they can accomplish. Don't be
afraid to delegate tasks and encourage freedom and creativity.

4. Keep a positive attitude.

 As much as leaders wish their team's day-to-day operations could run smoothly
all the time, they're bound to run into the occasional obstacle. Whether it's a
minor miscommunication or a major error, the way you handle a negative
situation says a lot about your leadership skills.

 Robert Mann, author of The Measure of a Leader (iUniverse, 2013),

recommended focusing on the good in any set of circumstances. "Look at three
positive things about a problem before you identify what makes it dissatisfying.
The more you look at the positives in a problem, the more positively people
react with one another." 3
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  In his research, Mann has found that after individuals point out things they're
happy with in a problematic situation, they don't feel so strongly about the
problem and are better able to think clearly and solve it. The same is true when
a leader needs to improve their strategy. If you or a team member notices a
particular course of action you've taken that just isn't working, figure out some
things you've done in the past that have worked.

 Patoliya added that focusing on solutions, rather than problems, can help your
team maintain positive engagement. "A positive environment is more likely to
create a more engaged and productive workforce. By displaying enthusiasm
and confidence, a good leader will see the impact that they can have in their
working environment."

5. Teach employees instead of giving orders.

 An effective leader knows how to show others what is required, rather than
simply telling them. Luke Iorio, president and CEO of the Institute for
Professional Excellence in Coaching (iPEC), said leaders should coach their
team members toward a more collaborative, committed work environment –
without coaxing them.

 "[If you are] controlling people to do certain things in certain ways, you're not
going to get the level of engagement that you're looking for," he said. "Coaching
is about helping the people you lead recognize the choices they have in front of
them. People will [then] take a great deal of ownership over the direction of the
project."
 As opposed to simply barking orders at team members, Rampton said that
good leaders should encourage growth by teaching. "People wouldn't grow if
leaders never taught them anything. Leaders need to be teaching so they can
grow new leaders to take their place."

6. Set clear employee goals and expectations.

 Setting clear goals and employee expectations for your team is key to
employee success. When setting these objectives, encourage employee
questions and feedback. Including them in the process can increase
engagement.

 Amish Shah, president of ALTR Created Diamonds, said that good leaders will
also explain the company vision and how team member goals fit into that
equation.

 "For a leader to motivate and inspire, they need to keep their team in the know
about their vision," he said. "This helps employees understand the end result
they're working towards as a unit. When goals are clearly set, everyone can
track progress and identify achievements in a tangible manner."

 Ohlrich also stressed the importance of explaining how these goals impact the
organization as a whole. She said that, regardless of seniority level, every
employee should be able to articulate how the work they do supports the
success of the company.

 Don't let team member goals go static. Periodically revisit goals to modify or
rearrange them as needed. This will let your team members know that you are
present and aware of what they are working on. eg
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7. Give direct feedback about performance.

 Taso Du Val, CEO and founder of the Toptal freelance talent network, said
direct, honest feedback – even if it's criticism – is the best way to guide your
team in the right direction. You also need to know exactly where your business
is headed so you can give them the right advice.

 "If you're not direct, people won't know what you truly think about them and
their work, and they will never be able to improve," Du Val said. "If you don't
know the precise direction your company is headed, no matter how much
you've communicated to your employees and leadership team regarding their
individual performance, they will flounder when it comes to making decisions
and taking actions. Once those basic principles are in place, deadlines, regular
product plans, performance reviews, structure and processes can easily be put
into place."
 In addition to providing constructive feedback and performance reviews,
highlight employee accomplishments. If a team member does something great,
let them know. Celebrate their wins and thank them for their hard work.

 "Positive recognition will create an environment of productivity," said Shah.

"Acknowledging successes by outlining how it impacts the business, rather

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 than with vague pats on the back, is not only encouraging but also helps a
person work better in the long run."

8. Ask for feedback on your leadership.

 Your team members aren't the only ones who can benefit from honest
feedback. A true self-assessment of your leadership can be difficult, so
mentors, fellow professionals and even your own staff are invaluable in
evaluating your effectiveness. According to St. Marie, talking to friends and
peers can give you necessary perspective on your leadership style and
approach.

 Leadership coaching can also help you discover areas where you need
improvement. A professional who helps you develop a plan to achieve your
leadership goals can be more motivational than books and seminars alone.

 "Coaching allows leaders to make the connection and apply [changes] in a

reallife setting," Iorio said. "You need time to integrate, process and reflect, and
unless you go through those steps, you won't have sustainable change."

 Fazlyev agreed, noting that your team can give you critical insight into what's
working, what's not working and what obstructions you must overcome to
achieve success.

9. Be open to new ideas.

 Good leaders have the emotional intelligence to understand and accept that
change is inevitable. Instead of trying to maintain a status quo just for the sake
of consistency, embrace change and innovation. Be open to new ideas and
alternative ways of thinking. Everyone brings a unique perspective to the table,
and that is something to take advantage of, not discourage.

 "When you're open to hearing the thoughts of the talent around you is when
you truly embrace every possibility and potential," said Shah. "See things
through till the end. Understand that there will be errors along the way, but if
something doesn't work, try to figure out why and how before scrapping it."

 When solving a problem, encourage team members to provide their insights.

When employees feel like they can openly bring new ideas to the table, true
innovation, engagement and success can prevail.

10. Understand your own motivation.

 If a person in a leadership position views their role as "just a job," it's going to
show. To be an effective leader, you need the right motivation. Is it the money
or the prestige you care about, or do you sincerely want to inspire people to do
their best?

 St. Marie advised leaders to really ask themselves why they want to lead. "I
look at leadership as an honor and a vocation. If, in your heart, you feel 6
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 leadership is your destiny and how you'll make a difference in this world, then
you are certainly starting from the right place."

 In addition to what motivates you, Ohlrich said it is important to know what

decreases your energy. "Knowing your strengths and weaknesses help you
diversify your team and get a well-rounded portfolio of skills. It helps you not
hire carbon copies of yourself and surround yourself with others who are not
like you."

Remember that being a good leader takes time. Although some individuals are
naturally inclined to have good leadership skills, it is something anyone can learn and
improve upon. With hard work, dedication and strategic planning, you can lead your
team to success.

B. The four types of leadership styles

 A leader doesn’t just adopt one of these styles, but all four! And, did you know
that their style changes based on a number of factors? That’s right; leaders are
a little more calculated than you thought, but it’s all for the good of the team and
the vision.

 The four styles of leadership are: direct, coach, support and delegate. While
these ‘styles’ may not mean much to you right now, they will at the end of this
post – and they will certainly mean a lot to you when you enter into a leadership
role.

 These four styles of leadership determine the level of decision-making authority

you, as the leader, give to individuals in your team. Each individual will be given
different levels of ‘authority’ when it comes to decision making, and this is
based on the nature of the task at hand, and the individuals role, experience
and emotional maturity

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 

1. Directing

True leadership skills are not required when one is telling another what to do;
how to do it and when it needs to be done. This makes this style more of a
management tool than a leadership tool.

 The ‘directing’ style is useful when: one is working with freelancers or

contractors for example. When work is outsourced; and you have a clear idea
of what you need done; and what the outcomes should be, you would use a
‘telling’ style. In this case there needs to be a clear direction (in order to
communicate what you want), however, there needn’t be a high level of
support.

 The ‘directing’ style would not be useful when managing a direct team, as it
would hinder growth and prevent the development of an inspiring team culture.

2. Coaching

 Leaders are visionaries; they build a vision, and direct their team to achieve the
vision. However, in order to successfully direct their team and accomplish the
objective, they first need to sell their idea and vision to all those involved in
bringing it to fruition. This is not only done to effectively communicate the
objectives, but to also excite, motivate and get team members believing
wholeheartedly in the endeavour.

 The ‘selling’ style is useful when: you, as the leader, are introducing a ‘new’ or
refined vision. Although the vision was not formed by the team members; you
need their buy-in to ensure they’re motivated to perform, and achieve the end
goal.

 This style is best used when the team is made up of individual contributors that
are full-time employees.

3. Supporting

 Collaboration is about working together: sharing ideas, suggestions and

solutions within a group; but having the final say, as the leader.

 This is a rather inspiring leadership approach, as each team member is

considered, and feels they are contributing in the decision-making process.
Because the style is low on direction (from the leader), it gives the individual
space to prove themselves and lead the process; and because there’s a lot of
support, they are not held directly accountable for the outcome, should it fail.

 The ‘collaborative’ style is useful when: a task needs to be carried out but does
not need the initial involvement of the leader until a decision needs to be made.

 For example: when one of your team members are hiring an employee – they
have full control over the recruitment process (interviewing/screening etc), but
you as the leader have the final say, based on their input, ideas or suggestions.
The ‘collaborative’ leadership style is best used when leading a team of
managers or directors; otherwise a team of individual contributors.
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  ‘Delegating’ is yet another leadership style best used when leading a team of
senior leaders, directors or managers. Because there is little direction or
support, the leader gives full authority to the individual or team to make the final
decision.

 The ‘delegating’ leadership style is useful when: you fully trust the
decisionmaking abilities of the individual or group.

 This style is usually used by CEO’s, who fully trust the capabilities of their
directors or managers, due to their experience and emotional maturity. The
‘delegating’ leadership style is hardly ever used in teams made up of junior or
mid-level staff, unless the decision is incredibly low-risk.

C. 11 Leadership Qualities: A List of Skills to Make a Good Leader

 Whether running your own business or leading teams in an office setting, the
best leaders require a strong set of leadership qualities to help positively
interact with their employees, team members, and clients.

 Behavioral theories suggest that leadership skills aren’t ingrained and can be
taught – people can obtain leadership qualities through teaching and learning
these skills over time.

 “Management is about persuading people to do things they do not want to do,

while leadership is about inspiring people to do things they never thought they
could.” — Steve Jobs

 Irrespective of how you define the word leadership, you can’t deny that certain
individuals can greatly impact the lives of others based on their experience and
insights.

 While we’re all living different timelines on the journey of life, we look to leaders
for guidance and advice.

 While some leaders seem like they were naturally born that way, leadership
skills can be learned. It doesn’t matter if you haven’t led before. There are
certain characteristics, traits, and skills that ultimately build the most effective
leaders.

Learn these and you can change the lives of others. Here are the most
important leadership qualities and skills to look for in a great leader.

1. Communication.

 If you’re in a leadership role, good communication skills are absolutely crucial.

Using language to perform one-to-one communication is really all that we have
as human beings.

2. Integrity.

 C.S. Lewis said “Integrity is doing the right thing, even when no one is
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watching.” Without integrity, no real success if possible. You can’t expect your
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 

 An honest leader succeeds when they stick to their word, live by their core
values, led by example, and follow-through.

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 
Integrity is the cornerstone of all other leadership qualities. There are many
things to look for in people with integrity, including:

• Apologizing for mistakes

• Highlighting the work of their employees and downplaying their own
contributions
• Giving the benefit of the doubt when circumstances are unclear
• Being appreciative of people’s time

3. Accountability.

 For accountability, an effective leader needs to follow the advice of Arnold

Glasow when he said, “A good leader takes little more than his share of the
blame and little less than his share of the credit.”
 A strong leader is accountable for the team’s results, good or bad. They hold
themselves and their employees accountable for their actions, which creates a
sense of responsibility among the team.

 True leaders give credit where credit is due, and take responsibility for blame
when necessary. Being accountable and leading by example is one of the
quickest ways a leader can build trust with their team.

4. Empathy.

 A true leader has enough open-mindedness to understand their followers’

motivations, hopes, dreams, and problems so that they can forge a deep
personal connection with them.
 Empathy is understanding. Empathy isn’t just being a nice person. It’s a
mindset that enables leaders to:

• Make better predictions

• Improve work strategies
• Inspire loyalty among their teams
• Better their negotiation tactics
• Increase creativity

 Understanding where people are coming from helps facilitate a more human
environment where team members are more productive and leaders thrive. For
example, if an employee is consistently 15 minutes late, good leaders won’t
impute blame on them right away and even better leaders will solve the why
questions. Why are they late? Maybe they’re dealing with a personal struggle at
home, health issues, or car troubles. Real leaders are empathetic with their
teams and deeply understand their motivations. After all, what’s more important
to human communication than understanding others?

5. Humility.

 When it comes to leadership, it can be tempting to become enamored with a

new title or status. However, great leadership styles focus on problem-solving
and team dynamics much more than self-promotion. A great leader will never
be effective if they’re more concerned with themselves than with the well-being
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 
of their team. As Thomas Merton said, “Pride makes us artificial and humility
makes us real.”

Being humble and vulnerable with their team members will make a leader much
more relatable and effective.

6. Resilience.

 The true grit of a leader is not how they perform during good times, but how
they roll up their sleeves and produce when times get difficult.

 Great leaders with positive attitudes lead by example and rally their team no
matter the circumstances. It’s this inherent positivity that helps react to
situations with a calm, collected manner and focus on solutions rather than on
problems. Resilience is a leadership trait that comes with experience.

7. Vision.

 Jack Welch said, “Good business leaders create a vision, articulate the vision,
passionately own the vision, and relentlessly drive it to completion.”

 Additionally, John C. Maxwell stated, “people buy into the leader before they
buy into the vision.”

 An organization’s vision only goes as far as a leader’s influence over others. A

great leader clearly sets the organizational direction and exercises keen
decisiveness. Decision-making is key to new ideas, ensuring team members
know the bottom line, and understand the goals and the mission in front of
them.

 True leaders inspire loyalty, enthusiasm, and commitment, help remind

everyone of the big picture and challenge people to outdo themselves. Sharing
this vision and compelling others to act is a secret trait of successful leaders.

8. Influence.

 Some leaders believe that when they attain a certain level of leadership status,
respect will automatically be given to them. This is not the case. Leadership
and influence are not interchangeable and respect has to be earned, not given.

 Here are some things that leaders can do to increase their influence:

• Clearly state what they want

• Connect with people emotionally
• Make others feel important
• Be vulnerable and charismatic
• Work toward commonly shared goals
• Ask for suggestions and input
• Build real, lasting relationships
• Act professionally on social media sites like Facebook and LinkedIn
• Have self-awareness
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 
 Leaders inspire their team not based on their own goals or outcomes, but on
their exhibited behavior, life outlook, and attitude in any given situation.

It’s often said that employees and direct reports exhibit the behavior of their
managers – and good leaders need to lead by example at all times while
mirroring how they want their team to act.

 This comes down to positivity. Even the calmest workplaces can get stressful at
times – it’s more important how leaders react to this stress with a positive
outlook rather than get flustered and place blame.

10. Delegation.

 A difficult transition for many leaders is shifting from doing to leading. Many
new leaders are accustomed to doing all the work themselves and struggle to
let others handle responsibilities on their own. Great leaders must elevate their
team they must be more essential and less involved.

 This requires leaders to shape others’ thoughts and ideas toward a common
goal. They give their team everything they need to be successful and get out of
the way, not directing their path, but setting clear expectations and explaining
where the finish line is.

 They aren’t scared of their subordinates’ successes and don’t feel threatened
by them. One of the most important leadership qualities of good leadership is
delegating tasks and elevating their team. Through this delegation and
elevation teams shine, as they are able to contribute in the most meaningful
way.

11. Confidence.

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 
 To be an effective leader, you need to roll up your sleeves and take charge.
This includes being confident enough to lead, knowing that your plans and
vision are not only viable for the team but the absolute best decision possible.

 If you lack confidence in a leadership role, people will spot that quickly. “Make it
’til you make it,” they say about confidence – and that is 100% true. The more

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 that you believe in yourself, the more you’ll be able to manage any stressful
situation.

 True leaders are the ones that don’t just talk about problems but come up with
their own solutions fearlessly.

D. Trait Theory of Leadership and Its Key Characteristics

 The trait theory of leadership is an early assumption that leaders are born and
due to this belief, those that possess the correct qualities and traits are better
suited to leadership. This theory often identifies behavioral characteristics that
are common in leaders.

 Trait theory of leadership is one of the first academic theories of leadership and
attempts to answer why some people are good leaders and others are not.

 In fact the theory can be traced back to the nineteenth century, whereby a man
called Thomas Carlyle used such understanding to identify the talents, skills
and characteristics of men who rose to power.

 The trait theory of leadership is based on the characteristics of many leaders –

both successful and unsuccessful – and is used to predict leadership
effectiveness.

 The resulting lists of traits are then compared to those of potential leaders to
assess their likelihood of success or failure. Once found, the theory is that
these natural leaders can then be nurtured to become great leaders.

 Leadership Traits

 Some of the most common leadership traits identified, are:

1. Knowledge of the business
2. Initiative
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 5. Good cognitive skills and capable of using good judgement and decisions
6. Flexibility
7. Creativity
8. Charisma
9. Emotional intelligence
10.Drive and motivation to succeed
11.Confidence
12.Honesty and integrity

 Traditionally, the most ardent versions of trait theory see these “leadership
characteristics” as innate, and as such, some people are seen to be ‘born
leaders’, due to their psychological makeup.

 Proponents to this theory, which is now considered largely out of date, believe
that leadership development consists of identifying and measuring leadership
qualities, screening potential leaders from non-leaders, and then training those
with potential.

E. Ethical Leadership

 Ethical leadership is knowing your core values and having the courage to live
them in all parts of your life in service of the common good.” In our experience,
ethical leadership involves leading in a manner that respects the rights and
dignity of others; a concept that is at times in direct conflict with more traditional
models of leadership.

 In the past, the main goal of leadership has been to increase

production/productivity and profits. However, in the 21 st Century this view has
begun to slowly diminish as more organizational development and human
resources experts assert that leaders also have the responsibility for ensuring
standards of moral and ethical conduct.

 Good leadership then, refers not only to competence, but to ethics that
transform organizations and people’s lives.

 Ethical leadership requires ethical leaders. If leaders are ethical, they can
ensure that ethical practices are carried out throughout the organization.

 Leaders are naturally in a position of power both on and off the job, so ethical
leadership must focus on how leaders leverage this power in the decisions they
make, actions they engage in and ways they influence others.

 Leaders are responsible for influencing followers to perform actions, complete

tasks, and behave in certain manners.

 Effective leaders also influence processes, stimulate change in attitudes and

values, and amplify empowerment and self-efficacy of their followers, as they
foster the internalization of corporate vision.

 The nurturing aspect of leadership can also raise an organization’s culture and
employee’s values to higher levels of ethical behavior. By demonstrating ethical 2
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  Character and integrity provides a strong foundation for other personal
characteristics that direct our ethical beliefs, values, and decisions.

 Ethical leaders are likely to be people-oriented, and aware of how their

decisions impact others. They therefore use their power and authority to serve
the greater good instead of self-serving interests –a “win/win” for employees
and the organization.

 This modeling serves as a guide and motivator for others to put the needs and
interests of the group ahead of their own. Such engagement creates an
intellectual and emotional commitment between leaders and their followers that
makes both parties equally responsible in the pursuit of common goals.

 Further characteristics of ethical leaders include: inspiring, stimulating, and

other visionary behaviors that make up transformational leadership.

 Ethical leaders also coach cohorts in gaining a sense of personal and

professional competence that allows them to excel while being more resilient,
loyal and profitable.

 Ethical leadership is a form of leadership in which individuals demonstrate

conduct for the common good that is acceptable and appropriate in every area
of their life. It is composed of the following three major elements:

1. Be the Example

 A noble quality of a leader is leading by example. As an ethical leader,

it’s important to remember that actions often speak louder than words.
People are more likely to judge someone based on how they act, rather
than what they say.

 By practicing and demonstrating the use of ethical, honest and unselfish

behavior to subordinates, ethical leaders may begin to earn the respect
of their peers. People may be more likely to follow a leader who respects
others and shows integrity.

2. Champion the Importance of Ethics

 One role of an ethical leader is focusing on the overall importance of

ethics, including ethical standards and other ethical issues, and how
these factors can influence society. As an ethical leader, it’s important to
teach peers about ethics, especially in cases where they are faced with
an ethical issue in the workplace.

3. Communicate

 Successful ethical leaders tend to be good communicators. People

communicate in different ways. Some may feel comfortable speaking in
public, regardless of personnel or situation, while others may be hesitant
to speak with a leader because of fear, anxiousness or simply not knowing
how to articulate what they are trying to say. They might be better talking
via email, rather than in person.
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  It’s an ethical leader’s job to communicate with each member of the team,
but also allow for open conversation, as some people may have questions
and concerns that need addressed.

 It’s important for leaders to build camaraderie with their team. Quality
relationships tend to be built on trust, fairness, integrity, openness,
compassion and respect.

 Impacts of Ethical Leadership

 Ethical leaders can help establish a positive environment with productive

relationships over three levels: the individual, the team and the overall
organization.

 Nurturing the relationships at each of these levels can lead to the following
outcomes and benefits:

1. The Well-Being of the Individual

 Maintaining a positive working atmosphere is an important responsibility

of a strong ethical leader.

 Ethical leaders who lead by example may influence others to do the

same. Generally, people are affected by the interactions that occur
around them. Positive communication among co-workers may help
influence job productivity and attitude.

2. The Energy of the Team

 Ethical leadership can also involve the management of conduct and

collaboration within a team. Typically, morale is higher in the workplace
when people are getting along with each other. When co-workers are
working as a team, it can help build relationships in the workplace and
help the overall performance of the group. Generally, strong leaders lead
by example.

3. The Health of the Organization

 The importance of maintaining a positive attitude in the workplace has a

lot to do with improving the overall health of the organization. When
people can show respect for one another, and can value other’s
opinions, it may help create a productive working environment.

 An ethical organization can occur when communities of people work

together in an environment of mutual respect, where they can grow
personally, build friendships and contribute to the overall goal.

 The 4-V Model of Ethical Leadership

 The 4-V model helps align the internal beliefs and values with the external
behaviors and actions for the purpose of the common good.

 The four V’s stand for Values, Vision, Voice and Virtue, the characteristics that 4
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 the potential for all individuals to pursue and fulfill their needs and meet their
highest potential.

 The Center for Ethical Leadership recommends a 4-V Model of Ethical

Leadership as a framework that aligns leaders’ internal beliefs and values with

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 his or her external behaviors and actions for the purpose of advancing the
common good of employees, leaders, organizations and beyond.

 The model was created and based on research by Center founder Dr. Bill
Grace. A quick overview of the 4-V Model is as follows:

1. Values – Ethical leadership begins with an understanding of and

commitment to a leader’s core values. By discovering the values which
make up the core of our identities and motivators, we begin the process of
integrating our unique values with our choices in our personal, professional,
and civic lives.

2. Vision – Ethical leadership requires the ability to frame our actions within a
picture of “what ought to be” – particularly in the area of service to others.

3. Voice – Ethical leaders must be able to articulate their vision to others in an

authentic way that enlivens them into action.

4. Virtue – Ethical leaders strive to do what is right and good. They practice
virtuous behavior by asking “How are my values, vision and voice in
alignment with and supporting the common good?”

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 Lesson 6. DECISION-MAKING: A GENERAL APPROACH

A. Decision Making: An Overview

In psychology, decision-making (also spelled decision making and

decisionmaking) is regarded as the cognitive process resulting in the selection of a
belief or a course of action among several possible alternative options. Decision-
making is the process of identifying and choosing alternatives based on the values,
preferences and beliefs of the decision-maker. Every decision-making process
produces a final choice, which may or may not prompt action.

Decision-making can be regarded as a problem-solving activity yielding a

solution deemed to be optimal, or at least satisfactory. It is therefore a process which
can be more or less rational or irrational and can be based on explicit or tacit
knowledge and beliefs. Tacit knowledge is often used to fill the gaps in complex
decision making processes. Usually both of these types of knowledge, tacit and
explicit, are used together in the decision-making process.

Human performance has been the subject of active research from several
perspectives:

• Psychological: examining individual decisions in the context of a set of needs,

preferences and values the individual has or seeks.
• Cognitive: the decision-making process regarded as a continuous process
integrated in the interaction with the environment.
• Normative: the analysis of individual decisions concerned with the logic of
decision-making, or communicative rationality, and the invariant choice it
leads to

A major part of decision-making involves the analysis of a finite set of

alternatives described in terms of evaluative criteria. Then the task might be to rank
these alternatives in terms of how attractive they are to the decision-maker(s) when all
the criteria are considered simultaneously.

 Characteristics of Decision-making and Problem Solving

Characteristics of problem solving

• Problems are merely deviations from performance standards

• Problems must be precisely identified and described
• Problems are caused by a change from a distinctive feature
• Something can always be used to distinguish between what has and hasn't
been affected by a cause
• Causes of problems can be deduced from relevant changes found in
analyzing the problem
• Most likely cause of a problem is the one that exactly explains all the facts,
while having the fewest (or weakest) assumptions (Occam's razor).

Characteristics of decision-making

• Objectives must first be established

• Objectives must be classified and placed in order of importance 7
• Alternative actions must be developed 5eg
• The alternatives must be evaluated against all the objectives Pa

CCJ 2020 Outcomes Based Module for Character Formation 2

 • The alternative that is able to achieve all the objectives is the tentative
decision
• The tentative decision is evaluated for more possible consequences
• The decisive actions are taken, and additional actions are taken to prevent
any adverse consequences from becoming problems and starting both
systems (problem analysis and decision-making) all over again
• There are steps that are generally followed that result in a decision model
that can be used to determine an optimal production plan[8]
• In a situation featuring conflict, role-playing may be helpful for predicting
decisions to be made by involved parties[9]

B. Effective Decision-making

 In its simplest sense, decision-making is the act of choosing between two or

more courses of actio58

 In the wider process of problem-solving, decision-making involves choosing

between possible solutions to a problem. Decisions can be made through either
an intuitive or reasoned process, or a combination of the two.
 Decisions need to be capable of being implemented, whether on a personal or
organizational level. You do, therefore, need to be committed to the decision
personally, and be able to persuade others of its merits.

 An effective decision-making process, therefore, needs to ensure that you are

able to do so

There are a number of problems that can prevent effective decision-making.

These include:

1. Not Enough Information

If you do not have enough information, it can feel like you are making a decision
without any basis.

 Take some time to gather the necessary data to inform your decision, even if
the timescale is very tight. If necessary, priorities your information-gathering by
identifying which information will be most important to you.

 Too Much Information

 The opposite problem, but one that is seen surprisingly often: having so much
conflicting information that it is impossible to see ‘the wood for the trees’.

 This is sometimes called analysis paralysis, and is also used as a tactic to

delay organizational decision-making, with those involved demanding ever
more information before they can decide.

 This problem can often be resolved by getting everyone together to decide

what information is really important and why, and by setting a clear timescale
for decision-making, including an information-gathering stage.
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2. Too Many People 5
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  Making decisions by committee is difficult. Everyone has their own views, and
their own values. And while it’s important to know what these views are, and
why and how they are important, it may be essential for one person to take
responsibility for making a decision. Sometimes, any decision is better than
none.
3. Vested Interests

 Decision-making processes often founder under the weight of vested interests.

These vested interests are often not overtly expressed, but may be a crucial
blockage. Because they are not overtly expressed, it is hard to identify them
clearly, and therefore address them, but it can sometimes be possible to do so
by exploring them with someone outside the process, but in a similar position.

 It can also help to explore the rational/intuitive aspects with all stakeholders,
usually with an external facilitator to support the process.

4. Emotional Attachments

 People are often very attached to the status quo. Decisions tend to involve the
prospect of change, which many people find difficult.

5. No Emotional Attachment

 Sometimes it’s difficult to make a decision because you just don’t care one way
or the other. In this case, a structured decision-making process can often help
by identifying some very real pros and cons of particular actions, that perhaps
you hadn’t thought about before.

 Many of these issues can be overcome by using a structured decision-making

process. This will help to:

 Reduce more complicated decisions down to simpler

steps;  See how any decisions are arrived at; and  Plan
decision making to meet deadlines.

Many different techniques of decision making have been developed, ranging

from simple rules of thumb, to extremely complex procedures. The method used
depends on the nature of the decision to be made and how complex it is.

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 The important aspect is to go through all the stages in turn, even if only to
decide that they are not relevant for the current situation.

1. Listing Possible Solutions/Options

 To come up with a list of all the possible solutions and/or options available it is
usually appropriate to use a group (or individual) problem-solving process. This
process could include brainstorming or some other 'idea-generating' process.

 This stage is important to the overall decision making processes as a decision

will be made from a selection of fixed choices.

 Always remember to consider the possibility of not making a decision or doing

nothing and be aware that both options are actually potential solutions in
themselves.

2. Setting a Time Scale and Deciding Who is Responsible for the Decision

 In deciding how much time to make available for the decision-making process, it
helps to consider the following:

• How much time is available to spend on this decision?

• Is there a deadline for making a decision and what are the consequences of
missing this deadline?
• Is there an advantage in making a quick decision?
• How important is it to make a decision? How important is it that the decision is
right?
• Will spending more time improve the quality of the decision?
• Remember that sometimes a quick decision is more important than ‘the right’
decision, and that at other times, the reverse is true.

Responsibility for the Decision

 Before making a decision, you need to be clear who is going to take
responsibility for it.
 Remember that it is not always those making the decision who have to assume
responsibility for it. Is it an individual, a group or an organization?
 This is a key question because the degree to which responsibility for a decision
is shared can greatly influence how much risk people are willing to take.
 If the decision-making is for work, then it is helpful to consider the structure of
the organization.
 Whenever possible, and if it is not obvious, it is better to agree formally who is
responsible for a decision.
 This idea of responsibility also highlights the need to keep a record of how any
decision was made, what information it was based on and who was involved.
Enough information needs to be kept to justify that decision in the future so 1
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 that, if something does go wrong, it is possible to show that your decision was
reasonable in the circumstance and given the knowledge you held at the time.

3. Information Gathering
 Before making a decision, all relevant information needs to be gathered.
- If there is inadequate or out-dated information then it is more likely that a
wrong decision might be made. If there is a lot of irrelevant information,
the decision will be difficult to make, and it will be easier to become
distracted by unnecessary factors.
 You therefore need up-to-date, accurate information on which to make
decisions.
- However, the amount of time spent on information-gathering has to be
weighed against how much you are willing to risk making the wrong
decision. In a group situation, such as at work, it may be appropriate for
different people to research different aspects of the information required.
For example, different people might be allocated to concentrate their
research on costs, facilities, availability, and so on.

4. Weighing up the Risks Involved

 One key question is how much risk should be taken in making the decision?
Generally, the amount of risk an individual is willing to take depends on:

• The seriousness of the consequences of taking the wrong decision.

• The benefits of making the right decision.
• Not only how bad the worst outcome might be, but also how likely that
outcome is to happen.

 It is also useful to consider what the risk of the worst possible outcome
occurring might be, and to decide if the risk is acceptable. The choice can be
between going ‘all out for successes or taking a safe decision.

5. Deciding on Values

 Everybody has their own unique set of values: what they believe to be
important. The decisions that you make will, ultimately, be based on your
values. That means that the decision that is right for you may not be right for
someone else.

 If the responsibility for a decision is shared, it is therefore possible that one

person might not have the same values as the others.

 In such cases, it is important to obtain a consensus as to which values are to

be given the most weight. It is important that the values on which a decision is
made are understood because they will have a strong influence on the final
choice.

6. Weighing up the Pros and Cons

 It is possible to compare different solutions and options by considering the

2
possible advantages and disadvantages of each.
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  One good way to do this is to use a 'balance sheet', weighing up the pros and
cons (benefits and costs) associated with that solution. Try to consider each
aspect of the situation in turn, and identify both good and bad.

 For example, start with costs, then move onto staffing aspects, then perhaps
presentational issues.

 Having listed the pros and cons, it may be possible to immediately decide
which option is best. However, it may also be useful to rate each of the pros
and cons on a simple 1 to 10 scale (with 10 - most important to 1 - least
important).

 In scoring each of the pros and cons it helps to take into account how important
each item on the list is in meeting the agreed values. This balance sheet
approach allows this to be taken into account, and presents it in a clear and
straightforward manner.

7. Making the Decision

 Your information-gathering should have provided sufficient data on which to

base a decision, and you now know the advantages and disadvantages of each
option.

 If possible, it is best to allow time to reflect on a decision once it has been

reached. It is preferable to sleep on it before announcing it to others. Once a
decision is made public, it is very difficult to change.

 For important decisions it is worth always keeping a record of the steps you
followed in the decision-making process. That way, if you are ever criticized for
making a bad decision you can justify your thoughts based on the information
and processes you used at the time. Furthermore, by keeping a record and
engaging with the decision-making process, you will be strengthening your
understanding of how it works, which can make future decisions easier to
manage.

C. Decision-making Process

 Decision making is the process of making choices by identifying a decision,

gathering information, and assessing alternative resolutions.

 Using a step-by-step decision-making process can help you make more

deliberate, thoughtful decisions by organizing relevant information and defining
alternatives. This approach increases the chances that you will choose the
most satisfying alternative possible.

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  Though there are many slight variations of the decision-making framework
floating around on the Internet, in business textbooks, and in leadership
presentations, professionals most commonly use these seven steps.

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Step 1: Identify the decision

 You realize that you need to make a decision. Try to clearly define the nature of
the decision you must make. This first step is very important.

 To make a decision, you must first identify the problem you need to solve or the
question you need to answer. Clearly define your decision. If you misidentify
the problem to solve, or if the problem you’ve chosen is too broad, you’ll knock
the decision train off the track before it even leaves the station.

 If you need to achieve a specific goal from your decision, make it measurable
and timely so you know for certain that you met the goal at the end of the
process.

Step 2: Gather relevant information

 Collect some pertinent information before you make your decision: what
information is needed, the best sources of information, and how to get it.

 This step involves both internal and external “work.” Some information is
internal: you’ll seek it through a process of self-assessment. Other information
is external: you’ll find it online, in books, from other people, and from other
sources.

 Once you have identified your decision, it’s time to gather the information
relevant to that choice. Do an internal assessment, seeing where your
organization has succeeded and failed in areas related to your decision. Also,
seek information from external sources, including studies, market research,
and, in some cases, evaluation from paid consultants.

 Beware: you can easily become bogged down by too much information—facts
and statistics that seem applicable to your situation might only complicate the
process.

Step 3: Identify the alternatives

 As you collect information, you will probably identify several possible paths of
action, or alternatives. You can also use your imagination and additional
information to construct new alternatives. In this step, you will list all possible
and desirable alternatives.

 With relevant information now at your fingertips, identify possible solutions to

your problem. There is usually more than one option to consider when trying to
meet a goal—for example, if your company is trying to gain more engagement
on social media, your alternatives could include paid social advertisements, a
change in your organic social media strategy, or a combination of the two.

Step 4: Weigh the evidence

4
 Draw on your information and emotions to imagine what it would be like if you
carried out each of the alternatives to the end. Evaluate whether the need
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 alternative. As you go through this difficult internal process, you’ll begin to favor
certain alternatives: those that seem to have a higher potential for reaching
your goal. Finally, place the alternatives in a priority order, based upon your
own value system.

 Once you have identified multiple alternatives, weigh the evidence for or
against said alternatives. See what companies have done in the past to
succeed in these areas, and take a good hard look at your own organization’s
wins and losses. Identify potential pitfalls for each of your alternatives, and
weigh those against the possible rewards.

Step 5: Choose among alternatives

 Once you have weighed all the evidence, you are ready to select the alternative
that seems to be best one for you. You may even choose a combination of
alternatives. Your choice in Step 5 may very likely be the same or similar to the
alternative you placed at the top of your list at the end of Step 4.

 Here is the part of the decision-making process where you, you know, make the
decision. Hopefully, you’ve identified and clarified what decision needs to be
made, gathered all relevant information, and developed and considered the
potential paths to take. You are perfectly prepared to choose.

Step 6: Take action

 You’re now ready to take some positive action by beginning to implement the
alternative you chose in Step 5.

 Once you’ve made your decision, act on it! Develop a plan to make your
decision tangible and achievable. Develop a project plan related to your
decision, and then set the team loose on their tasks once the plan is in place.

Step 7: Review your decision & its consequences

 In this final step, consider the results of your decision and evaluate whether or
not it has resolved the need you identified in Step 1. If the decision has not met
the identified need, you may want to repeat certain steps of the process to
make a new decision. For example, you might want to gather more detailed or
somewhat different information or explore additional alternatives.

 After a predetermined amount of time—which you defined in step one of the

decision-making process—take an honest look back at your decision. Did you
solve the problem? Did you answer the question? Did you meet your goals?

 If so, take note of what worked for future reference. If not, learn from your
mistakes as you begin the decision-making process again.

D. Decision-making Theories and Natures

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  Decision-making is usually defined as a process or sequence of activities
involving stages of problem recognition, search for information, definition of
alternatives and the selection of an actor of one from two or more alternatives
consistent with the ranked preferences”.

 Decision theory (or the theory of choice not to be confused with choice theory)
is the study of an agent's choices.[1] Decision theory can be broken into two
branches: normative decision theory, which analyzes the outcomes of decisions
or determines the optimal decisions given constraints and assumptions, and
descriptive decision theory, which analyzes how agents actually make the
decisions they do.

 Decision making theory is a theory of how rational individuals should behave

under risk and uncertainty. It uses a set of axioms about how rational
individuals behave which has been widely challenged on both empirical and
theoretical ground.

 This definition has been offered by the author of an article published in Oxford
Concise Dictionary of Politics. The author emphasizes on the rationality of
individuals and at the same time how they should behave.

 So we can say that decision-making denotes the formulation of general policy

for the management of an organisation which may be business organisation or
administrative organisation.

 The point to note is that the nature and implementation of decision-making may
be different in both places but it remains that in every case the importance of
decision-making remains intact. To sum up, the decision-making means the
adoption and application of rational choice for the management of private,
business or governmental organisation in an efficient manner.

 Kinds of Theories:

 Decisions are quite common to all forms of political systems such as

authoritarian structures, democratic set up, totalitarian regimes. The
management of a government department, the administration of private
organisation and even a philanthropic association require decision and not one
decision but a bundle of decisions. But the making of decision is not all, the
implementation, revision and other aspects are also equally important.

 Considering all these some have divided the decision-making process into
several models and these may be stated in the following ways:

- Rational actor model, Incremental model, Bureaucratic organisation model

and Belief system model.

1. Rational Actor Model:

 The basic idea of the rational actor model is derived from economic theory
and utilitarianism. The core concept of the theory is based on the idea of
“Economic man” who takes all sorts of decision on the basis of rationality
and utility. 7
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  The economic man or the rational man decides to pursue a particular
process which thinks in his judgment rational and which will ensure
maximum utility. So rationality and utility are the two important criteria that
lie at the heart of decision-making process.

CCJ 2020 Outcomes Based Module for Character Formation 2

  While the decision is going to be made the following procedures are strictly
adhered to:

(1) The issue or area is identified on which the policy is to be made.

(2) The objective of the policy is decided: The policy maker decides
for what purpose the policy is going to be made.

(3) Materials or means are to be collected for making a policy.

(4) It may be that all the means or materials could not be used and
then in that case the decision-maker selects only the relevant
materials.

 It is clear from the above analysis that the two criteria are active in the entire
process of decision-making—rationality and utility. Keeping these two
criteria in mind the policy-maker proceeds and proceeds very cautiously. He
does not leave anything to chance. He wants to maximize the utility from the
policy he is going to make.
 Rational actor model may reasonably be compared with a well-known
concept of economics or business management, and it is cost-benefit
approach which denotes that when a businessman decides to adopt a
policy he will see first of all how much cost he will have to incur for the
implementation of the policy and then how much benefit he expects to
receive.
 Policy-makers and politicians fall under this category because of the
accountability. They think that if the policy does not generate expected
benefits or results they are not supposed to implement or take any decision.
A decision must always be goal or benefit oriented. Borrowing from
economists the political scientists have applied the rational actor model in
political science for the purpose of making decision and it received forthwith
admiration from many corners.

2. Incremental Model:

 There is a second theory which is called incremental model. For a perfect

and bold decision it is necessary that facts and information must be correct
and impartial. But in practice this situation hardly prevails. The consequence
is the policy/decision becomes faulty. Because of this drawback the
decision-makers are not interested in making one time policy.

 They feel that policies are to be formulated in such a way that there will be
enough scope of review and change whenever required. This creates a
scope for a new model labelled as incrementalism.
 Stated briefly, the model is: “Policy-making is therefore a continuous,
exploratory process, lacking overriding goals and clear cut ends,
policymakers tend to operate within an existing pattern or framework
adjusting their position in the light of feedback in the form of information
about the impact of earlier decisions.”
 What transpires from the above analysis is the decision maker adopts a
tendency of evasion. He wants to avoid or evade problem or uncertainty
and for that reason he decides to follow a policy of incrementalism. Policy is
9
not prepared once for all, rather it is made step by step and the decision-
maker proceeds stage by stage. In such an approach there is great
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  The policy-maker knows that a policy cannot be made once for all. Situation
and circumstances change very frequently and the policy maker must
amend policy other-wise it will not be able to serve the purpose. For this
particular reason the exponents (particularly C. E. Lindblom) have
propounded a thesis that it is a continuous process.
 In the same line of thought another observer points out: “Policy is not made
once for all, it is made and remade endlessly. Policy making is a process of
successive approximation to some desired objectives”. If circumstances
demand any change or reconsideration of policy, the decision maker takes
steps in that direction.
 The administrator or the policy-maker uses the past experience while
making policy and he moves very cautiously. His movement comprises also
very small steps. He avoids big jumps that would go beyond current
knowledge. The decision-maker, of course, makes prediction but that is
based on past experience. The decision-maker avoids radical change in any
policy formulation his technique is incremental change or successive
change.
 Incrementalism also envisages, at limited scale, comparison of satisfactory
results. If the consequence of the implementation of policy are satisfactory
the decision-maker will make next step. Lindblom, the chief exponent of
incrementalism, has said that in this approach of decision making there is
very little scope of change, mistake and miscarriage of any policy because
the policy maker refrains himself from taking any type of risk.
 His past experience is his best guide. Moreover, there is ample scope of
modification. We, therefore, see that in this model of decision-making,
policy-makers are not inclined in making policy at one stroke. He proceeds
step by step and also is very cautious, and in the process he amends and
changes earlier policy.

3. Bureaucratic Organization Model:

 We shall now deal with a model which was framed in the background of
Cuban Missile crisis in 1962 and the model was championed by Graham
Allison in 1971. We have already noted that the bureaucratic structure or
the political organisation of political system have positive influence on the
policy making processes.
 It is believed that the large political and other organisations have their own
values, ideas and long cherished and well-guarded inclinations. All these
create definite impact upon the decision-making processes. Hence, while
decision is being made, the organisational process cannot be neglected.
 In all political systems bureaucrats play a crucial role in the various stages
of the formulation of decision. The head of the state, Prime Minister, Foreign
Minister etc. have a role no doubt but the real and important role is
generally played by the bureaucrats. However, the structure and the extent
of influence of bureaucrats in all political systems are not identical
everywhere.
 The bureaucrats and related agencies have their own outlook, values and
assessment about incidents and when policy making process starts the top
government officers and allied agencies release their efforts to guide the
formulation of policies in the light they cherish. In fact, the liberal democratic
system state does not play an overriding role.
 The state as state exists and it guides, but it is not the final voice on any
national and international issue, organisational structure and bureaucracy 1
are deciding factors. The exponents of the model believe that though the 6ge
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 function is performed by bureaucrats and it is held that during the Cuban
crisis this came to limelight. The heads of the states had a role but more
important role was played by bureaucrats.

4. Belief System Model:

 Generally there is a belief system which can be termed as ideology or

deeprooted belief. Some scholars are of opinion that in the arena of
decisionmaking beliefs or ideologies have a very important influence. Here
crops up a confusion. If the decision-makers are rational it will be supposed
that they are not to be influenced by beliefs and ideology. But this argument
does not stand the test of reality.
 If the belief or attachment to ideology is pervasive, or firm the
decisionmaker may temporarily give priority to ideology or belief. The policy
makers of a communist country will not formulate such a policy as will
violate basic principles of communism although rationality demands the
violation.
 Two examples may be cited. In 1956, Britain, USA and France launched a
combined attack against General Nasser, the President of Egypt, on the
issue of the nationalisation of Suez Canal. Nasser wanted fund from USA
and Britain for the construction of Aswan Dam on the river Nile.
 First these two powers agreed and subsequently when they refused Nasser
got assurance from the then USSR and this infuriated the two big powers
and they attacked Nasser. Here the anti-communist feeling worked. The
Cuban Missile Crisis is also the consequence of the same belief.
 Fidel Castro, the President of Cuba, got economic and military assistance
from communist Russia which was against American interest. These two
are the handiwork of anti- communist feeling and policy makers made it a
part of their policy/decision.

E. Individual and Group Decision Making

 When considering individual versus group decision-making, a group decision

is one made by several people, while an individual decision is made by one
person.

 As Nibedita Mukherjee, et al., note in their article, "Comparing Groups Versus

Individuals in Decision Making: A Systematic Review Protocol," complex psychological
factors play into the decision-making process. In some cases, individual decision-
making proved more fruitful and productive; in other cases, group decision-making
proved the wiser choice. However, group decisionmaking has come into favor more
over the past few decades.

 What Is Individual Decision-Making?

 Individual decision-making does not involve a group or even more than one
person. Individual decision-making is quick and generally cost-effective,
because it does not require gathering others and scheduling a meeting or
multiple meetings or sending a single email. Individuals have a tendency to
think and question before performing, which is fruitful in analysis and 1
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  An individual generally makes prompt decisions, while a group is dominated by
various people, making decision-making very time consuming. Moreover,
assembling group members consumes lots of time.

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  Individuals do not escape responsibilities. They are accountable for their acts
and performance. In a group, it is not easy to hold any one person accountable
for a wrong decision.

 Individual decision-making saves time, money and energy as individuals

usually make prompt and logical decisions, says Juneja, while group
decisionmaking involves lot of time, money and energy.

 Individual Decision Making - Pros and Cons

Individuals have a tendency to think and question before performing.
This is fruitful in analysis and forecasting of individual’s behaviour. Individual
decision making has certain pros and cons, few of which are mentioned below:

 Pros of Individual Decision Making

 An individual generally makes prompt decisions. While a group is
dominated by various people, making decision-making very time
consuming. Moreover assembling group members consumes lot of
time.
 Individuals do not escape responsibilities. They are accountable for
their acts and performance. While in a group it is not easy to hold
any one person accountable for a wrong decision.
 Individual decision making saves time, money and energy as
individuals make prompt and logical decisions generally. While
group decision making involves lot of time, money and energy.
 Individual decisions are more focused and rational as compared to
group.

 Cons of Individual Decision Making

 A group has potential of collecting more and full information
compared to an individual while making decisions.
 An individual while making any decision uses his own intuition and
views. While a group has many members, so many views and many
approaches and hence better decision making.
 A group discovers hidden talent and core competency of employees
of an organization.
 An individual will not take into consideration every members interest.
While a group will take into account interest of all members of an
organization.

 Group Decision-Making: it’s Advantages and Disadvantages

 ADVANTAGES:

1. More information:
 A group is better equipped as far as information is concerned.
 An individual cannot have all the information that is available to a group as it
consists of several individuals.

2. Diversity of views:
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  A group always has the advantage of varied views. This is because a group
always has more than one member, and since every member is unique, there
is bound to be a variety in their views also.

 This is also the reason why there are varied approaches to solving a problem.
As group decisions tend to cover a greater area, they provide a better insight
for decision-making.

3. Greater acceptability:
 The views expressed by a group have more acceptance than those from an
individual. This is because the decisions are not imposed, but are part of a
larger consensus (general agreement).
 A group decision is automatically assumed to be more democratic, and the
decision of an individual can be perceived as being autocratic (dictatorial).

4. Expert opinions:
 There may be some group decisions that require expert opinion. The group can
either include experts or can call them from outside to form a separate group to
take a decision on a particular issue.

5. Degree of involvement:
 The members of a group feel involved with a given problem. This minimizes
their resistance. It strengthens an organisation and facilitates decision-making.

6. Encourages people’s participation:

 A group usually provides a platform for people to present their ideas. Group
dynamics is more likely to draw out participation from people who may
otherwise be hesitant to talk or interact. It encourages people to take an
initiative as they feel part of the decision-making process.
 Usually there is no individual onus (burden) in the event of failure, which makes
it easier for people to come up with suggestions and solutions to problems.

 DISADVANTAGES:

1. Time-consuming:
 A group involves several individuals. Getting them organised, planning and
coordinating their meetings, defining and explaining to them the purpose of a
meeting and the goals, and finally reaching a solution or arriving at a decision
can be quite cumbersome.
 Making decisions in a group can, thus, be time-consuming. The time loss
involved in group dynamics cannot be ignored.

2. Lack of onus:
 It is difficult to fix responsibility in a group. In an organisation, it is often
essential to fix responsibility before a problem can be solved. It is difficult to do
so if anything goes wrong with a decision made by a group.

3. Individual domination:
 Quite often, discussions in a group are dominated by a few members. Although 1
a group discussion means a collective discussion, some people usually 7eg
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 manage to usurp (draw to them) a position of informal leadership owing to their
personality or style of participation.
 This position can also be because of the position held within the organisation or
simply because of self-confidence generated by previous experiences.
Sometimes only a few individuals dominate and the others fade away in a
group, thereby defeating the very purpose of group discussion.

4. Compromise decisions:
 The need to arrive at a group decision sometimes results in a compromise. The
solution offered is not essentially the best. It is, instead, a compromise
acceptable as a mid-point to all concerned. There are different demands and
social pressures, and members may agree to a proposal without really
evaluating it. Such support may not be wholehearted.

5. Expensive:
 Group decision-making is quite expensive in terms of time, money, energy and
man-hours. There is also a theory which says that the larger a group gets, the
less is the individual contribution from each member.

6. Groupism:
 The very word has negative connotations. Some members of a group may start
harbouring a feeling that they are different from the others. This actually leads
to informal groups within the larger formal group, which may generate negative
sentiments towards other groups or people outside the group.

Illustration between Individual and Group Decisions

Individual Decisions Group Decisions
1. Decisions are taken by a single 1. Decisions are taken by a group of
individual. persons.
2. Individual decisions are less 2. Group decisions are costly in
costly. terms of time and money.
3. They are based on limited 3. They are based on extensive
information gathered by information collected by members
managers. of the group.
4. Group decisions are taken when
4. Individual decisions are taken in
there is sufficient time to make
situations of crisis or emergency.
decisions.
5. They do not involve moral
5. Group decisions are easier to
commitment on the part of
implement as group members feel
members to accept and
committed to them.
implement them.
6. Individual decisions do not affect 6. Group decisions positively affect
morale or job satisfaction of morale and job satisfaction of
employees. employees.
7. They introduce one-man control. 7. They introduce self-control.
8. Individual decisions do not 8. They promote superiorsubordinate
promote interaction amongst interaction and healthy
superiors and subordinates. relationships amongst them.

9. Decisions are usually based on 9. Group decisions are taken when 2

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 and expert knowledge of a group.
10.Though decisions are based on
10.It usually results in high-quality
individual thinking, they are
decisions as they are based on
highquality if the individual has
extensive brainstorming. They
expertise and experience in
provide the benefit of synergy.
making such decisions.
11. Individual decisions are usually 11. Group decisions are usually
taken in competitive business taken in supportive business

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 situations where group members
situations where people are not
encourage problem-solving
open to suggestions.
together.
F. Decision Making Style in Management and Administration

 Decision making style of managers depend greatly on their personality and

approach towards problem solving. Every leader or manager has his own
individualistic style augmented by his experience, background, and abilities.

 Decision making style of managers depend greatly on their personality and

approach towards problem solving. Every leader or manager has his own
individualistic style augmented by his experience, background, and abilities.

 Often, it feels like big decisions, primarily related to our careers, will either
make or break our future success. These Decision-making Styles may able to
guide you.
1. Directive Style Decision Making

 Directive style decision-making describes people who prefer structure and are
motivated by the results their decisions will bring them.

 If you are a directive style decision maker, you likely make decisions quickly
and have a "decide and move forward" mentality. You don't like dwelling in
possibility and prefer to take action.

 To help you make decisions quickly, you tend to rely on case studies and rules
to tell you how to move forward. You think that "reinventing the wheel" is a
waste of time and that applies to your personal decisions as well.

 One of your dominant strengths is your communication skills. You convey

confidence, purpose and a sense of concreteness in your decisions that others
admire. This confidence helps you gain support and trust for the choices you
make.

 However, directive style decision-makers tend to struggle with receiving advice,

responding to differing opinions and creating a plan in new or uncertain
situations.

2. Analytical Style Decision Making

 Analytical style decision making describes people who feel comfortable with
ambiguity but are motivated to find the best or most comprehensive solution.

 If you are an analytical style decision maker, you likely take a long time to
process big life decisions. Your comfort with ambiguity doesn't mean that you
are a risk-taker or would be likely to decide without knowing how it would work
out. That would stress you out a lot!

 Instead, your comfort with ambiguity means that you enjoy considering all
options before making a decision. You think of creative solutions and are willing
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to give most prospects a chance. However, you only like to move forward once
you are as close to certain as possible that that choice is best.
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  While making responsible decisions is a strength of analytical style
decisionmakers, their weaknesses tend to be making timely decisions,
communicating with others and managing stress during the decision-making
period.

3. Behavioral Style Decision Making

 Behavioral style decision making describes people who prefer structure and
stability and are motivated to maintain harmony.

 If you are a behavioral style decision maker, your relationships are probably the
most important thing in your life. You are likely to put the needs and opinions of
family, friends, and colleagues above your own.

 It may seem difficult to balance the desire for structure and other people's
thoughts and feelings, but behavioral style decision-makers accomplish this by
seeking input and gauging reactions from people in the decision-making
process.

 They use the information they gather to come up with solutions that they
believe others will respond well to and typically ask for advice before moving
forward with a decision.

 The strengths of behavioral style decision-makers are, most notably, their

ability to make others feel included and important, getting buy-in from others
and communicating their decisions.

 However, their weaknesses are not trusting themselves and difficulty dealing
with conflict. Behavioral style decision-makers can easily lose themselves in the
advice and opinions of others. They may be called "people pleasers." Conflict is
challenging for them to manage. To avoid it, they sometimes take on
unnecessary amounts of responsibility and stress.

4. Conceptual Style Decision Making

 Conceptual style decision making describes people who enjoy the ambiguity of
open-ended options and are motivated to make an impact on the world.

 If you are a conceptual style decision maker, you likely day-dream often and
quickly come up with creative ideas when needed. You see how most things
connect and affect each other. You desire to come up with holistic solutions.

 Your comfort in ambiguity helps you to think bigger, and feel more hopeful that
your ideas will work out, than people with other decision-making styles.

 Your strengths are recognizing underlying problems and coming up with

creative, integrated options to pursue.

 But many conceptual style decision-makers find their weaknesses tend to be

taking action on a decision, adequately planning for what a choice will involve
and follow-through.

Decision-making Styles 5
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Style Major Premise
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 Managers who follow this style assess few
alternatives and consider limited information while
Directive or Autocratic taking any decision.
Decision Making They do not find it important to consult with others
or seek information in any form and use their logic
and idea while taking decisions.

Managers using analytic decision making style

would like to have more information and consider
more alternatives before coming to a conclusion.

Analytical Decision Making They seek relevant information from their sources
and consider factual and detailed information
before taking any decision. Such managers are
careful decision makers as they have the ability to
adapt or cope with unique situations.

Leaders who follow this model believe in

participative management and consider the
achievement of subordinates and always take
suggestions from them.
Behavioral Decision Making
They try to get inputs from subordinates through
meetings and discussions. They try to
avoid/resolve conflicts as acceptance by others is
important to them.

Managers using conceptual decision making style

are intuitive in their thinking and have high
Conceptual Decision Making tolerance for ambiguity.
They look at many alternatives and focus on long
run outcomes.
G. Factors Affecting Decision Making

 Decisions are typically made under one of three conditions:

• Certainty
• Risk
• Uncertainty

 These conditions are based on the amount of knowledge the decision maker
has regarding the final outcome of the decision. The manager's decision

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 depends on a number of factors, like the manager's knowledge, experience,
understanding and intuition.

1. Certainty

 Decisions are made under conditions of certainty when the manager has
enough information to know the outcome of the decision before it is made.

 The manager knows the available alternatives as well as the conditions and
consequences of those actions.

 There is little ambiguity and hence relatively low possibility of making a bad
decision.

2. Risk

 Most managerial decisions are made under conditions of risk.

 Decisions are taken in risk when the manager has some information leading to
the decision but does not know everything and is unsure or unaware of the
consequences.

 Under conditions of risk, the manager may find it helpful to use probability
estimates. This is where the manager’s experience and/or intelligence is of
great help.

3. Uncertainty

 Decisions are made under uncertainty when the probabilities of the results are
unknown.

 There is no awareness of all the alternatives and also the outcomes, even for
the known alternatives.

 Under such conditions managers need to make certain assumptions about the
situation in order to provide a reasonable framework for decision making.
Intuition, judgment, and experience always play a major role in the decision
making process under conditions of uncertainty.

 The decision-making process involves the following steps:

1. Define the problem
2. Identify limiting factors
3. Develop potential alternatives
4. Analyze and select the best alternatives
5. Implement the decision

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1. Define the Problem

 The first step in the process of decision making is the recognition or

identification of the problem, and recognizing that a decision needs to be taken.

 It is important to accurately define the problem. Managers can do this by

identifying the problem separately from its symptoms. Studying the symptoms
helps getting closer to the root cause of the problem.

2. Identify Limiting Factors

 In order to choose the best alternative and make a decision every manager
needs to have the ideal resources − information, time, personnel, equipment,
and supplies. But this is an ideal situation and may not always be possible.

 A limiting factor is something that stands in the way of accomplishing a desired

objective.

3. Develop Potential Alternatives

 Recognizing the limiting factor in a given situation makes it possible to narrow

down the search for alternatives and make the best decision possible with the
information, resources, and time available.

 Some methods for developing alternatives are:

• Brainstorming, where a group works together to generate ideas and
alternative solutions.
• Nominal group technique is a method that involves the use of a highly
structured meeting, complete with an agenda, and restricts discussion or
interpersonal communication during the decision-making process.
• Delphi technique where the participants do not meet, but a group leader
uses written questionnaires to conduct the decision making.

4. Analyze the Alternatives

 This is an important stage in the decision-making process and perhaps the

toughest. Managers must identify the merits and demerits of each alternative
and weigh them in light of various situations before making a final decision.

 Evaluating the alternatives can be done in numerous ways. Here are a few 1
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• Qualitative and quantitative measurements a
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 • Perform a cost‐effectiveness analysis for each alternative
• Marginal analysis

5. Selecting Alternatives

 Once the alternatives are analyzed and evaluated, the manager has to choose
the best one. The manager needs to choose the alternative that gives the most
advantage while meeting all the required criteria.

 Sometimes the choice is simple with obvious benefits, at times the optimal
solution is a combination of several alternatives. At times when the best
alternative may not be obvious, the manager uses probability estimates,
research and analysis aided by his experience and judgment.

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 Lesson 7. MANAGEMENT: ITS IMPORTANCE AND APPLICATION

A. General Concept and Levels of Management

Management (or managing) is the administration of an organization, whether it

is a business, a not-for-profit organization, or government body. Management includes
the activities of setting the strategy of an organization and coordinating the efforts of
its employees (or of volunteers) to accomplish its objectives through the application of
available resources, such as financial, natural, technological, and human resources.
The term "management" may also refer to those people who manage an organization
- individually:

Management defined as all the activities and tasks undertaken for achieving
goals by continuous activities like; planning, organizing, leading and controlling.

Management is a process of planning, decision making, organizing, leading,

motivation and controlling the human resources, financial, physical, and information
resources of an organization to reach its goals efficiently and effectively.

 The Three Levels of Management

These managers are classified in a hierarchy of authority, and perform different

tasks. In many organizations, the number of managers in every level resembles a
pyramid. Each level is explained below in specifications of their different
responsibilities and likely job titles.

Larger organizations generally have three levels of managers, which are

typically organized in a hierarchical, pyramid structure:

1. Top managers / Senior managers

 These individuals typically have titles such as executive vice president,

president, managing director, chief operating officer, chief executive officer,
or chairman of the board, chief executive officer (CEO) or a president of an
organization.
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 They set the strategic goals of the organization and make decisions on how
the overall organization will operate. Senior managers are generally

CCJ 2020 Outcomes Based Module for Character Formation 2

 executive-level professionals, and provide direction to middle management,
who directly or indirectly report to them.

 Top managers are responsible for making organization-wide decisions and

establishing the plans and goals that affect the entire organization.

 They are responsible for controlling and overseeing the operations of the
entire organization.

 They set a "tone at the top" and develop strategic plans, company policies,
and make decisions on the overall direction of the organization. In addition,
top-level managers play a significant role in the mobilization of outside
resources.

 Senior managers are accountable to the shareholders, the general public

and to public bodies that oversee corporations and similar organizations.
Some members of the senior management may serve as the public face of
the organization, and they may make speeches to introduce new strategies
or appear in marketing.

2. Middle managers

 Middle managers include all levels of management between the first-line level
and the top level of the organization, examples of these would include branch
managers, regional managers, department managers and section managers,
who provide direction to front-line managers.

 Middle managers communicate the strategic goals of senior management to

the front-line managers.

 These managers manage the work of first-line managers and may have titles
such as department head, project leader, plant manager, or division manager.

 They are accountable to the top management for their department's function.

 They devote more time to organizational and directional functions.

 Their roles can be emphasized as executing organizational plans in

conformance with the company's policies and the objectives of the top
management, they define and discuss information and policies from top
management to lower management, and most importantly they inspire and
provide guidance to lower level managers towards better performance.

 Middle management is the midway management of a categorized organization,

being secondary to the senior management but above the deepest levels of
operational members.

 An operational manager may be well-thought-out by middle management, or

may be categorized as non-management operate, liable to the policy of the
specific organization. Efficiency of the middle level is vital in any organization,
since they bridge the gap between top level and bottom level staffs. Their
functions include: 4
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 • Design and implement effective group and inter-group work and
information systems.
• Define and monitor group-level performance indicators.
• Diagnose and resolve problems within and among work groups.
• Design and implement reward systems that support cooperative behavior.
They also make decision and share ideas with top managers.

3. Lower managers / First-line managers

 First-line managers are the lowest level of management and manage the work
of non-managerial individuals who are directly involved with the production or
creation of the organization's products. First-line managers are often called
supervisors, but may also be called line managers, office managers, or even
foremen.

 They oversee the work of regular employees (or volunteers, in some voluntary
organizations) and provide direction on their work.

 They are usually responsible for assigning employees' tasks, guiding and
supervising employees on day-to-day activities, ensuring the quality and
quantity of production and/or service, making recommendations and
suggestions to employees on their work, and channeling employee concerns
that they cannot resolve to mid-level managers or other administrators.

 Some front-line managers may also provide career planning for employees
who aim to rise within the organization.

 First-level or "front line" managers also act as role models for their employees.
In some types of work, front line managers may also do some of the same
tasks that employees do, at least some of the time. For example, in some

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 restaurants, the front line managers will also serve customers during a very
busy period of the day. Front-line managers typically provide:

• Training for new employees

• Basic supervision
• Motivation
• Performance feedback and guidance

In smaller organizations, a manager may have a much wider scope and may
perform several roles or even all of the roles commonly observed in a large
organization.

Management involves identifying the mission, objective, procedures, rules and

manipulation of the human capital of an enterprise to contribute to the success of the
enterprise. This implies effective communication: an enterprise environment (as
opposed to a physical or mechanical mechanism) implies human motivation and
implies some sort of successful progress or system outcome.

B. Five Basic Functions in Management

Henri Fayol (1841–1925) considers management to consist of five functions:

1. Planning (forecasting)
2. Organizing
3. Commanding
4. Coordinating 5. Controlling

Henri Fayol developed the Five Functions of Management to describe the

managerial section of the model. The model focuses on the key relationships between
employees and management.

According to Fayol, management operates through five basic functions:

planning, organizing, coordinating, commanding, and controlling.

1. Planning: 6
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  Deciding what needs to happen in the future and generating plans for
action (deciding in advance)

 The manager would begin by planning how they are going to achieve
this. This planning is usually done in collaboration with the whole
organization.

2. Organizing (or staffing)

 Making sure the human and nonhuman resources are put into place.

 Now that the plan is in place the manager must decide how best to
organize their team and the available resources to achieve the plan.
Essentially, this step is about organizing the team and resources
available to match the nature of the work needing to be done.

 In this step, the manager will establish their organizational structure.

Once this is done there might be gaps in the structure. Some of the
options available to the manager in this instance include training existing
staff, recruiting new staff, or moving existing staff to new positions.

3. Commanding (or leading):

 Determining what must be done in a situation and getting people to do it.

 The process of assigning tasks to subordinates is called delegation.

 It is worth noting that you should always treat employees in accordance

with company policies and values. In a nutshell, a manager must
command with integrity. To be successful in commanding a team the
manager will also need to be able to communicate very clearly what
needs to be done and their expectations.

 Using their knowledge of their team, the manager creates energy,

motivation to do the job, and loyalty to the team and the organization.

4. Coordinating

 Creating a structure through which an organization's goals can be

accomplished.

 This coordination must exist between individuals working on tasks and

also between functional departments.

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  Coordination is typically done via meetings to ensure that common
problems are solved and that everyone in on the same page, pulling in
the same direction.

5. Controlling

 Checking progress against plans.

 A manager is also responsible for controlling the work in accordance

with the policy of the organization.

 In practice, this means that the manager must:

• Establish baseline performance.
• Measure actual performance and understand how it differs from the
baseline. Where appropriate, these deviations should be reported to
the manager’s manager.
• Take action to correct deviations and to avoid future deviations.

Summary Description of Basic Functions of Management

Basic Functions Major Premise
The manager makes a plan to achieve the objectives
Planning
of the organization.
The manager organizes people and resources to best
Organizing
achieve the plan.
The manager delegates tasks to people and teams to
Commanding
implement the plan.
The manager coordinates people and teams to
Coordinating ensure the plan runs to schedule and everyone is
pulling in the same direction.
The manager measures performance and takes
Controlling
corrective action where necessary.
C. Basic Roles in Management

To meet the many demands of performing their functions, managers assume multiple
roles.
A role is an organized set of behaviors. Henry Mintzberg has identified ten roles common
to the work of all managers.
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 1. Interpersonal

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 2. Informational
3. Decisional

The performance of managerial roles and the requirements of these roles can
be played at different times by the same manager and to different degrees depending
on the level and function of management. The ten roles are described individually, but
they form an integrated whole.

1. Interpersonal
 Roles that involve coordination and interaction with employees
 Figurehead, leader
 The interpersonal roles link all managerial work together. The three
interpersonal roles are primarily concerned with interpersonal
relationships.
• Figurehead Role: The manager represents the organization in all
matters of formality. The top level manager represents the company
legally and socially to those outside of the organization. The
supervisor represents the work group to higher management and
higher management to the work group.
• Liaison Role: The manger interacts with peers and people outside
the organization. The top level manager uses the liaison role to gain
favors and information, while the supervisor uses it to maintain the
routine flow of work.
• The leader Role: It defines the relationships between the manger
and employees.

2. Informational
 Roles that involve handling, sharing, and analyzing information
 Nerve centre, disseminator
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  The informational roles ensure that information is provided. The three
informational roles are primarily concerned with the information aspects
of managerial work.

• Monitor Role: The manager receives and collects information about

the operation of an enterprise.
• Disseminator Role: The manager transmits special information into
the organization. The top level manager receives and transmits more
information from people outside the organization than the supervisor.
• Spokesperson Role: The manager disseminates the organization’s
information into its environment. Thus, the top level manager is seen
as an industry expert, while the supervisor is seen as a unit or
departmental expert.

3. Decision
 Roles that require decision-making
 Entrepreneur, negotiator, allocator
 The decisional roles make significant use of the information and there
are four decisional roles.
• Entrepreneur Role: The manager initiates change, new projects;
identify new ideas, delegate idea responsibility to others.
• Disturbance Handler Role: The manager deals with threats to the
organization. The manager takes corrective action during disputes or
crises; resolve conflicts among subordinates; adapt to environmental
crisis.
• Resource Allocator Role: The manager decides who gets
resources; schedule, budget set priorities and chooses where the
organization will apply its efforts.
• Negotiator Role: The manager negotiates on behalf of the
organization. The top level manager makes the decisions about the
organization as a whole, while the supervisor makes decisions about
his or her particular work unit.

D. Managerial Skills

Managers at every level in the management hierarchy must exercise three

basic types of skills: technical, human, and conceptual. All managers must acquire
these skills in varying proportions, although the importance of each category of skill
changes at different management levels.

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1. Technical skills

 Technical skills refer to the ability and knowledge in using the equipment,
techniques and procedure involved in performing specific tasks

 These skills require specialized knowledge and proficiency in the mechanics of

a particular.

 Technical skills lose relative importance at higher levels of the management

hierarchy, but most top executives started out as technical experts.

2. Human skills

 Human skills refer to the ability of a manager to work effectively with other people
both as individual and as members of a group.

 Human skills are concerned with understanding of people.

 These are required to win cooperation of others and to build effective work teams.

3. Conceptual skills

 Conceptual skills involve the ability to see the whole organization and the
interrelationships between its parts.

 These skills refer to the ability to visualize the entire picture or to consider a
situation in its totality.

 These skills help the managers to analyze the environment and to identify the
opportunities.

 Conceptual skills are especially important for top-level managers, who must
develop long-range plans for the future direction of their organization.

E. Management Features and Functions 1

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 Management is the process of setting and reaching goals effectively and
efficiently. Management process has some qualities or features;

1. Management is Associated with Group Efforts

2. Management is Purposeful
3. Management is Accomplished Through the Efforts of Others
4. Management is Goal-oriented
5. Management is Indispensable
6. Management is Intangible
7. Management can Ensure Better Life

1. Management is Associated with Group Efforts

 Although people as individuals manage many personal affairs, the group
emphasis on management is universal. Every enterprise entails the existence
of a group to achieve goals. It is now established that goals are achieved more
readily by a group than by any one person alone.

2. Management is Purposeful
 Wherever there is management, there is a purpose. Management deals with
the achievement of something definite expressed as a goal or objective.
 Management success is commonly measured by the extent to which objectives
are achieved. Management exists because it is an effective means of getting
the necessary work accomplished.

3. Management is Accomplished Through the Efforts of Others

 Management is sometimes defined as “getting things done through others’
efforts.” Besides the manager of a firm, there may be accountants, engineers,
system analysts, salesmen and a host of other employees working but it is the
manager’s job to integrate all their activities.

 Thus it can well be said that participation in management necessitates

relinquishing the normal tendency to perform all things oneself and getting
tasks accomplished through group efforts.

4. Management is Goal-oriented
 Managers focus their attention and efforts on bringing about successful action.
Successful managers have an urge for accomplishment.
 They know when and where to start, what to do with keeping things moving,
and how to follow a goal-oriented approach.

5. Management is Indispensable
 Management can neither be replaced nor substituted by anything else.
 It can widen a manager’s vision and sharpen his insight by supplying more and
faster information for making key decisions.
 The manager plays his/her role by providing judgment and imagination as well
as interpreting and evaluating what the information/data mean in each case.
6. Management is Intangible
 Management is often called the unseen force; its presence is evidenced by the
results of its efforts – motivation among employees, discipline in the group, high
productivity, adequate surplus, etc.
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  Conversely, the identity of management may also be felt by its absence or by
the presence of its direct opposite mismanagement. The consequence of
mismanagement is anybody’s guess.

7. Management can Ensure Better Life

 A manager can do much to improve the work environment, stimulate people to
perform better, achieve progress, bring hope and accomplish better things in
life.
 The study of management has evolved into more than just the use of means to
achieve ends; today it includes moral and ethical questions concerning the
selection of the right ends towards which managers should strive.
 Management is the science and art of getting people together to accomplish
desired goals and objectives by coordinating and integrating all available
resources efficiently and effectively.

 The Four (4) Functions of Management Process

Functions of management is a systematic way of doing things. Management is

a process to emphasize that all managers, irrespective of their aptitude or skill,
engage in some inter-related functions to achieve their desired goals.

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 First; managers must set a plan, then organize resources according to the plan,
lead employees to work towards the plan, and finally, control everything by monitoring
and measuring the effectiveness of the plan.

Management process/functions involve 4 basic activities:

1. Planning and Decision Making – – Determining Courses of Action,

2. Organizing – Coordinating Activities and Resources, 3. Leading –
Managing, Motivating and Directing People, 4. Controlling – Monitoring
and Evaluating activities.

1. Planning and Decision Making – Determining Courses of Action

 Looking ahead into the future and predict possible trends or occurrences which
are likely to influence the working situation is the most vital quality as well as
the job of a manager.

 Planning means setting an organization’s goal and deciding how best to

achieve them. Planning is decision making, regarding the goals and setting the
future course of action from a set of alternatives to reach them.

 The plan helps to maintain managerial effectiveness as it works as a guide for

the personnel for future activities. Selecting goals as well as the paths to
achieve them is what planning involves.

 Planning involves selecting missions and objectives and the actions to achieve
them, it requires decision-making or choosing future courses of action from
among alternatives.

 In short, planning means determining what the organization’s position and the
situation should be in the future, and decide how best to bring about that
situation.

 Planning helps maintain managerial effectiveness by guiding future activities.

 For a manager, planning and decision-making require an ability to foresee, to 0

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2. Organizing – Coordinating Activities and Resources

 Organizing can be defined as the process by which the established plans are
moved closer to realization.

 Once a manager set goals and develops plans, his next managerial function is
organizing human resource and other resources that are identified as
necessary by the plan to reach the goal.

 Organizing involves determining how activities and resources are to be

assembled and coordinated.

 The organization can also be defined as an intentionally formalized structure of

positions or roles for people to fill in an organization.

 Organizing produces a structure of relationships in an organization and it is

through these structured relationships that plans are pursued.

 Organizing, then, is that part of managing which involves: establishing an

intentional structure of roles for people to fill in the organization.

 It is intentional in the sense of making sure that all the tasks necessary to
accomplish goals are assigned to people who can do the best.

 The purpose of an organization structure is to create an environment for the

best human performance.

 The structure must define the task to be done. The rules so established must
also be designed in light of the abilities and motivations of the people available.
 Staffing is related to organizing and it involves filling and keeping filled, the
positions in the organization structure.

 This can be done by determining the positions to be filled, identifying the

requirement of manpower, filling the vacancies and training employees so that
the assigned tasks are accomplished effectively and efficiently.

 The managerial functions of promotion, demotion, discharge, dismissal,

transfer, etc. Are also included with the broad task “staffing.” staffing ensures
the placement of the right person in the right position.

 Organizing is deciding where decisions will be made, who will do what jobs and
tasks, who will work for whom, and how resources will assemble.

3. Leading – Managing, Motivating and Directing People

 The third basic managerial function is leading it is the skills of influencing

people for a particular purpose or reason. Leading is considered to be the most
important and challenging of all managerial activities.

 Leading is influencing or prompting the member of the organization to work

together with the interest of the organization.

 Creating a positive attitude towards the work and goals among the members of
the organization is called leading. It is required as it helps to serve the objective 1
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  Leading involves several deferment processes and activates.

 The functions of direction, motivation, communication, and coordination are

considered a part of the leading processor system.

 Coordinating is also essential in leading.

 Most authors do not consider it a separate function of management.

 Rather they regard coordinating as the essence of managership for achieving

harmony among individual efforts towards accomplishing group targets.

 Motivating is an essential quality for leading. Motivating is the function of the

management process of influencing people’s behavior based on the knowledge
of what cause and channel sustain human behavior in a particular committed
direction.

 Efficient managers need to be effective leaders.

 Since leadership implies fellowship and people tend to follow those who offer a
means of satisfying their own needs, hopes and aspirations, understandably,
leading involves motivation leadership styles and approaches and
communication.

4. Controlling – Monitoring and Evaluating Activities

 Monitoring the organizational progress toward goal fulfillment is called

controlling. Monitoring progress is essential to ensure the achievement of
organizational goals.

 Controlling is measuring, comparing, finding deviation and correcting the

organizational activities which are performed for achieving the goals or
objectives. Controlling consists of activities, like; measuring the performance,
comparing with the existing standard and finding the deviations, and correcting
the deviations.

 Control activities generally relate to the measurement of achievement or results

of actions that were taken to attain the goal.

 Some means of controlling, like the budget for expenses, inspection records,
and the record of labor hours lost, are generally familiar. Each measure also
shows whether plans are working out.

 If deviations persist, correction is indicated. Whenever results are found to differ

from the planned action, persons responsible are to be identified and necessary
actions are to be taken to improve performance.

 Thus outcomes are controlled by controlling what people do. Controlling is the
last but not the least important management function process. 2
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  It is rightly said, “planning without controlling is useless”. In short, we can say
the controlling enables the accomplishment of the plan.

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  All the management functions of its process are inter-related and cannot be
skipped.

 The management process designs and maintains an environment in which

personnel’s, working together in groups, accomplish efficiently selected aims.

 All managers carry out the main functions of management; planning,

organizing, staffing, leading and controlling. But depending on the skills and
position on an organizational level, the time and labor spent in each function
will differ.

 Planning, organizing, leading, and controlling are the 4 functions of

management; which work as a continuous process.

F. Principles of Management

Henry Fayol also is known as ‘father of modern management theory’ gave a

new perception of the concept of management. He introduced a general theory that
can be applied to all levels of management and every department.

The Fayol theory is practiced by the managers to organize and regulate the
internal activities of an organization. He concentrated on accomplishing managerial
efficiency.

The fourteen principles of management created by Henri Fayol are explained

below.

1. Division of Work
 Henri believed that segregating work in the workforce amongst the worker will
enhance the quality of the product. Similarly, he also concluded that the division
of work improves the productivity, efficiency, accuracy, and speed of the
workers. This principle is appropriate for both the managerial as well as a
technical work level.
 This principle of management is based on the theory that if workers are given a
specialized task to do, they will become skillful and more efficient in it than if
they had a broader range of tasks. Therefore, a process where everyone has a
specialized role will be an efficient one.
 According to this principle the whole work is divided into small tasks. The
specialization of the workforce according to the skills of a person, creating
specific personal and professional development within the labour force and
therefore increasing productivity; leads to specialization which increases the
efficiency of labour.

2. Authority and Responsibility-

 These are the two key aspects of management. Authority facilitates the
management to work efficiently and responsibility makes them responsible for
the work done under their guidance or leadership.
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  This principle looks at the concept of managerial authority. It looks at how
authority is necessary in order to ensure that managerial commands are carried
out. If managers did not have authority then they would lack the ability to get
work carried out. Managers should use their authority responsibly and ethically.
 This is the issue of commands followed by responsibility for their
consequences. Authority means the right of a superior to give enhance order to
his subordinates; responsibility means obligation for performance.

3. Discipline-
 Without discipline, nothing can be accomplished. It is the core value for any
project or any management. Good performance and sensible interrelation make
the management job easy and comprehensive. Employee’s good behavior also
helps them smoothly build and progress in their professional careers.
 This principle relates to the fact that discipline is needed within an organization
for it to run effectively. Organizational rules, philosophies, and structures need
to be met. In order to have disciplined workers, managers must build a culture
of mutual respect and motivation.
 It is obedience, proper conduct in relation to others, respect of authority, etc. It
is essential for the smooth functioning of all organizations.

4. Unity of Command-
 This means an employee should have only one boss and follow his command.
If an employee has to follow more than one boss, there begins a conflict of
interest and can create confusion.
 There should be a clear chain of command in place within an organization. An
employee should know exactly whose instructions to follow.
 This principle states that each subordinate should receive orders and be
accountable to one and only one superior. If an employee receives orders from
more than one superior, it is likely to create confusion and conflict

5. Unity of Direction-
 Whoever is engaged in the same activity should have a unified goal. This
means all the person working in a company should have one goal and motive
which will make the work easier and achieve the set goal easily.
 Work should be organized in a way that means employees are working in
harmony toward a shared objective or goal using a shared method or
procedure.
 All related activities should be put under one group, there should be one plan of
action for them, and they should be under the control of one manager.

6. Subordination of Individual Interest to Collective Interest-

 This indicates a company should work unitedly towards the interest of a
company rather than personal interest. Be subordinate to the purposes of an
organization. This refers to the whole chain of command in a company.
 The interests of the organization as a whole should take precedence over the
interests of any individual employee or group of employees. This encourages a
team spirit and collective mentality of all for one and one for all.
 The management must put aside personal considerations and put company
objectives firstly. Therefore the interests of goals of the organization must
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7. Remuneration-
 This plays an important role in motivating the workers of a company.
Remuneration can be monetary or non-monetary, however, it should be
according to an individual’s efforts they have made.

 In order to motivate and be fair to employees, they should be paid a reasonable

rate for the work they carry out. An organization that underpays will struggle to
attract quality workers who are motivated.
 Workers must be paid sufficiently as this is a chief motivation of employees and
therefore greatly influences productivity. The quantum and methods of
remuneration payable should be fair, reasonable and rewarding of effort.

8. Centralization-
 In any company, the management or any authority responsible for the
decisionmaking process should be neutral. However, this depends on the size
of an organization. Henri Fayol stressed on the point that there should be a
balance between the hierarchy and division of power.
 This principle relates to whether decisions should be made centrally, as in from
the top down, or in a more democratic way, from the bottom up. Different
decision making processes are appropriate for different types of decisions.
 The amount of power wielded with the central management depends on
company size. Centralization implies the concentration of decision making
authority at the top management.

9. Scalar Chain
 Fayol one the principles highlights that the hierarchy steps should be from top
to the lowest. This is necessary so that every employee knows there immediate
senior also they should be able to contact any if needed.
 This relates to the principle of a clear chain of communication existing between
employees and superiors. The chain should be respected, unless speedy
communication is vital, in which case the chain may be bypassed if all parties
consent.
 This refers to the chain of superiors ranging from top management to the lowest
rank. The principle suggests that there should be a clear line of authority from
top to bottom linking all managers at all levels.

10. Order-
 A company should maintain a well-defined work order to have a favorable work
culture. The positive atmosphere in the workplace will boost more positive
productivity.
 This relates to the proper use of resources and their effective deployment in a
structured fashion.
 Social order ensures the fluid operation of a company through authoritative
procedure. Material order ensures safety and efficiency in the workplace. Order
should be acceptable and under the rules of the company.

11. Equity-
 All the employees should be treated equally and respectfully. It’s the
responsibility of a manager that no employees face discrimination.
 Managers should behave ethically towards those they manage. Almost every
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  Employees must be treated kindly, and justice must be enacted to ensure a just
workplace. Managers should be fair and impartial when dealing with
employees, giving equal attention towards all employees.

12. Stability of Tenure of Personnel

 An employee delivers the best if they feel secure in their job. It is the duty of the
management to offer job security to their employees.

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  It is seen as desirable within an organization to have a low staff turnover rate.
This is due to the benefits that come with having experienced staff and the time
and expense needed to train new ones. There should be a clear and efficient
method of filling any staff vacancies that arise.
 Stability of tenure of personnel is a principle stating that in order for an
organization to run smoothly, personnel (especially managerial personnel) must
not frequently enter and exit the organization.

13. Initiative-
 The management should support and encourage the employees to take
initiatives in an organization. It will help them to increase their interest and
make then worth.
 Employees that have an input as to how to best do their job are likely to feel
more motivated and respected. Many organizations place a great deal of
emphasis on listening to the concerns of staff.
 Using the initiative of employees can add strength and new ideas to an
organization. Initiative on the part of employees is a source of strength for
organization because it provides new and better ideas. Employees are likely to
take greater interest in the functioning of the organization.

14. Esprit de Corps / Morale

 It is the responsibility of the management to regularly motivate their employees
and be supportive of each other. Developing trust and mutual understanding
will lead to a positive outcome and work environment.
 Keeping a high level of morale and team spirit is an essential part of having the
most productive organization possible. Happy and motivated employees are far
more likely to be productive and less absent.
 This refers to the need of managers to ensure and develop morale in the
workplace; individually and communally. Team spirit helps develop an
atmosphere of mutual trust and understanding. Team spirit helps to finish the
task on time.

This 14 principles of management are used to manage an organization and are

beneficial for prediction, planning, decision-making, organization and process
management, control, and coordination.

Management is essential to any organization that wishes to be efficient and

achieve its aims. Without someone in a position of authority there would be
organizational anarchy with no structure and very little, if any focus. It has been said
that management has four basic functions – planning, organizing, leading and
controlling.

Common sense dictates that without these principles of management being in

place an organization would have trouble achieving its aims, or even coming up with
aims in the first place! A classic theory on the principles of management was written
by Henri Fayol. It seeks to divide management into 14 principles. We’ll take a look at
these basic principles of management and explain them in easy to understand
terminology.

G. Seven (7) Types of Workplace Management Theories

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 Understanding and applying the best practices from management theories can
help you be more effective in guiding your team to success. Many of these theories
gave rise to the leadership approaches commonly used to guide and grow
organizations today, and you can choose from among them to identify the strategies
that will work best for you and your team. Understanding and applying management
theories takes practice and possibly some trial and error. In this article, we explain the
most common management theories and share some tips for how you can apply them
in the workplace.

Management theories are a collection of ideas that recommend general rules

for how to manage an organization or business. Management theories address how
supervisors implement strategies to accomplish organizational goals and how they
motivate employees to perform at their highest ability. Typically, leaders apply
concepts from different management theories that best suit their employees and
company culture. Although many management theories were created centuries ago,
they still provide many beneficial frameworks for leading teams in the workplace and
running businesses today.

 Benefits of management theories

There are several reasons why leaders should study and apply management
theories, including:

1. Increased productivity: Using these theories, leaders learn how to make the
most of their team members, improving performances and increasing
productivity.

2. Simplified decision-making: Management theories give leaders strategies

that speed up the decision-making process, helping those leaders be more
effective in their roles.

3. Increased collaboration: Leaders learn how to encourage team member

participation and increase collaboration in the workplace.

4. Increased objectivity: Management theories encourage leaders to make

scientifically proven changes rather than relying on their judgment.

 Types of Management Theories

Here are seven important management theories to be aware of:

1. Scientific management theory

2. Principles of administrative management theory
3. Bureaucratic management theory
4. Human relations theory
5. System management theory
6. Contingency management theory
7. Theory X and Y

1. Scientific Management Theory 9

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  Developed by Frederick Taylor, he was one of the first to study work
performance scientifically. Taylor’s principles recommended that the scientific
method should be used to perform tasks in the workplace, as opposed to the
leader relying on their judgment or the personal discretion of team members.

 His philosophy emphasized that forcing people to work hard would result in the
most productive workplace. Instead, he recommended simplifying tasks to
increase productivity. He suggested that leaders assign team members to jobs
that best match their abilities, train them thoroughly and supervise them to
ensure they are efficient in the role.

 While his focus on achieving maximum workplace efficiency by finding the

optimal way to complete a task was useful, it ignored the humanity of the
individual. This theory is not practiced much today in its purest form, but it
demonstrated to leaders the importance of workplace efficiency, the value of
making sure team members received ample training and the need for teamwork
and cooperation between supervisors and employees.

2. Principles of Administrative Management Theory

 Henri Fayol, a senior executive and mining engineer, developed this theory
when he examined an organization through the perspective of the managers
and situations they might encounter. He believed that leaders had six main
functions, to forecast, plan, coordinate, command and control, and he
developed principles that outlined how leaders should organize and interact
with their teams. He suggested that the principles should not be rigid but that it
should be left up to the manager to determine how they use them to manage
efficiently and effectively. The principles he outlined are:

• Initiative: This refers to the level of freedom employees should have to

carry out their responsibilities without being forced or ordered.

• Equity: This principle implies everyone in the organization should be

treated equally and that it should be an environment of kindness.

• Scalar chain: This principle says there should be a chain of supervisors

from the top level of management to the lower level and that
communication generally flows from top to bottom. He emphasized that
there is no hard rule regarding the communication process through the
chain of command.

• Remuneration of personnel: This principle refers to the assertion that

there should be both monetary and non-monetary remuneration based
on performance levels to create a bond between the employee and the
organization.

• Unity of direction: This principle asserts that there should be only one
manager per department who is in charge of coordinating the group
activity to attain a single goal.

• Discipline: According to this principle, employees should be respectful

and obedient, and an organization should outline rules and regulations
that clarify rules, good supervision and a reward-punishment system.
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 responsibilities based on their skills and interests to make them more
effective and efficient.

• Authority and responsibility: According to this principle, there should

be a balance between authority—the right to give commands and make
decisions—and responsibility—the obligation of an employee to perform
the tasks they’re designated.

• Unity of command: This refers to the assertion that employees must

get orders from only one immediate supervisor and be accountable to
that person only.

• Subordination of individual interest to general interests: There must

be harmony between the interests of the individual and the organization,
although the organizational interest should be given priority since it will
bring rewards for the individual.

• Centralization: According to this principle, the topmost level of authority

should be centralized to the top level of management, who has the
power to make the most important decisions in an organization.

• Order: This principle asserts that for an organization to run smoothly,

the right man must be in the right job and that therefore every material
and employee should be given a proper place.

• Stability of tenure: According to this principle, employees must have

job security to be efficient.

• Espirit de corps: This refers to the belief that there must be a unified
team contribution and that cooperation is always greater than the
aggregate of individual performances.

3. Bureaucratic Management Theory

 Developed by Max Weber, bureaucratic management theory focuses on

structuring organizations in a hierarchy so there are clear rules of governance.

 His principles for creating this system include a chain of command, clear
division of labor, separation of personal and organizational assets of the owner,
strict and consistent rules and regulations, meticulous recordkeeping and
documentation, and the selection and promotion of employees based on their
performance and qualifications.

 This theory has played a key role in establishing standards and procedures that
are at the core of most organizations today.

4. Human Relations Theory

 This theory was developed by Elton Mayo, who conducted experiments

designed to improve productivity that laid the foundation for the human relations
movement. His focus was on changing working conditions like lighting, break
times and the length of the workday. Every change he tested was met with an
improvement in performance. 1
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  Ultimately, he concluded that the improvements weren’t due to the changes but
the result of the researchers paying attention to the employees and making
them feel valued.

 These experiments gave rise to the theory that employees are more motivated
by personal attention and being part of a group than they are by money or even
working conditions.

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5. Systems Management Theory

 This theory asserts that businesses consist of multiple components that must
work in harmony for the larger system to function optimally. The organization’s
success, therefore, depends on synergy, interdependence and interrelations
between subsystems.

 According to this theory, employees are the most important components of a

company, and departments, workgroups and business units are all additional
crucial elements for success.

 According to this theory, managers should evaluate patterns and events within
the organization to determine the best management approach. They need to
collaborate and work together on programs to ensure success.

6. Contingency Management Theory

 Developed by Fred Fiedler, this theory’s primary focus is that no one

management approach works for every organization.

 Fiedler suggested that a leader’s traits were directly related to how effectively
they lead their team. He asserts that there are leadership traits that apply to
every kind of situation and that a leader must be flexible to adapt to a changing
environment.

7. Theory X and Y
 American social psychologist Douglas McGregor introduced X and Y theories in
his book, “The Human Side of Enterprise,” where he concluded that two
different styles of management are guided by their perceptions of team member
motivations. Managers who assume employees are apathetic or dislike their
work use theory X, which is authoritarian.

 Theory Y is used by managers who believe employees are responsible,

committed and self-motivated. This is a participative management style that
gives rise to a more collaborative work environment, whereas theory X leads to
micromanaging.

 He concluded that large organizations may rely on theory X to keep everyone

focused on meeting organizational goals. Smaller businesses, where
employees are part of the decision-making process and where creativity is
encouraged, tend to use theory Y.

 During the Industrial Revolution, it became obvious that the ways companies
operated their businesses had to drastically change. While many people were
in agreement that change was inevitable, pioneers in management theory
differed in how they believed things should change and operate. In this page,
we are going to explore six different management theories, all of which helped
to form the base of management as it is known today. Keep in mind as you
read about each one, that while some parts of the theories may be common
sense to us today, at the time they were developed, they were groundbreaking.
While the Industrial Revolution sparked these new theories, even more
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 Lesson 8. ADMINISTRATION: PRINCIPLES AND CONCEPT

A. General Concept of Administration

Administration relates to managing of different things.The word "administration"

comes from word "minor" and "ministrare" which means “to serve" and” to govern"
accordingly. It is a top level activity, above the management. It deals with executive
and strategic work. Thus, it must incorporate both leadership and vision

Administrating means directing, superintending the execution, using or

conducting of various things. It means, that administration involves setting and
following instructions and service. Which relates to setting up objectives and crucial
policies of every organization.

The administration is focused on the planning and organizing of functions as

well as administrative qualities. So, in summary, both administration and management
are key managerial activities in the company. Administration sets up plans and
strategy which are executed in the management process. Administration is a
decisionmaking function, while management is an executive function. Management is
focused on "doing" because managers get work done under their supervision, while
the administration is focused on "thinking" because it is determining the plans and
policies.

Both management and administration are crucial to the growth of an

organization. Management relates to conducting, controlling and taking charge of the
course of action. The word "management" comes from the word "manes" which
means "to control by hand". It is a middle level activity.

Management involves the achievement of results for which the responsibility

pays the manager. Management also includes involving organization to achieving
objectives with maximum efficiency and responsibility for the result.
Management is the act or function of putting into practice the policies and plans
decided upon by the administration.

Management is inferior to administration, and is focused on motivating and

controlling functions as well as technical abilities and human resources abilities. It
deals with employees.

B. Strategies for Effective Administrative Management

Managing a business or organization is a challenging and complex job. In order

for a company’s administration to succeed, they need to have strategies specific to
their particular employer and workplace. If you are looking for strategies that can help
improve administrative management, we can help.

Administration refers to the process of running an organisation, office or 1

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 Administration refers to the process of running an organisation, office or
business. This includes creating rules & regulations, making decisions, management
of operations, creating organisation of staff/employees/people to direct activities
towards achieving a common goal or objective.

 Administrative management

 The term “administrative management” refers to the act of running and

maintaining a business or organization.

 The core objective of administrative management is to create a formal

structure that facilitates success for a particular business or organization.
Administrative management employees create a hierarchy of authority,
decide on their key functions, assign the different areas of responsibilities
and divide labor across the company’s departments.

 Theories of administrative management

 The concept of what effective administrative management looks like has evolved
overtime as different theories were created and applied. Here are some of the
most well-known theories of effective administrative management:

1. James D. Mooney’s Administrative Management Theory

 James D. Mooney was an engineer and corporate executive. You may know
him as one of the early leaders in managerial theory. He identified three key
principles that make organizations distinctive social entities. These include:
• Coordination
• Hierarchy
• Functional differentiation

 Based on this foundation, Mooney, along with Alan Reiley, developed a

systems theory of organization that assigned a process and effect to each
principle. His work is considered critical in the development of administrative
management theory.

2. Luther Gulick and the POSDCORB Theory

 POSDCORB is an acronym widely used in the field of management and public
administration that reflects the classic view of organizational theory.

 It appeared most prominently in a 1937 paper by Luther Gulick (in a set edited
by himself and Lyndall Urwick). However, he first presented the concept in
1935.[2] Initially, POSDCORB was envisioned in an effort to develop public
service professionals. In Gulick's own words, the elements are as follows:
Planning, Organizing, Staffing, Directing, Co-Ordinating, Reporting and
Budgeting.

 Luther Gulick, an American political scientist, was an expert in public

administration. He created the acronym “POSDCORB” which stands for:
• Planning
• Organizing
• Staffing
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• Directing
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• Coordinating
• Reporting
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 • Budgeting

 Gulick's "Notes on the Theory of Organization" further defines the patterns of

POSDCORB. That document explains how portions of an executive's workload
may be delegated, and that some of the elements can be organized as
subdivisions of the executive depending on the size and complexity of the
enterprise.

 This essentially refers to the various steps or stages involved in a typical

administrative process. POSDCORB can be explained in detail below:

1. Planning: This essentially refers to establishing a broad sketch of the work to

be completed and the procedures incorporated to implement them.

2. Organizing: Organizing involves formally classifying, defining and

synchronizing the various sub-processes or subdivisions of the work to be
done.

3. Staffing: This involves recruiting and selecting the right candidates for the job
and facilitating their orientation and training while maintaining a favorable work
environment.

4. Directing: This entails decision making and delegating structured instructions

and orders to execute them.

5. Coordinating: This basically refers to orchestrating and interlinking the various

components of the work.

6. Reporting: Reporting involves regularly updating the superior about the

progress or the work related activities. The information dissemination can be
through records or inspection.
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7. Budgeting: Budgeting involves all the activities that under Auditing,
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CCJ 2020 Outcomes Based Module for Character Formation 2

 • Consider a multinational starting an exercise involving a good number of
employees in the workforce. As per POSDCORB, the planning stage
would be doing the thorough research about the number of people
needed, team size, work type etc. Organizing and staffing stages would
be the HR department making a list of people i.e. supervisors and
subordinates who would could execute this role.

• One this is done, as per POSDCORB directing would be giving

instructions and ensuring implementation of the plan as per the
requirement. To ensure a better two way communication, coordinating
plays a pivotal role. Once all this done, the different ways of reporting
are done which ensures accountability and responsibility of the team.
Finally, the budget to be allocated is studied. In this way, POSDCORB
can be used for better management.

 Under Organizing, Gulick emphasized the division and specialization of labor

in a manner that would increase efficiency. Yet Gulick observed that there were
limitations. Based on his practical experience, he carefully articulated the many
factors.

 Luther Gulick, one of the Brownlow Committee authors, states that his
statement of work of a chief executive is adapted from the functional analysis
elaborated by Henri Fayol in his "Industrial and General Administration".
Indeed, Fayol's work includes fourteen principles and five elements of
management that lay the foundations of Gulick's POSDCORB.

 Gulick described how the organization of workers could be done in four ways.
According to him, these are related and may be multi-level. Specifically, they
are:

• By the purpose the workers are serving, such as furnishing water, providing
education, or controlling crime. Gulick lists these in his organizational tables
as vertical organizations.
• By the process the workers are using, such as engineering, doctoring,
lawyering, or statistics. Gulick lists these in his organizational tables as
horizontal organizations.
• By the clientele or material: the persons or things being dealt with, such as
immigrants, veterans, forests, mines, or parks in government; or such as a
department store's furniture department, clothing department, hardware
department, or shoe department in the private sector.
• By the place where the workers do their work.

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  He believed that organizations could be more successful at managing projects
if they approached them using these eight elements. Gulick’s theory is inspired
by Fayol’s 14 principles.

3. Fayol’s Principles of Administrative Management

 Henri Fayol was a theorist who introduced 14 principles of administrative
management based on his experience as an engineer and a director of a
mining company in the 1800s. Fayol’s 14 principles are considered to be one of
the earliest theories of administrative management.

 Fayol's fourteen principles of management are as follows:

• Division of Work: The division of work principle declares that staffs function better
when assigned tasks according to their specialties.
• Authority and Responsibility: This principle proposes the requirement for
managers or manager like authority in order to effectively direct subordinates to
perform their jobs while still being held accountable for their conduct.
• Discipline: The discipline principle supports strict and clearly defined rules and
regulations in the workplace to ensure professional employee behavior and order.
• Unity of Command: The unity of command doctrine proclaims that employees
should only receive command and report to one administrator or boss-like
authority figure.
• Unity of Direction: The unity of direction principle states that there should only be
one plan, one objective and one director head for each specific plan.
• Subordination of Individual Interest to General Interest: The subordination of
Individual interest to general interest principle declares that the interests and
objectives of the organization overrides the interests of any employee,
management staff, or any group.
• Remuneration of Personnel: The remuneration of personnel principle deems that
both staff and management salary should be fairly earned, justifiable and no party
should be deceived.
• Centralization: The centralization principle advocates that managerial decision
making should be centralized with orders being delivered from top tier
management to the middle management, where the orders are arranged and then
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clarified for the line staff to execute.
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• Scalar Chain (line of authority with peer level communication): The scalar chain 1eg
principle contends that communication within the organization should only be one a
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CCJ 2020 Outcomes Based Module for Character Formation 2

 uninterrupted vertical flow of communication and any other type of communication
should only occur in times of emergencies and when approved by a manager.
• Order: The order principle can be interpreted in either of the two ways; some
believe this principle refers to giving every material in the organization its right
position while other believe it means delegating the right job to the right employee.
• Equity: The equity principle proclaims that managers should be fair and impartial
to their staff but the relationship should still be in compliance with the principle of
subordination of individual interest to general.
• Stability of Tenure of Personnel: The stability of tenure of personnel principle
states that management should employ the right staff and properly train them in
hopes of retaining their employment for a long time and benefiting the organization
through experience and expertise.
• Initiative: The initiative principle refers to the management and their creativity and
their ability to implement them within the organization to ensure growth and
success in the organization.
• Esprit de Corps: The Esprit de Corps principle believes that organizations should
promote high morale and unity to retain the best employees for lengthy periods of
time.

C. Essential Skills for Administrative Management

 An administrator is a person who directs the activities of their team or

employees and undertakes the responsibility to achieve the objectives of a
particular organization or business.

 If you want to improve administrative management in your workplace, you will

need the administrators to exhibit some key skills. These include:

1. Technical skills
 Today’s business environment is dominated by technology. A successful
administrator needs to understand and be proficient in the relevant
technologies for their specific segment. This means that the administrator
must understand that technology and know how to use and apply it within
their particular discipline.

2. Human skills
 Technical skill is related to working with things or applications, but human
skill is related to working with people. This skill encompasses how an
administrator interacts with their subordinates, equals, and superiors. A
good administrator should have the skills to understand the people they
work with, be receptive to their point of views and perceptions, understand
their expectations and identify their strengths and areas of weakness.

 Human skills also include the ability to communicate well and to understand
and be sensitive to the needs and feelings of the people you work with or
manage.

3. Conceptual skills
 This is the ability to see an organization and know how each part works and
how it relates to other functions. This helps the administrator monitor proper 1
coordination because in most cases, the proper running of one process 1
depends on other processes. 1eg
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CCJ 2020 Outcomes Based Module for Character Formation 2

  In addition, conceptual skills allow the administrator to better understand
where they fit in the industry, the economic and market forces that affect
their segment, and the role political and social forces can play towards the
success or failure of their organization.

D. Effective Administrative Management Strategies

 Strategies for effective administrative management

- Some key strategies for effective administrative management include:

1. Budget control and cost management

- This is critical for the smooth operation of any organization. A successful
administrative manager must have a strategy in place to administer a
budget, manage risk and report any variances.
- A sub-strategy of budget control would also include the implementation
of cost improvement strategies such as automation, waste elimination
and monitoring productivity.

2. Change control and management

- It is always a challenge to manage change, not just at the team level but
at a functional level. There needs to be an administrative strategy in
place to manage the process of change, to evaluate that change, budget
for it, implement it and ensure it is accepted throughout the different
departments of an organization.

3. Delegation
- This is a basic necessity for the administrative side of any business
operation. If you want your business to run smoothly, assign
responsibilities within the team. You also have to specify the levels of
authority so that tasks are completed on time by those who are best
qualified to do so.

4. Goal setting
- This is a company-wide strategy but one that requires input from the
entire administration. There has to be a strategy that outlines a clear
action plan for the employees and states specific targets.

- Most organizations follow the SMART methodology for setting goals:

specific, measurable, achievable, relevant and time-bound.

5. Leadership development
- Effective administrative management includes a strategy to promote
leaders from within, and this will require developing the abilities of
existing team members and honing their skills.

- Leadership development is closely associated with succession planning,

and both are very important for any organization.
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6. Performance management 1
- Performance reviews play an important role in any organization. A good 1eg
administrative management strategy would entail measures that provide

CCJ 2020 Outcomes Based Module for Character Formation 2

 feedback and direction to team members so that everyone knows of
their value and is aligned towards achieving the same targets.

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 7. Problem management
- Every business, big or small, faces challenges and setbacks.
Administrative management often takes responsibility for identifying
those problems, investigating the cause of the problems and proposing
solutions to fix not just the problem itself, but the consequences it
created.

8. Setting standards
- An organization typically functions on the principle of providing value to
its stakeholders. To do so, there must be a set of standards in place to
ensure that the organization’s products and/or services are up to the
mark and meet acceptable standards. Enforcing these standards should
be one of the highest priorities of a company.

9. Team building
- If you want to succeed, you will do so by using your people. To do that,
implement team building strategies so that your team remains motivated.

- Team-building activities are also important for developing team

relationships and company loyalty.

10. Transparency
- One role of administrative management is to provide accurate
information to the employees and the public. All reports should be
candid, and there should be no practices in place that would require
hiding anything from the core team members or from your clients.

 Benefits of Implementing Strong Administrative Management Strategies

 Organizations now understand the important role effective administrative
management can play in the successful operation of a business. Some key
benefits of implementing strong administrative management strategies include:

1. Healthy financial situation

 An effective administrative management strategy to ensure that the company’s
finances are managed in an efficient manner so that expenses remain under
control and within budget. There is no unnecessary wasting of money or
resources, and the company’s financial documents are in perfect order. If these
areas are properly managed, a company’s cash flow remains steady.

2. Maximum productivity
 Good administrative management always uses the strength of the team. This
includes identifying which team members will be more successful at performing
a certain task. By capitalizing on the strength of each team member, there is
less mismanaging of time, greater productivity, faster results and higher
motivation levels within the team.

3. Facilitating achievement of goals

 A good strategy always supports the primary goals of an organization.
Administrative management is critical in creating efficient processes and their
implementation. The purpose of every project, policy and action within a
company should be to reach an established goal. 2
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CCJ 2020 Outcomes Based Module for Character Formation 2

4. Maximum employee and customer satisfaction
 Efficient management will lead to a proper distribution of work and increased
motivation among employees. When employees are motivated, their
performance will be better, which will lead to happy clients and increased
customer satisfaction.

5. Data-based decisions
 An effective administrative management strategy will never be based on a
whim or assumption. it will be designed based on data related to the business
processes. Any decisions that are made should be based on past and current
information and future goals.

 More tips for effective administrative management

- Here are some final tips for effective strategic management:

1. Plan strategically
 For effective administrative management, it is imperative that the administrative
management team knows the strategic objectives of the organization. When
this happens, processes and functions that are implemented within the
organization will directly affect the achievement of those goals.

2. Focus on all processes

 A good administrative management strategy will ensure that each process is
designed for maximum output. Issues and problems related to business
processes should be identified early and addressed quickly to avoid losses or
delays.

3. Evaluate company performance

 Administration is a day-to-day function. Effective administrative management
will require regular evaluation of an organization’s performance.

 This can be done through biweekly, weekly, monthly or quarterly meetings,

depending on the type of industry you work in and the competition. Monitoring a
company’s performance, its progress and its key functions is imperative to the
success of administrative management and the organization itself.

4. Prioritize communication
 Many companies fail because of ineffective communication because it has the
potential to destroy the functioning of a business, the motivation level of its
employees and the satisfaction rate of its customers.

 A lack of communication can also lead to wrong and uninformed decisions

which can often turn out to be disastrous for a business. If you want to succeed
in administrative management, you will need to communicate well with your
employees, your supervisors and your customers.

Administrative management is the key to ensure the smooth operation of a

business, and that is why administrative managers are required to have a broad
understanding of all stages of the management process. There is no one strategy that
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makes administrative management complete. Effective administrative management 1
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requires the implementation of multiple strategies that are based on the individual
organization’s mission, vision and goals.

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