Module-3 Biomechanics

Definition of biomechanics:
Biomechanics is the study of the mechanical principles of living organisms, specifically focusing
on how forces interact with the body to produce movement, maintain stability, and perform
various functions. It combines principles of physics, anatomy, and engineering to analyse how
muscles, bones, tendons, and ligaments work together to create motion, absorb forces, and
support the body in both everyday activities and specialized movements, like sports or
rehabilitation exercises. Through biomechanics, we can understand, improve, and optimize
human movement and reduce injury risk.

Principles of Biomechanics:
The principles of biomechanics are foundational concepts that explain how forces and
movements interact within the human body. They are essential for analyzing, understanding, and
optimizing human movement in daily life, sports, rehabilitation, and ergonomics. Here are the
core principles:
1. The Principle of Balance and Stability: Stability is key to maintaining control during
movements. This principle relates to the body's ability to maintain its center of mass
within its base of support. Factors like body position, mass distribution, and base width
influence stability. For instance, widening your stance increases balance and stability,
useful in activities requiring strong footing.
2. The Principle of Force: Force is a push or pull exerted on an object, and in biomechanics,
it explains how muscles generate the force needed for movement. Newton’s laws of
motion apply here, particularly the second law, which links force to mass and acceleration
(F = ma). Understanding force production helps in training programs, enabling stronger
and more efficient movement.
3. The Principle of Leverage: The human body uses bones as levers and joints as pivot
points to amplify force. Levers help muscles move heavier loads with less effort by
altering the length of the lever arm. This principle is crucial in strength training and
understanding joint mechanics to prevent injury.
4. The Principle of Motion: Motion in biomechanics refers to how the body or its parts
move in space. It includes concepts of linear (straight-line) and angular (rotational)
motion. Analyzing motion helps optimize movement patterns, reduce energy
expenditure, and improve technique.
5. The Principle of Momentum: Momentum is the product of an object's mass and its
velocity, playing a role in how easily an object can be stopped or redirected. In
biomechanics, conserving momentum is important in sports and daily activities where
energy-efficient movements are desirable.
6. The Principle of Force Absorption: When forces impact the body, like during landing
from a jump, the body absorbs force through joint flexion and muscle engagement.
Proper force absorption is essential to reduce injury risk, as muscles, tendons, and
ligaments absorb shock and decrease impact on joints.
 7. The Principle of Coordination and Timing: Effective movement requires the body’s
muscles to coordinate in sequence and with precise timing. This principle helps explain
how complex movements—like swinging a bat or dancing—are efficiently executed
through muscle coordination and neural timing.
8. The Principle of Range of Motion: The degree of movement allowed at a joint impacts
performance and efficiency. Optimizing range of motion can improve flexibility and
prevent injuries, as it allows joints to move fully without strain.
Together, these principles form the foundation of biomechanical analysis, aiding in performance
enhancement, injury prevention, and understanding the mechanics behind every human
movement.

Normal Human Movement:

Normal human movement results from a coordinated interaction between the nervous,
muscular, and skeletal systems. The musculoskeletal system, composed of bones, muscles,
tendons, and ligaments, enables movement. Bones provide structure and act as levers, while
muscles contract to generate force. Tendons transmit this force from muscles to bones, allowing
movement at the joints, with ligaments stabilizing joint alignment.
The nervous system plays a crucial role by sending signals from the brain to muscles, directing
when and how to contract. This precise timing and control allow for smooth, purposeful
movement. Sensory feedback, like touch, balance, and proprioception (awareness of body
position), continually updates the brain, helping to adjust movements in real-time for balance
and coordination.
Gravity and ground reaction forces also influence normal movement, especially during walking
or running, by providing a counterforce that propels the body forward. The body adapts to these
forces, maintaining control and conserving energy.
Efficient movement depends on good posture, muscle balance, and proper joint alignment.
When these elements work together, the body moves smoothly and efficiently, allowing us to
perform daily activities with ease while minimizing the risk of injury.
Force-vector of body
The concept of force vectors is fundamental to understanding human movement. A force vector
represents the direction and magnitude of a force acting on the body, which influences how we
initiate, control, and maintain movement.
In human biomechanics, force vectors are generated by muscle contractions that produce
movement at bones and joints. Each vector has two main components: magnitude (the amount
of force) and direction. Together, these dictate the specific way a body part will move. For
instance, when we walk, force vectors created by the leg muscles propel us forward, while other
muscles work to stabilize the body and maintain balance.
Gravity and ground reaction forces are key external influences on these vectors. Gravity pulls us
downward, and the body must generate opposing force vectors to stand, move, or lift objects.
Ground reaction force, the upward force exerted by the ground on our feet, also aids forward
propulsion as we walk or run.
The alignment and balance of force vectors are essential for efficient, coordinated movement.
When force vectors are controlled properly, they reduce the risk of strain or injury and enable
smooth and effective movements, which are crucial in activities ranging from daily tasks to athletic
performance.

Types of forces apply on human body:

Various types of forces act on the human body, influencing movement, balance, and physical
performance. These forces, both internal and external, play a crucial role in biomechanics and
daily activities.
1. Gravitational Force
• Gravity constantly pulls the body toward the ground, affecting posture, balance, and
energy expenditure. Muscles work to counteract gravity, especially in movements like
standing or lifting.
2. Muscular Force
• Generated by muscle contractions, this internal force moves the bones and joints. For
example, when lifting an object, muscles in the arms and legs apply force to counteract
the weight of the object, allowing movement.
3. Ground Reaction Force (GRF)
• This is the force exerted by the ground in response to body weight. When we walk or
run, the ground pushes back with an equal and opposite force, propelling the body
forward.
4. Frictional Force
• Friction between the feet and ground provides grip and stability, essential for activities
like walking or running. Without adequate friction, movement control would be
challenging.
5. Inertial Force
• This force resists changes in movement. For example, when a person suddenly stops
running, the body tends to continue moving forward due to inertia, requiring muscular
effort to counteract it.
These forces interact to influence movement patterns, stability, and performance in daily life and
sports. Understanding them is essential for injury prevention and optimal physical function.

Biomechanic energies:
In biomechanics, energy and kinematics are fundamental concepts for understanding movement
and body mechanics. Two key types of energy—potential and kinetic—interact with kinematic
principles to create and analyze motion.
Potential energy is stored energy, often in the form of gravitational potential energy due to an
object’s height and mass. This type of energy is essential in biomechanics; for instance, when a
sprinter crouches, potential energy is stored in muscles and tendons. Elastic potential energy also
comes into play when muscles stretch, allowing for recoil movements like jumping.
Kinetic energy, the energy of motion, results when potential energy is released. It’s essential in
biomechanics, as each body part in motion—limbs, muscles, and joints—contributes to the overall
kinetic energy of the system.
Kinematics, meanwhile, is the study of motion itself, focusing on parameters like speed, velocity,
acceleration, and joint angles, without considering the forces causing them. By analyzing
kinematic data, biomechanics can measure how energy is transferred and utilized in movement
patterns.
Finally, chemical and thermal energy also affect biomechanics. Chemical energy from nutrients
fuels muscle contractions, while thermal energy, a byproduct, can impact performance efficiency.
Together, energy and kinematics provide insight into how our bodies generate, transform, and
control movement.

Movement of angles:
Movement angles refer to the angles formed between bones or body segments during motion.
These angles are essential in biomechanics, as they influence the efficiency, balance, and
effectiveness of movement in both daily activities and athletic performance. Proper control over
movement angles allows for optimal muscle engagement, reduces stress on joints, and minimizes
the risk of injury.
Each joint in the body has a range of possible movement angles, which are guided by its structure
and the surrounding muscles, ligaments, and tendons. For example, in walking or running, the
knee angle changes significantly as the leg moves forward and backward, impacting stride length
and speed. Similarly, the angle of the elbow during lifting determines the force and muscle groups
involved in the movement.
Movement angles are especially important in high-performance sports and rehabilitation.
Athletes often train to optimize joint angles for maximum power output, while in physical
therapy, precise angle adjustments are made to enhance recovery and function. Poor alignment
or inappropriate movement angles can lead to inefficient movement patterns, unnecessary strain,
and a higher risk of injury. Therefore, understanding and controlling movement angles is
essential for safe and effective physical activity, improving both performance and longevity in
joint health.

Types of Movement of angles for human body:

The human body can create various movement angles at its joints, allowing for a range of motion
essential for daily activities and athletic performance. These movement angles are classified into
different types based on the direction and nature of movement:
1. Flexion and Extension:
o Flexion decreases the angle between two body parts (e.g., bending the elbow or
knee).
o Extension increases the angle, returning it to the anatomical position (e.g.,
straightening the arm or leg).
2. Abduction and Adduction:
o Abduction moves a limb away from the midline of the body (e.g., raising the arms
or legs to the side).
o Adduction brings the limb back toward the midline (e.g., lowering the arms back
down).

3. Rotation:
o Internal (or medial) rotation turns a limb toward the body’s center, such as
rotating the thigh inward.
o External (or lateral) rotation turns it outward, such as turning the arm outward at
the shoulder.
4. Circumduction:
o This is a circular movement that combines flexion, extension, abduction, and
adduction (e.g., moving the arm in a circle at the shoulder joint).
5. Dorsiflexion and Plantarflexion:
o Dorsiflexion decreases the angle at the ankle joint by lifting the foot upward.
o Plantarflexion increases the angle by pointing the toes downward.
These types of movement angles enable the body to perform complex and coordinated actions,
crucial for both efficiency and injury prevention in movement.

Muscle contraction-relaxation:
Muscle contraction and relaxation are essential processes that enable movement, stability, and
various bodily functions. Contraction occurs when muscle fibers are activated and generate force,
while relaxation is the return to a resting state, allowing the muscle to lengthen.
The process begins with a signal from the nervous system. When a motor neuron sends an
impulse, it releases a neurotransmitter called acetylcholine at the neuromuscular junction,
triggering a series of chemical reactions. This leads to the release of calcium ions within the
muscle fiber, which bind to the protein troponin, allowing actin and myosin (two key proteins)
to interact. Actin and myosin then form cross-bridges, and through a cycle of binding and pulling,
they slide past each other, shortening the muscle and producing contraction.
Once the impulse stops, calcium ions are pumped back into storage areas in the muscle, breaking
the actin-myosin bonds and allowing the muscle fibers to return to their relaxed state. This cycle
of contraction and relaxation is necessary for movement, maintaining posture, and supporting
circulation and respiration.
Proper muscle function relies on a balance between contraction and relaxation. Without
adequate relaxation, muscles may become tense or fatigued, leading to cramps, strains, or
compromised performance.
Muscle Contraction Steps:
1. Nerve Signal: The process begins when the brain sends a signal through a motor neuron
to the muscle.
2. Release of Acetylcholine: When the nerve signal reaches the muscle, it triggers the release
of a chemical called acetylcholine at the junction where the nerve meets the muscle.
3. Activation of Muscle Fibers: Acetylcholine binds to receptors on the muscle fibers,
causing an electrical impulse that travels along the muscle cell's surface.
4. Release of Calcium Ions: This electrical impulse signals the release of calcium ions from
storage areas in the muscle.
5. Interaction of Actin and Myosin: Calcium ions bind to proteins in the muscle, allowing
two proteins called actin and myosin to interact. Myosin heads attach to actin, pulling and
sliding them together.
6. Shortening of the Muscle: As actin and myosin slide past each other, the muscle shortens,
causing contraction.

Muscles contraction

Muscle Relaxation Steps:

1. End of Nerve Signal: When the nerve signal stops, acetylcholine is no longer released.
2. Calcium Ion Reabsorption: Calcium ions are pumped back into storage, away from the
actin and myosin.
3. Breaking of Cross-Bridges: Without calcium, actin and myosin can no longer bind,
allowing the muscle to relax.
4. Lengthening of the Muscle: The muscle fibers return to their original length, resulting in
relaxation.

Muscles relaxation
These steps work together to allow muscles to contract for movement and then relax for
rest, ensuring smooth and coordinated body functions.

Posture:
Posture is the way we position our body while standing, sitting, or moving. It involves the
alignment of bones, muscles, joints, and ligaments, allowing us to maintain balance and
carry out activities comfortably and efficiently.
Good Posture
Good posture refers to a balanced alignment where the body is upright and well-
supported with minimal strain on muscles and joints. In a good posture:
• The spine maintains its natural curves (cervical, thoracic, and lumbar).
• The head is aligned with the shoulders.
• Shoulders are relaxed, not slumped or rounded.
• Weight is evenly distributed on both feet when standing. Good posture helps reduce
strain on muscles and ligaments, improves breathing, enhances circulation, and can
prevent back, neck, and joint pain. It also supports efficient movement and better physical
performance.
Bad Posture
Bad posture, or poor posture, is when the body is misaligned or slouched, placing excess
strain on muscles, ligaments, and joints. Common examples include:
• Slouching or rounding the shoulders.
• Forward head position (head juts forward from shoulders).
• Arching or over-rounding the lower back. Poor posture can lead to discomfort, muscle
tension, fatigue, and even long-term issues such as back and neck pain. It may also impact
breathing and digestion by compressing organs and affecting circulation.
Maintaining good posture supports overall health and comfort, while bad posture can
contribute to pain and physical limitations over time.

Posture – Static & Dynamic

Posture refers to the alignment and positioning of the body, and it can be classified into
two types: static and dynamic posture.
Types of postures:
Inactive posture: Inactive posture refers to a body position held with minimal muscle
engagement, often associated with relaxation or rest, like sitting slouched or lying down.
Active posture: Active posture involves muscle engagement to maintain alignment and
stability, often seen in standing, sitting upright, or performing activities that require
balance and core support.
1. Static postures
2. Dynamic postures
Static Posture
Static posture is the position the body holds when at rest, such as when sitting, standing,
or lying down. Good static posture means that the body is aligned so that muscles, joints,
and ligaments bear minimal strain. For instance, in a balanced standing position, the spine
maintains its natural curves, the shoulders are relaxed, and the weight is evenly distributed
on both feet. Proper static posture reduces the risk of muscular fatigue and joint wear,
while poor posture can lead to muscle tension, discomfort, and potential long-term issues
like back pain.
Dynamic Posture
Dynamic posture, on the other hand, refers to body alignment during movement, such
as walking, running, bending, or lifting. Good dynamic posture involves moving with
proper form and control, so the muscles and joints are in the best positions to function
efficiently. For example, maintaining a stable core and avoiding slouching while walking
are aspects of good dynamic posture. Proper dynamic posture minimizes strain on
muscles and joints, enhances performance, and prevents injury.
Both static and dynamic postures are essential for overall health, as they support physical
function, comfort, and longevity. Practicing good posture habits in both states promotes
better movement, balance, and well-being.

Ideal and abnormal posture

Ideal posture is a balanced body alignment that minimizes strain on muscles, ligaments,
and joints, allowing for efficient and pain-free movement. In ideal posture, the spine
maintains its natural curves (cervical, thoracic, and lumbar), the head is aligned over the
 shoulders, and the shoulders are relaxed but not rounded. The pelvis is neutral, and
weight is evenly distributed on both feet while standing. Ideal posture supports good
balance, reduces wear and tear on joints, and promotes effective breathing and
circulation. It also conserves energy, as muscles don’t have to work excessively to keep
the body stable.
Abnormal posture, also called poor or faulty posture, deviates from this ideal
alignment, leading to uneven strain on certain muscles and joints. Examples of
abnormal posture include slouched or rounded shoulders, a forward head position,
excessive arching or flattening of the lower back, or tilting of the pelvis. Such postures
can be caused by prolonged sitting, repetitive movements, poor ergonomics, or muscle
imbalances. Over time, abnormal posture can lead to muscle fatigue, joint discomfort,
headaches, and even chronic pain in the neck, back, and shoulders. It may also impair
breathing and digestion by compressing internal organs, impacting overall health and
mobility.

Types of abnormal posture

Abnormal postures are deviations from ideal body alignment and can lead to
discomfort, fatigue, and long-term health issues. Here are some common types of
abnormal posture:
1. Kyphosis:
o Excessive rounding of the upper back, often called "hunchback" posture.
o Can result from prolonged slouching, weak back muscles, or conditions like
osteoporosis.
o Causes the shoulders and head to slump forward, leading to neck and back pain.
2. Lordosis:
o Also known as "swayback," it involves an excessive inward curve of the lower
back.
o Common in people with weak abdominal muscles or those who sit for long
periods.
o Can cause lower back pain and discomfort due to increased pressure on the
spine.
3. Scoliosis:
o A sideways curvature of the spine, forming an "S" or "C" shape when viewed
from behind.
o Often diagnosed in childhood, but can develop in adults as well.
o Can lead to uneven shoulders or hips and, in severe cases, breathing difficulties.
4. Forward Head Posture:
o The head juts forward, placing strain on the neck and upper back muscles.
 o Commonly caused by prolonged screen use and poor desk ergonomics.
o Can result in neck pain, tension headaches, and shoulder discomfort.
5. Flat Back:
o A reduction in the natural lower back curve, making the back appear flat.
o Often caused by muscle imbalances or prolonged sitting.
o Leads to difficulty standing upright for long periods and may cause back pain.

Understanding and addressing these postural issues can help prevent further health
complications, improve movement efficiency, and reduce discomfort.

Practical: Stepping- Lifting- Sit-Stand

Lifting :
Sitting postures

Standing posture