Chapter 3: Kinship, Caste, and Class

Early Societies (c. 600 BCE - 600 CE)

Textual Traditions and Social Understanding

 Historians often use textual traditions to understand the changes in economic and political life processes.

 Some texts lay down norms of social behaviour; others describe and occasionally comment on a wide range of
social situations and practices.

Kinship and Marriage

Finding Out About Families

 Families are usually parts of larger networks of people defined as relatives or, to use a more technical term, kinfolk.

 While familial ties are often regarded as 'natural' and based on blood, they are defined in many ways.

 For instance, some societies regard cousins as being blood relations, whereas others do not.

The Mahabharata

 Mahabharata is a colossal epic consisting of over 100,000 verses that depict a wide range of social categories and
situations.

 It was composed over a period of about 1000 years (from c. 500 BCE onwards). Some of the stories it contains may
have been in circulation even earlier.

 The Mahabharata is a story about changing kinship relations. It describes a feud over land and power between two
groups of cousins, the Kauravas and the Pandavas, who belonged to a single ruling family, that of the Kurus, a
lineage dominating one of the Janapadas.

 The central story reinforced the idea of patriliny—sons could claim the resources (including the throne in the case
of kings) of their fathers when the latter died.

 The concern with patriliny was not unique to ruling families. It is evident in mantras in ritual texts such as the
Rigveda.

The Critical Edition of the Mahabharata

 A team of scholars initiated the task of preparing a critical edition of the Mahabharata.

 The team worked out a method of comparing verses from each manuscript.

 The project took 47 years to complete. Two things became apparent:

o There were several common elements in the Sanskrit versions of the story, evident in manuscripts found all
over the subcontinent, from Kashmir and Nepal in the north to Kerala and Tamil Nadu in the south.

o There was also enormous regional variation.

 Scholars also studied other traditions in Pali, Prakrit, and Tamil, which indicates that the ideas in normative Sanskrit
texts were broadly recognised as authoritative.

Rules of Marriage

 While sons were important for the continuity of the patrilineage, daughters were viewed differently.

 Daughters had no claims to household resources.

 This system is called exogamy (literally, marrying outside).

 The lives of girls and women from high-status families were carefully regulated to ensure they married at the right
time and to the "right" person.

The 'Right' Occupation

 The Dharmasutras and Dharmashastras contained rules about ideal occupations for the four varnas.
 From c. 500 BCE, these norms were compiled in texts known as Dharmasutras and later in the Manusmriti
(compiled between c. 200 BCE and 200 CE).

 Brahmanas: To study and teach the Vedas.

 Kshatriyas: Engage in warfare, protect people, and administer justice.

 Vaishyas: Engage in agriculture, pastoralism, and trade.

 Shudras: Serve the three "higher" varnas.

Types of Marriages

 Endogamy: Marriage within a unit (kin group, caste, locality).

 Exogamy: Marriage outside the unit.

 Polygyny: A man having several wives.

 Polyandry: A woman having several husbands.

Non-Kshatriya Kings

 According to the Shastras, only Kshatriyas could be kings.

 However, many important ruling lineages had different origins.

 The Mauryas' background has been widely debated.

 The Shungas and Kanvas, successors of the Mauryas, were Brahmanas.

 Rulers like the Shakas (from Central Asia) were considered mlechchhas (outsiders/barbarians) by Brahmanas.

The Gotra of Women

 A Brahmanical practice from c. 1000 BCE classified people (especially Brahmanas) by gotras (named after Vedic
seers).

 Two important rules:

o Women were expected to give up their father's gotra and adopt that of their husband.

o Members of the same gotra could not marry.

Importance of Mother

 Satavahana rulers were identified by metronymics (names derived from the mother), reflecting matriliny.
  However, succession to the throne remained patrilineal.

Social Differences: Within and Beyond the Framework of Caste

 Caste refers to a set of hierarchically ordered social categories.

 Dharmasutras and Dharmashastras laid down this order:

o Brahmanas on top, Shudras at the bottom.

 Brahmanas considered some people outside the system as "untouchables".

 Manusmriti laid down the duties of the chandalas:

o Live outside villages

o Use discarded items

o Wear clothes of the dead and iron ornaments

 Historians use non-Brahmanical texts to study if chandalas accepted such degradation.

Jatis and Social Mobility

 In Brahmanical theory, jati, like varna, was based on birth.

 There were only four varnas, but no limit to the number of jatis.

 New groups (e.g., nishadas or occupational groups like goldsmiths) were classified as jatis.

Beyond the Four Varnas: Integration

 Some populations were not influenced by Brahmanical ideas.

 Categories like nishadas (e.g., Ekalavya) are examples.

 Non-Sanskritic speakers were called mlechchhas and looked down upon.

 Still, there was sharing of beliefs and ideas.

Beyond the Four Varnas: Subordination and Conflict

The Search for Convergence

 The Mahabharata includes vivid descriptions of battles, forests, palaces, and settlements.

 Historians suggest that the mention of polyandry (e.g., Draupadi) shows it may have existed among elites.

 Polyandry was and is practiced in the Himalayan region.

A Dynamic Text (Mahabharata)

 The Mahabharata is a dynamic text, written over time.

 It continued to grow even after the Sanskrit version.

 Over time, it was written in various languages through a process of cultural dialogue.
Timeline of Major Textual Traditions

 c. 500 BCE – Ashtadhyayi of Panini (Sanskrit grammar)

 500–200 BCE – Major Dharmasutras (Sanskrit)

 500–100 BCE – Early Buddhist texts including the Tripitaka (Pali)

 c. 500 BCE–400 CE – Ramayana and Mahabharata (Sanskrit)

 100 CE – Charaka and Sushruta Samhitas (Medicine, Sanskrit)

 200 CE onwards – Compilation of the Puranas (Sanskrit)

Beyond Birth: Resources and Status

Gendered Access to Property

 Dharmasutras and Dharmashastras discuss ownership.

 Manusmriti:

o Paternal estate divided equally among sons.

o Eldest son got a special share.

o Women had no claim to this property.

o Women kept gifts from marriage as stridhana ("woman's wealth").

Varna and Access to Property

 Apart from gender, varna was a criterion for wealth access.

 Shudras: Only servitude allowed.

 First three varnas: Many occupations allowed.

 Alternative views (outside Brahmanical texts) challenged varna order.

An Alternative Social Scenario: Sharing Wealth

 In some systems, status was based on wealth.

 Generous men were respected; misers were despised.

Explaining Social Differences: A Social Contract

 Buddhists had a different view of inequality and social rules.

 Sutta Pitaka myth:

o Humans were originally not fully evolved.

o As they became greedy and selfish, society needed kingship.

o Kingship developed by mutual choice, with taxes as payment for services.

Handling Texts: Historians and the Mahabharata

 Historians examine whether texts were in Prakrit, Pali, Tamil, or Sanskrit.

 Mahabharata is in Sanskrit (though also in other languages).

 Historians divide it into:

o Narrative: Stories

o Didactic: Social norms and rules

Authors and Dates

 Original story likely composed by sutas (charioteer-bards) accompanying Kshatriyas.

 Later, Brahmanas took over and wrote it down.

 Between c. 200 BCE – 200 CE: Worship of Lord Vishnu grew; Krishna was identified with Vishnu.

 Between c. 200 – 400 CE: Didactic sections (like those in Manusmriti) were added.