MODULE 6 – PHYSICS 2 (STEM 12)

Electromagnetic Wave

Electromagnetic waves or EM waves are waves that are created as a result of vibrations between an
electric field and a magnetic field. In other words, EM waves are composed of oscillating magnetic and
electric fields.
- electromagnetic radiation refers to the waves of the electromagnetic field, propagating through
space, carrying electromagnetic radiant energy. It includes radio waves, microwaves, infrared,
light, ultraviolet, X-rays, and gamma rays. All of these waves form part of the electromagnetic
spectrum.
- Mechanical waves and electromagnetic waves are two important ways that energy is
transported in the world around us. Waves in water and sound waves in air are two examples of
mechanical waves. Mechanical waves are caused by a disturbance or vibration in matter,
whether solid, gas, liquid, or plasma. Matter that waves are traveling through is called a
medium. Water waves are formed by vibrations in a liquid and sound waves are formed by
vibrations in a gas (air). These mechanical waves travel through a medium by causing the
molecules to bump into each other, like falling dominoes transferring energy from one to the
next. Sound waves cannot travel in the vacuum of space because there is no medium to transmit
these mechanical waves.

LIGHT AS AN ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVE

Light is made of discrete packets of energy called photons. Photons carry momentum, have no mass,
and travel at the speed of light. All light has both particle-like and wave-like properties. How an
instrument is designed to sense the light influences which of these properties are observed. An
instrument that diffracts light into a spectrum for analysis is an example of observing the wave-like
property of light. The particle-like nature of light is observed by detectors used in digital cameras—
individual photons liberate electrons that are used for the detection and storage of the image data.
POLARIZATION
One of the physical properties of light is that it can be polarized. Polarization is a measurement of the
electromagnetic field's alignment. In the figure above, the electric field (in red) is vertically polarized.
Think of a throwing a Frisbee at a picket fence. In one orientation it will pass through, in another it will
be rejected. This is similar to how sunglasses are able to eliminate glare by absorbing the polarized
portion of the light.
DESCRIBING ELECTROMAGNETIC ENERGY
The terms light, electromagnetic waves, and radiation all refer to the same physical phenomenon:
electromagnetic energy. This energy can be described by frequency, wavelength, or energy. All three are
related mathematically such that if you know one, you can calculate the other two. Radio and
microwaves are usually described in terms of frequency (Hertz), infrared and visible light in terms of
wavelength (meters), and x-rays and gamma rays in terms of energy (electron volts). This is a scientific
convention that allows the convenient use of units that have numbers that are neither too large nor too
small.
FREQUENCY
The number of crests that pass a given point within one second is described as the frequency of the
wave. One wave—or cycle—per second is called a Hertz (Hz), after Heinrich Hertz who established the
existence of radio waves. A wave with two cycles that pass a point in one second has a frequency of 2
Hz.
WAVELENGTH

Electromagnetic waves have crests and troughs similar to those of ocean waves. The distance between
crests is the wavelength. The shortest wavelengths are just fractions of the size of an atom, while the
longest wavelengths scientists currently study can be larger than the diameter of our planet!

Light waves across the electromagnetic spectrum behave in similar ways. When a light wave encounters
an object, they are either transmitted, reflected, absorbed, refracted, polarized, diffracted, or scattered
depending on the composition of the object and the wavelength of the light.

- REFLECTION
Reflection is when incident light (incoming light) hits an object and bounces off. Very smooth surfaces
such as mirrors reflect almost all incident light.
The color of an object is actually the wavelengths of the light reflected while all other wavelengths are
absorbed. Color, in this case, refers to the different wavelengths of light in the visible light spectrum
perceived by our eyes. The physical and chemical composition of matter determines which wavelength
(or color) is reflected.

- ABSORPTION

Absorption occurs when photons from incident light hit atoms and molecules and cause them to vibrate.
The more an object's molecules move and vibrate, the hotter it becomes. This heat is then emitted from
the object as thermal energy.
Some objects, such as darker colored objects, absorb more incident light energy than others. For
example, black pavement absorbs most visible and UV energy and reflects very little, while a light-
colored concrete sidewalk reflects more energy than it absorbs. Thus, the black pavement is hotter than
the sidewalk on a hot summer day. Photons bounce around during this absorption process and lose bits
of energy to numerous molecules along the way. This thermal energy then radiates in the form of longer
wavelength infrared energy.
DIFFRACTION

Diffraction is the bending and spreading of waves around an obstacle. It is most pronounced when a
light wave strikes an object with a size comparable to its own wavelength. An instrument called a
spectrometer uses diffraction to separate light into a range of wavelengths—a spectrum. In the case of
visible light, the separation of wavelengths through diffraction results in a rainbow.

SCATTER

Scattering occurs when light bounces off an object in a variety of directions. The amount of scattering
that takes place depends on the wavelength of the light and the size and structure of the object.
The sky appears blue because of this scattering behavior. Light at shorter wavelengths—blue and violet
—is scattered by nitrogen and oxygen as it passes through the atmosphere. Longer wavelengths of light
—red and yellow—transmit through the atmosphere. This scattering of light at shorter wavelengths
illuminates the skies with light from the blue and violet end of the visible spectrum. Even though violet is
scattered more than blue, the sky looks blue to us because our eyes are more sensitive to blue light.

REFRACTION
Refraction is when light waves change direction as they pass from one medium to another. Light travels
slower in air than in a vacuum, and even slower in water. As light travels into a different medium, the
change in speed bends the light. Different wavelengths of light are slowed at different rates, which
causes them to bend at different angles.

Mechanical Waves are waves which propagate through a material medium (solid, liquid, or gas) at a
wave speed which depends on the elastic and inertial properties of that medium. There are two basic
types of wave motion for mechanical waves: longitudinal waves and transverse waves.
 In a longitudinal wave the particle displacement is parallel to the direction of wave propagation.
Real Life Examples of Longitudinal Waves
 Speaking on the microphone. A sound wave is a significant example of a longitudinal wave.
 Clapping.
 Vibrating Drumheads.
 Tsunami Waves. ...
 Earthquake (Seismic-P wave) ...
 Vibration in Window Panels after a Thunder.
 Music Woofers.

In a transverse wave the particle displacement is perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation.
Examples of transverse waves include:
 ripples on the surface of water.
 vibrations in a guitar string.
 a Mexican wave in a sports stadium.
 electromagnetic waves – ex. light waves, microwaves, radio waves.
 seismic S-waves.

DISPERSION OF LIGHT - Dispersion is sometimes called the separation of light into colors, an effect
more properly called angular dispersion.
- White light is made up of ranges of colors of which seven are not seen in a separated pattern.
The splitting up of white light into its constituent colors is called dispersion. In the rainbow you
may not see all the seven colors. It is due to overlapping of colors.
- Dispersion occurs due to the different degrees of refraction experienced by different colors
of light. Light of different colors may travel with the same speed in a vacuum, but they travel at
different speeds in some refracting medium. The speed of violet light is relatively lower than
that of red light.
Scattering and dispersion of light are responsible for many natural phenomena taking place around
us. If they do not occur then very common things won't be visible to us. The sky appears blue because
of scattering of light and in its absence, it would appear colorless.

VIEW : https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ASEdGwpyn58

DOPPLER EFFECT

The Doppler effect or Doppler shift is the change in frequency of a wave in relation to an observer
who is moving relative to the wave source.

VIEW : https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=h4OnBYrbCjY
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kdiHmSWI2Ks
IMAGE FORMATION IN MIRRORS

1. PLANE MIRROR
A plane mirror is a mirror with a flat reflective surface. For light rays striking a plane mirror, the
angle of reflection equals the angle of incidence. The angle of the incidence is the angle
between the incident ray and the surface normal.

*The image formed by a plane mirror is always virtual (meaning that the light rays do not
actually come from the image), upright, and of the same shape and size.

2. CONVEX MIRROR
Convex Mirror is a curved mirror where the reflective surface bulges out towards the light
source. This bulging out surface reflect light outwards and are not used.
*A convex mirror or diverging mirror is a curved mirror in which the reflective surface bulges
towards the light source. Convex mirrors reflect light outwards, therefore they are not used to
focus light. The image is smaller than the object, but gets larger as the object approaches
the mirror.

3. CONCAVE MIRROR
A concave mirror, or converging mirror, has a reflecting surface that is recessed inward (away
from the incident light). Concave mirrors reflect light inward to one focal point. They are used to
focus light.

VIEW: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Hp0PsU6mUGs
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oDNqfxRYQY0

Nearsightedness (myopia) vs. Farsightedness (hyperopia)

Nearsightedness (myopia) is a very common condition in which the light coming into the eye is
not focused properly onto the retina, making it difficult to see objects far away. The condition is
usually caused by an elongation of the eyeball that occurs over time.
Nearsightedness (myopia) is a common vision condition in which you can see objects near to
you clearly, but objects farther away are blurry. It occurs when the shape of your
eye causes light rays to bend (refract) incorrectly, focusing images in front of your retina instead
of on your retina.

Farsightedness (hyperopia) is a common vision condition in which you can see distant objects
clearly, but objects nearby may be blurry. The degree of your farsightedness influences your
focusing ability.
Farsightedness happens when your eyeball grows too short from front to back, or when there
are problems with the shape of your cornea (clear front layer of the eye) or lens (an inner part
of the eye that helps the eye focus).
Astigmatism is an imperfection of the cornea preventing part of it from focusing light onto the
retina. The result is a blurred area within an otherwise clear image. This problem may occur
along with either myopia or hyperopia. These frequent conditions are termed "refractive
errors."