Lecture Notes: Criminological Research and Statistics

1. What is Research?

Before understanding what research is, it's important to clarify what research is not. In
everyday conversations, people often confuse research with simple activities like browsing
the internet, going to a library to gather information, or asking for permission to visit a
friend's house to study. These activities are not research but rather literature review. A
literature review involves reviewing existing materials—books, articles, and research papers
—about a specific topic, such as "types of crime," and summarizing what has already been
said in the field.

Research, on the other hand, is the scientific investigation of a particular phenomenon. In

criminology, it involves carefully studying crime and justice issues through systematic
investigation to uncover new facts or validate existing ones.

Research can be defined as:

 A careful and systematic study of knowledge in the field of criminology or criminal

justice to discover or establish facts or causations of crime (Soriano, 2011).

 The scientific investigation of specifically identified phenomena, whether known or

undiscovered (Dantzker et al., 2018).

2. Types of Problems in Research

Problem: A problem refers to any difficulty or unsatisfactory situation that needs to be

changed (Fraenkel & Wallen, 2006). There are two types of problems in criminological
research:

 Practical Problems: These are real-world issues that we face in everyday life, such as
family conflicts or crime. In criminology, crime itself is a major practical problem as it
poses a danger to society and costs resources.

 Research Problems: These are more abstract and conceptual. Research problems
arise from incomplete knowledge or flawed understanding. For instance, while crime
is a practical problem, the research problem could be about understanding the
causes of crime or the effectiveness of certain policing strategies, such as random
mobile patrols.

3. The Scientific Method and Solving Research Problems

Scientific Method: The scientific method is a step-by-step process used to investigate
research problems. Researchers use this method to generate new knowledge or validate
existing theories in criminology.

Steps in the Scientific Method:

1. Identifying the Problem: The researcher identifies a problem and creates a

hypothesis or argument. For example, the researcher might explore why bomb
threats tend to occur in specific locations at certain times.

2. Research Design: The researcher decides how to collect data (survey, experiment, or
secondary data analysis), who to study, when, and where.

3. Data Collection: The researcher gathers the data needed to answer the research
questions. This could be through surveys, official reports, or secondary data sources.

4. Data Analysis: The researcher analyzes the collected data using statistical methods to
understand patterns and trends.

5. Reporting Results: The researcher writes a report or research paper presenting the
findings, drawing conclusions, and making recommendations based on the analysis.

4. Why Do Research?

Research in criminology is important for several reasons:

 Curiosity: Researchers want to better understand crime and criminal justice

phenomena.

 Social Problems: Many studies aim to address societal issues such as crime, drug
abuse, or police misconduct.

 Theory Testing: Research is conducted to test existing criminological theories and

improve our understanding of crime.

5. Researchers: Who Are They?

Researchers are scientists who apply the scientific method to study criminological problems.
While the term "scientist" is often associated with lab work, anyone using the scientific
method to solve problems can be considered a researcher, including criminology students,
professors, police officers, or even civilians. What matters is the use of the scientific method
to solve a problem.

6. Goals and Purposes of Criminological Research

According to Amante (2013), the primary goals of criminological research are to:

1. Discover new facts about known phenomena.

2. Answer partially solved problems with existing methods.

3. Uncover previously unrecognized substances or elements.

4. Improve existing techniques and develop new products or instruments.

5. Satisfy the curiosity of the researcher.

7. Classifications of Criminological Research

Criminological research can be classified based on several factors:

1. According to Purpose:

o Predictive Research: Forecasts future trends based on data.

o Directive Research: Identifies actions to remedy problems.

o Illuminative Research: Examines how different components of a problem

interact.

2. According to Goal:

o Basic Research: Focuses on theory development, often with little immediate

practical application.

o Applied Research: Uses basic research findings to solve real-world

criminological problems.

o Multipurpose Research: Combines both basic and applied research.

3. According to Level of Investigation:

o Exploratory Research: Seeks to investigate a new problem or area.

o Descriptive Research: Describes relationships between variables.

o Experimental Research: Studies the effect of one variable on another.

o Explanatory Research: Explains the "why" behind observed phenomena.

4. According to the Type of Analysis:

o Analytical Research: Attempts to identify and isolate variables.

o Holistic Research: Focuses on understanding the whole system and its

relationships.
8. Idiographic vs. Nomothetic Approaches

 Idiographic Research: Focuses on an in-depth study of a single case or event.

Findings are specific and cannot be generalized.

 Nomothetic Research: Studies several cases and seeks generalizable patterns.

Findings can be applied to a broader population.

9. Inductive vs. Deductive Reasoning

 Inductive Reasoning: Moves from specific observations to general conclusions. It is

used to develop new theories or propositions.

 Deductive Reasoning: Starts with a general theory or proposition and tests it using
specific data or observations.

10. Research Design

Research Design is the blueprint of the study. It defines the purpose of the research,
identifies the unit of analysis, specifies the research methods, and outlines how data will be
collected and analyzed.

11. Cross-Sectional vs. Longitudinal Studies

 Cross-Sectional Studies: Collect data at one point in time, providing a snapshot of

the phenomenon being studied.

 Longitudinal Studies: Collect data over a longer period of time, allowing researchers
to observe changes and trends.

12. Types of Data Collection Methods

 Quantitative Methods:

o Surveys: Common for gathering data from a sample population.

o Secondary Data Analysis: Using existing data collected by others, such as

crime statistics.

o Experiments: Manipulating variables in a controlled environment to study

cause-and-effect relationships.
  Qualitative Methods:

o Narrative Research: Collects stories from individuals to understand their

experiences.

o Phenomenology: Examines the lived experiences of individuals who have

encountered a similar phenomenon.

o Grounded Theory: Builds a theory based on data gathered from participants.

o Ethnography: Studies the culture of a group over time through fieldwork and
observations.

o Case Study: In-depth study of an individual case or event.

13. Ecological Fallacy and Other Research Pitfalls

 Ecological Fallacy: Misinterpreting group data to make assumptions about

individuals.

 Individualistic Fallacy: Generalizing an individual’s behavior to a group.

 Reductionism: Focusing on a single factor (e.g., economics, biology) while ignoring

other contributing factors.

Conclusion

Criminological research is vital to understanding crime and improving criminal justice

systems. Researchers apply the scientific method to explore problems, test theories, and
generate new knowledge that can influence policies, improve practices, and ultimately
reduce crime. Understanding the steps in research, the different types of research designs,
and the various methods used to collect data is essential for any criminology student.

Lecture Notes: Formulating a Research Problem in Criminological Research

1. What is a Research Problem?

A research problem is the foundation of a research project, and it guides the entire research
process. It is defined as a question or issue that has not yet been fully answered or
understood. Formulating a clear and specific research problem is critical because it
determines the direction of your study and ensures that the data you collect is relevant and
purposeful.

Without a well-defined research problem, researchers may collect irrelevant data or wander
off-topic, making it difficult to draw meaningful conclusions.
2. Steps in Defining a Research Problem

To effectively formulate a research problem, follow these steps:

Step 1: Ask Questions

Start by asking broad questions about the phenomenon you're interested in. These are the
things we do not know yet. In criminology, the focus might be on a specific crime type or a
particular location. For example, if you’re interested in motor vehicle theft (MV theft), your
questions could be:

1. Where do motor vehicle (MV) thefts occur most frequently in Negros Oriental?

2. When do MV thefts tend to happen more often?

3. What types of vehicles are most often stolen?

4. How do offenders typically commit MV thefts?

5. What are the characteristics of MV thieves?

6. What motivates MV thieves?

7. How do the victims of MV theft contribute to the crime?

8. What policing strategies are employed to reduce MV thefts?

9. Does poverty influence the rate of MV theft?

10. Does community cohesion (collective efficacy) reduce the rate of MV theft?

These are just a few examples of questions that arise when exploring MV theft in a specific
area, like Negros Oriental.

Step 2: Eliminate Unrelated or Impractical Questions

Next, filter out questions that are unrealistic or not directly related to your topic. This is an
important step as it refines your research focus.

1. Consider the Purpose: For descriptive studies, you focus on describing a

phenomenon. Hence, explanatory questions (e.g., "Does poverty increase MV
theft?") should be removed, as they aim to explain a phenomenon rather than
describe it.

2. Consider Your Frame of Reference: Your research perspective shapes the types of
questions you explore. For instance, if you're studying patterns of crime from an
environmental criminology perspective (focusing on the interaction of offenders,
targets, and opportunities), questions about social structure (e.g., poverty or
 community efficacy) may not fit into the study unless you plan on using a different
criminological theory like social disorganization theory.

3. Consider Your Topic: Stay focused on your chosen topic. Since your topic is patterns
of crime, questions that stray from this topic should be excluded. For example,
questions about motives (e.g., "What are the motives of MV thieves?") may not fit
your study’s focus.

4. Consider Available Data: For a beginner researcher, using existing data is often the
most feasible option. For example, if the police database contains only location,
time, and type of stolen vehicle, you should narrow down your questions to those
that can be answered with this data, such as "Where do MV thefts occur?" and
"When do these thefts happen?"

Step 3: Write the Problem Statement

After refining your questions, you are ready to craft your problem statement. The problem
statement succinctly outlines the specific research problem you aim to address. It is typically
followed by the research questions that guide the study.

Example Problem Statement for a Study on MV Theft:

"The purpose of this study is to explore the patterns of motor vehicle (MV) theft across
space, time, and targets. Specifically, this study will answer these questions: (a) What are the
hot spots and hot times of MV thefts in Negros Oriental? (b) What are the hot products of
MV theft in the province?"

Research Questions:

 What are the hot spots and hot times of MV theft in Negros Oriental?

 What are the hot products of MV theft in the province?

3. Importance of a Well-Defined Research Problem

A clearly stated research problem provides clarity and direction for the study. It:

 Establishes focus and scope of the research.

 Dictates the research design, including who or what to study, where and when to
collect data, and which methods to use.

 Ensures that data collected serves a purpose, avoiding random or irrelevant data
collection.
A good research problem essentially answers the question: What do we not know that we
need to know?

4. Key Takeaways

 A research problem is not just a question; it's the central focus of the study that
drives your entire research process.

 The scientific method begins with asking questions, and the key is identifying the
things we do not know or have not been fully explored in existing literature.

 Once you have formulated your research problem, you can narrow down your focus
through elimination of unrelated or unrealistic questions and refine it into a clear
problem statement.

 A research problem dictates the design of your study, including the research
questions, methodology, and the way data will be analyzed.

Examples of Problem Statements in Exploratory/Descriptive and Explanatory Research

1. Exploratory/Descriptive Research Problem Statements

Exploratory and descriptive research problem statements focus on understanding patterns

and describing phenomena. These studies often involve identifying what, where, when, and
how aspects of a particular issue without diving into explanations.

Here are examples of problem statements from reputable criminology and criminal justice
journals:

1. Sherman, Gartin & Buerger (1989: 33)

"Hot spots of predatory crime: Routine activities and the criminology of place"

Problem Statement:
“This article examines that premise. Using street addresses and intersections as an
operational definition of urban places, we assess police call data as a measure of place crime
in Minneapolis. We describe the distribution of crimes by place and test for the randomness
of that distribution. We then consider the implications of the results for further
development of a routine activities criminology of place.”

Explanation:
This study is descriptive in nature, aiming to describe the distribution of predatory crimes
across urban places in Minneapolis. It assesses whether crimes occur randomly or in specific
areas, identifying “hot spots” for further criminological analysis.
 2. Weisburd et al. (2004: 286)
"Trajectories of crime at places: A longitudinal study of street segments in the city of
Seattle"

Problem Statement:
“In this paper, we use official crime data to examine the distribution of crime at street
segments in Seattle, Washington, over a 14-year time period.”

Explanation:
This study is also descriptive and exploratory as it examines crime trends over a longitudinal
period. The goal is to describe how crime distributes across different locations in Seattle,
over time, and identify potential patterns.

2. Explanatory Research Problem Statements

Explanatory research problem statements aim to explain why something occurs or identify
the causes behind a phenomenon. These studies go beyond description to offer causal
explanations based on theoretical frameworks or variables.

Here's an example of a problem statement in explanatory research:

 Example:
Assume you are interested in explaining police misconduct and wish to answer the
question: "Why do some police officers commit police misconduct or deviance?"

Problem Statement:
“The purpose of this study is to examine the factors that contribute to police misconduct.
Specifically, this research will explore how self-control influences police officers’
engagement in deviant behavior. Using a self-control theory framework, this study will
investigate the relationship between officers' personal characteristics, job-related stress, and
their likelihood of engaging in misconduct.”

Explanation:
This problem statement is explanatory because it seeks to explain why some officers engage
in misconduct. The focus is on understanding self-control as a potential explanatory factor,
and the study aims to test this theory. Unlike exploratory research, this study will focus on
causal relationships and attempt to explain the factors contributing to police deviance.

Key Differences Between Exploratory/Descriptive and Explanatory Problem Statements

1. Exploratory/Descriptive Problem Statements:

o Goal: Describe a phenomenon or pattern of behavior.

 o Focus: Identify where, when, and how a particular event occurs or is
distributed.

o Example: Mapping the patterns of motor vehicle theft in a specific location.

2. Explanatory Problem Statements:

o Goal: Explain why a phenomenon occurs and identify causative factors.

o Focus: Identify relationships and explain the causes of specific behaviors or

events.

o Example: Investigating why some police officers engage in misconduct, using

self-control as a theoretical framework.

Conclusion

In criminological research, whether you're conducting descriptive or explanatory research,

it's important to clearly frame your research problem. An exploratory or descriptive problem
statement typically focuses on what and where things happen, while an explanatory
problem statement aims to uncover the why behind phenomena and explain their causes.
Both approaches are valuable in the study of criminology, depending on whether the goal is
to understand patterns or explain underlying factors.