Tuesday, June 3, 2025 7:28 PM
The principle of superposition of waves
• The principle of superposition of waves states that when two or more propagating waves of the same type are incident on
the same point, the resultant amplitude at that point is equal to the vector sum of the amplitudes of the individual waves.
• If a crest of a wave meets a crest of another wave of the same frequency at the same point, then the amplitude is the sum
of the individual amplitudes—this is constructive interference.
• If a crest of one wave meets a trough of another wave, then the amplitude is equal to the difference in the individual
amplitudes—this is known as destructive interference.
• In ideal mediums (water, air are almost ideal) energy is always conserved, at points of destructive interference, the wave
amplitudes cancel each other out, and the energy is redistributed to other areas. For example, when two pebbles are
dropped in a pond, a pattern is observable; but eventually waves continue, and only when they reach the shore is the
energy absorbed away from the medium.
• Constructive interference occurs when the phase difference between the waves is an even multiple of π (180°), whereas
destructive interference occurs when the difference is an odd multiple of π. If the difference between the phases is
intermediate between these two extremes, then the magnitude of the displacement of the summed waves lies between
the minimum and maximum values.
• Diffraction is the deviation of waves from straight-line propagation without any change in their energy due to an obstacle
or through an aperture. The diffracting object or aperture effectively becomes a secondary source of the propagating
wave. Diffraction is the same physical effect as interference, but interference is typically applied to superposition of a few
waves and the term diffraction is used when many waves are superposed
• In classical physics diffraction arises because of how waves propagate; this is described by the Huygens–Fresnel principle
and the principle of superposition of waves. The propagation of a wave can be visualized by considering every particle of
the transmitted medium on a wavefront as a point source for a secondary spherical wave. The wave displacement at any
subsequent point is the sum of these secondary waves. When waves are added together, their sum is determined by the
relative phases as well as the amplitudes of the individual waves so that the summed amplitude of the waves can have any
value between zero and the sum of the individual amplitudes. Hence, diffraction patterns usually have a series of maxima
and minim
Diffraction Grating
• Grating can also refer to a diffraction grating: a reflecting or transparent optical component on which there are many fine,
parallel, equally spaced grooves. They disperse light, so are one of the main functional components in many kinds of
spectrometers, which decompose a light source into its constituent wavelength components.
• In optics, a diffraction grating is an optical grating with a periodic structure that diffracts light, or another type
of electromagnetic radiation, into several beams traveling in different directions (i.e., different diffraction angles).
• The emerging coloration is a form of structural coloration.[
• The directions or diffraction angles of these beams depend on the wave (light) incident angle to the diffraction grating, the
spacing or periodic distance between adjacent diffracting elements (e.g., parallel slits for a transmission grating) on the
grating, and the wavelength of the incident light.
• For a diffraction grating, the relationship between the grating spacing (i.e., the distance between adjacent grating grooves
or slits), the angle of the wave (light) incidence to the grating, and the diffracted wave from the grating is known as the
grating equation
• An idealized diffraction grating is made up of a set of slits of spacing d, that must be wider than the wavelength of interest
to cause diffraction. Assuming a plane wave of monochromatic light of wavelength λ at normal incidence on a grating (i.e.,
wavefronts of the incident wave are parallel to the grating main plane), each slit in the grating acts as a quasi point wave
source from which light propagates in all directions (although this is typically limited to the forward hemisphere from the
point source).
• Of course, every point on every slit to which the incident wave reaches plays as a point wave source for the diffraction
wave and all these contributions to the diffraction wave determine the detailed diffraction wave light property distribution,
but diffraction angles (at the grating) at which the diffraction wave intensity is highest are determined only by these quasi
point sources corresponding the slits in the grating.
• After the incident light (wave) interacts with the grating, the resulting diffracted light from the grating is composed of the
sum of interfering wave components emanating from each slit in the grating; At any given point in space through which the
diffracted light may pass, typically called observation point, the path length from each slit in the grating to the given point
varies, so the phase of the wave emanating from each of the slits at that point also varies.
• As a result, the sum of the diffracted waves from the grating slits at the given observation point creates a peak, valley, or
some degree between them in light intensity through additive and destructive interference. When the difference between
the light paths from adjacent slits to the observation point is equal to an odd integer-multiple of the half of the
wavelength, l(λ/2) with an odd integer l, the waves are out of phase at that point, and thus cancel each other to create the
(locally) minimum light intensity.
• Similarly, when the path difference is a multiple of λ, the waves are in phase and the (locally) maximum intensity occurs.
For light at the normal incidence to the grating, the intensity maxima occur at diffraction angles θₘ, which satisfy the
relationship d sinθₘ = mλ, where θₘ is the angle between the diffracted ray and the grating's normal vector, d is the
distance from the center of one slit to the center of the adjacent slit, and m is an integer representing the propagation-
mode of interest called the diffraction order.
• Comparison of the spectra obtained from a diffraction grating by diffraction (1), and a prism by refraction (2). Longer
wavelengths (red) are diffracted more, but refracted less than shorter wavelengths (violet).
• Intensity as heatmap for monochromatic light behind a grating
• When a plane light wave is normally incident on a grating of uniform period d, the diffracted light has maxima at diffraction
angles θₘ given by a special case of the grating equation as:
• It can be shown that if the plane wave is incident at angle θᵢ relative to the grating normal, in the plane orthogonal to the
grating periodicity, the grating equation becomes:
• which describes in-plane diffraction as a special case of the more general scenario of conical, or off-plane, diffraction
described by the generalized grating equation:
• where γ is the angle between the direction of the plane wave and the direction of the grating grooves, which is orthogonal
to both the directions of grating periodicity and grating normal. Various sign conventions for θᵢ, θₘ and m are used; any
choice is fine as long as the choice is kept through diffraction-related calculations. When solved for diffracted angle at
which the diffracted wave intensity are maximized, the equation becomes
• The diffracted light that corresponds to direct transmission for a transmissive diffraction grating or specular reflection for a
reflective grating is called the zero order, and is denoted m=0. The other diffracted light intensity maxima occur at angles
θₘ represented by non-zero integer diffraction orders m. Note that m can be positive or negative, corresponding to
diffracted orders on both sides of the zero-order diffracted beam.
• Even if the grating equation is derived from a specific grating such as the grating in the right diagram (this grating is called a
blazed grating), the equation can apply to any regular structure of the same spacing, because the phase relationship
between light scattered from adjacent diffracting elements of the grating remains the same. The detailed diffracted light
property distribution (e.g., intensity) depends on the detailed structure of the grating elements as well as on the number of
elements in the grating, but it always gives maxima in the directions given by the grating equation.
• Depending on how a grating modulates incident light on it to cause the diffracted light, there are the following grating
types:
• Transmission amplitude diffraction grating, which spatially and periodically modulates the intensity of an incident wave
that transmits through the grating (and the diffracted wave is the consequence of this modulation).
• Reflection amplitude diffraction gratings, which spatially and periodically modulate the intensity of an incident wave that is
reflected from the grating.
• Transmission phase diffraction grating, that spatially and periodically modulates the phase of an incident wave passing
through the grating.
• Reflection phase diffraction grating, that spatially and periodically modulates the phase of an incident wave reflected from
the grating.
• An optical axis diffraction grating, in which the optical axis is spatially and periodically modulated, is also considered either
a reflection or transmission phase diffraction grating.
• The grating equation applies to all these gratings due to the same phase relationship between the diffracted waves from
adjacent diffracting elements of the gratings, even if the detailed distribution of the diffracted wave property depends on
the detailed structure of each grating.
Two Source Interference
Refraction
• In physics, refraction is the redirection of a wave as it passes from one medium to another. The redirection can be caused
by the wave's change in speed or by a change in the medium.[1]
• Refraction of light is the most commonly observed phenomenon, but other waves such as sound waves and water
waves also experience refraction.
• How much a wave is refracted is determined by the change in wave speed and the initial direction of wave propagation
relative to the direction of change in speed.
• Optical prisms and lenses use refraction to redirect light, as does the human eye.
• The refractive index of materials varies with the wavelength of light,[2] and thus the angle of the refraction also varies
correspondingly.
• This is called dispersion and causes prisms and rainbows to divide white light into its constituent spectral colors.
• Any ray crossing an interface along the normal line does not change direction at all, as the wavefronts are parallel to the
edge. Therefore their wavelength is equally changed along the length of the wavefront.
• If the wavefront is at an angle to the interface, then the part that hits first will change speed first.
• Then the wavefront becomes bent because different parts of it are travelling at different speeds.
• The changes in direction caused by refraction are the basis for the functioning of lenses, and can lead to optical illusions.
• A measure of the amount of refraction caused by different materials is called the refractive index, and its symbol is n.
• The refractive index, n, is equal to the ratio of the speed of light in a vacuum to the speed of light in the material:
Snell's Law
• Snell's law (also known as the Snell–Descartes law, the ibn-Sahl law,[1] and the law of refraction) is a formula used to
describe the relationship between the angles of incidence and refraction, when referring to light or other waves passing
through a boundary between two different isotropic media, such as water, glass, or air. In optics, the law is used in ray
tracing to compute the angles of incidence or refraction, and in experimental optics to find the refractive index of a
material.
• The law is also satisfied in meta-materials, which allow light to be bent "backward" at a negative angle of refraction with
a negative refractive index.
Total Internal refraction
• In physics, total internal reflection (TIR) is the phenomenon in which waves arriving at the interface (boundary) from
one medium to another (e.g., from water to air) are not refracted into the second ("external") medium, but
completely reflected back into the first ("internal") medium.
• It occurs when the second medium has a higher wave speed (i.e., lower refractive index) than the first, and the waves are
incident at a sufficiently oblique angle on the interface
• Refraction is generally accompanied by partial reflection.
• When waves are refracted from a medium of lower propagation speed (higher refractive index) to a medium of higher
propagation speed (lower refractive index)—e.g., from water to air—the angle of refraction (between the outgoing ray and
the surface normal) is greater than the angle of incidence (between the incoming ray and the normal).
• As the angle of incidence approaches a certain threshold, called the critical angle, the angle of refraction approaches 90°,
at which the refracted ray becomes parallel to the boundary surface.
• As the angle of incidence increases beyond the critical angle, the conditions of refraction can no longer be satisfied, so
there is no refracted ray, and the partial reflection becomes total.
• For visible light, the critical angle is about 49° for incidence from water to air, and about 42° for incidence from common
glass to air.
Critical angle
Polarization
• Polarization, or polarisation, is a property of transverse waves which specifies the geometrical orientation of
the oscillations.[1][2][3][4][5] In a transverse wave, the direction of the oscillation is perpendicular to the direction of motion of
the wave.[
• An electromagnetic wave such as light consists of a coupled oscillating electric field and magnetic field which are always
perpendicular to each other.
• Different states of polarization correspond to different relationships between polarization and the direction of
propagation. In linear polarization, the fields oscillate in a single direction. In circular or elliptical polarization, the fields
rotate at a constant rate in a plane as the wave travels, either in the right-hand or in the left-hand direction.
• Light or other electromagnetic radiation from many sources, such as the sun, flames, and incandescent lamps, consists of
short wave trains with an equal mixture of polarizations; this is called unpolarized light.
• Polarized light can be produced by passing unpolarized light through a polarizer, which allows waves of only one
polarization to pass through.
• According to quantum mechanics, electromagnetic waves can also be viewed as streams of particles called photons. When
viewed in this way, the polarization of an electromagnetic wave is determined by a quantum mechanical property of
photons called their spin.[7][8] A photon has one of two possible spins: it can either spin in a right hand sense or a left hand
sense about its direction of travel. Circularly polarized electromagnetic waves are composed of photons with only one type
of spin, either right- or left-hand. Linearly polarized waves consist of photons that are in a superposition of right and left
circularly polarized states, with equal amplitude and phases synchronized to give oscillation in a plane
• Light or other electromagnetic radiation from many sources, such as the sun, flames, and incandescent lamps, consists of
short wave trains with an equal mixture of polarizations; this is called unpolarized light. Polarized light can be produced by
passing unpolarized light through a polarizer, which allows waves of only one polarization to pass through. The most
common optical materials do not affect the polarization of light, but some materials—those that
exhibit birefringence, dichroism, or optical activity—affect light differently depending on its polarization. Some of these are
used to make polarizing filters. Light also becomes partially polarized when it reflects at an angle from a surface.
• Polarization means waves oscillate in a single plane only.
• Transverse waves can be polarized vertically or horizontally.
• Sunlight is an example of unpolarized light with oscillation in multiple planes.
• ↕ Common nota on uses arrows to denote polariza on direc on.
• Polarizing filters absorb components not aligned with their plane of polarization.
• Two perpendicular polarizing filters block all light passage.
• Polarization helps understand fundamental wave properties in physics and optics.
• Key Insights
• Polarization is intrinsic to transverse waves: Only transverse waves such as electromagnetic waves or waves on a string
can exhibit polarization because polarization depends on oscillations perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation.
Longitudinal waves, such as sound waves, do not demonstrate this phenomenon.
• Plane polarization simplifies complex wave behavior: By restricting oscillations to a single plane, plane polarization
offers a way to analyze and utilize waves more predictably, which is vital in technologies like LCD screens and polarizing
sunglasses.
• Unpolarized light contains multiple oscillation planes: Natural light sources, such as sunlight or ordinary bulbs, produce
electromagnetic waves vibrating in all possible planes. This random orientation explains why polarization filters are
necessary to create polarized light.
• Polarizing filters selec vely transmit waves: Filters only allow light oscilla ng parallel to their polariza on axis to pass
through, filtering out other orienta ons. This selec ve absorp on is key in applica ons requiring controlled light
polariza on.
• Perpendicular polarizers completely block light: When two polarizers are at 90 degrees, any light allowed through the
first is blocked by the second, creating a polarizing “off” state. This principle underpins various optical devices and tests.
• Nota on aids clarity in wave polariza on: Using arrows or symbols to represent direc ons of polariza on facilitates
be er conceptual and visual understanding, especially when dealing with vectors in electromagne c waves.
• Visualization with a string is an effective teaching model: Demonstrating polarization with a physical analogy like a
vibrating string helps concretize abstract concepts in wave physics, making it more accessible for learners.
• By covering both conceptual explanations and practical examples like polarizing filters, the video delivers a comprehensive
introduction to polarization, a fundamental concept in wave physics and optics.
Polarization stress analysis
• When polarised light is passed through a stressed transparent model, interference patterns or fringes are formed. These
patterns provide immediate qualitative information about the general distribution of stress, positions of stress
concentrations and of areas of low stress.
• On the basis of these results, designs may be modified to reduce or disperse concentrations of stress or to remove excess
material from areas of low stress, thereby achieving reductions in weight and material costs.
Stress Visualization:
• When polarized light passes through a birefringent material, the different refractive indices cause a change in the light's
polarization.
• This change is observed as colorful interference patterns (fringes) when viewed through a second polarizing filter.
• Interpreting Patterns:
• The observed colors and fringe patterns correspond to the magnitude and direction of stress within the material. Engineers
can use these patterns to identify stress concentrations, quantify stress levels, and optimize production processes
Evidence that light behave as a particle
• Thomas Young, performed an experiment that showed that light behaves as a wave. He passed a beam of light through
two thin, parallel slits. Alternating bright and dark bands appeared on a white screen some distance from the slit. Young
reasoned that if light were made of particles as Newton suggested, only two bright bands of light would be projected on
the white surface.
• The bright and dark bands demonstrated that the slits were causing light waves to interfere with each other.
• Sometimes this interference is constructive, and the light waves add together to create a bright patch. Sometimes the
intereference is destructive and results in the light waves cancelling each other out creating dark patches on the screen.
Wave Particle Duality
• Wave-particle duality is a fundamental concept in quantum mechanics that describes how every quantum entity—like
photons (particles of light) and electrons (matter particles)—exhibits both wave-like and particle-like properties depending
on the type of experiment conducted.
• Albert Einstein explained the photoelectric effect, where light incident on a metal surface ejects electrons.
• This could only be explained if light were quantized into discrete packets of energy called photons
Photon
• A photon (from Ancient Greek φῶς, φωτός (phôs, phōtós) 'light') is an elementary particle that is a quantum of
the electromagnetic field, including electromagnetic radiation such as light and radio waves, and the force carrier for
the electromagnetic force. Photons are massless particles that can move no faster than the speed of light measured in
vacuum. The photon belongs to the class of boson particles.
• As with other elementary particles, photons are best explained by quantum mechanics and exhibit wave–particle duality,
their behavior featuring properties of both waves and particles.[2
• In the Standard Model of particle physics, photons and other elementary particles are described as a necessary
consequence of physical laws having a certain symmetry at every point in spacetime. The intrinsic properties of particles,
such as charge, mass, and spin, are determined by gauge symmetry. The photon concept has led to momentous advances
in experimental and theoretical physics, including lasers, Bose–Einstein condensation, quantum field theory, and
the probabilistic interpretation of quantum mechanics. It has been applied to photochemistry, high-resolution microscopy,
and measurements of molecular distances. Moreover, photons have been studied as elements of quantum computers, and
for applications in optical imaging and optical communication such as quantum cryptography.
• The photon has no electric charge,[9][10] is generally considered to have zero rest mass[11] and is a stable particle. The
experimental upper limit on the photon mass[12][13] is very small, on the order of 10−50 kg; its lifetime would be more than
1018 years.[14] For comparison the age of the universe is about 1.38×1010 years.
• In a vacuum, a photon has two possible polarization states.[15] The photon is the gauge boson for electromagnetism,[16]:
29–30 and therefore all other quantum numbers of the photon (such as lepton number, baryon number, and flavour
quantum numbers) are zero.[17] Also, the photon obeys Bose–Einstein statistics, and not Fermi–Dirac statistics. That is, they
do not obey the Pauli exclusion principle[18]: 1221 and more than one can occupy the same bound quantum state.
• Photons are emitted in many natural processes. For example, when a charge is accelerated it emits synchrotron radiation.
During a molecular, atomic or nuclear transition to a lower energy level, photons of various energy will be emitted, ranging
from radio waves to gamma rays. Photons can also be emitted when a particle and its
corresponding antiparticle are annihilated (for example, electron–positron annihilation)
Photoelectrons
Photoelectric effect
