1

The Introduction of Hard Disk Drives (HDDs) and BIOS

BIOS (Basic Input/Output System) was introduced to start up the computer:

• Initial BIOS: Stored on a ROM chip (Read-Only Memory).

• Modern BIOS: Stored on flash memory (can be updated).

• BIOS configurations are stored in CMOS memory, which can be altered.

Role of the Operating System

An operating system is essential for:

1. Copying itself into RAM: Since modern OSs are very large, only required parts are loaded into RAM for

better performance.

2. Running Applications: Provides an environment for software to execute.

3. Human-Computer Interface (HCI): Makes it easier for humans to interact with computers.
GUI
4. Hiding Hardware Complexity: Users do not need to know how hardware works internally.
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Examples of Operating Systems:

• Microsoft Windows

• Apple macOS

• Google Android

• Apple iOS
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• GUI: Uses WIMP (Windows, Icons, Menus, and Pointing device).

1. Windows: Open multiple applications.

2. Icons: Visual symbols for software.

3. Menus: Drop-down options.

4. Pointing device: Mouse or touchscreen interaction.

• Post-WIMP Interaction: (Fingers in contact with Screen)

1. Modern devices (smartphones/tablets) use touchscreens.

2. Features like pinch, zoom, rotate, and tap replace mouse functions.

Operating System Tasks

1 Memory management
Efficient allocation and protection
of computer memory
Memory Management is further divided into 3:

1. Memory Protection

2. Memory Optimisation

3. Memory Organization
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Memory Protection

Ensures two Prevent

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Security issue

memory optimisation

Decides how memory is allocated to application

2
Also ensures to free memory after execution
3 Tracks used and unusedmemory 18
Swaps data b w RAM and HDD SDD
to optimise memory storage
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Memory Organization

Memory organization determines how memory is allocated to applications efficiently. Common

methods include:

1. Single (Contiguous) Allocation: All memory is assigned to one application (e.g., MS-DOS,

embedded systems).

2. Partitioned Allocation: Memory is split into contiguous partitions, allocated based on application

needs, with variable sizes.

3. Paged Memory: Memory is divided into fixed-size pages, commonly used in virtual memory

systems.
non contiguous
4. Segmented Memory: Non-contiguous blocks (segments) are allocated logically, grouping related

data like arrays.

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Security Management

Security management is a key function of an operating system to ensure data integrity,

confidentiality, and availability. This involves:

• Performing regular operating system updates.

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• Keeping antivirus and other security software up-to-date.

• Using firewalls to monitor and manage network traffic.

• Restricting access through user accounts, passwords, and privileges.

• Managing user access rights. admin Dish C read write execute

• Supporting data recovery and system restore.

• Preventing unauthorized access to maintain data privacy.

Intrusion Detection
software
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Process Management

Manages running programs by allocating resources and synchronizing processes (e.g., scheduling,

resolving conflicts, using queues).

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Hardware Management

• Handles input/output devices via device drivers.

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• Translates file data into a device-compatible format.

• Manages device priorities, queues, and buffers (e.g., printing involves driver loading, buffering,

queuing, sending commands, and handling errors).

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File Management

Defines file naming conventions (e.g., .docx, .txt).

Store access protected
Performs tasks like creating, opening, deleting, renaming, and moving files. dataintegrity
Maintains directory structures and access controls (e.g., permissions, passwords).

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Specifies storage formats (e.g., FAT, NTFS) and allocates memory for files.

New
technology filesystem
HDD RAM

Utility Software

Utility software enhances system functionality and performance. These tools can be part of the

operating system or installed separately, with some running in the background (e.g., antivirus). Key

utilities include:

1. Hard Disk Formatter: Prepares new drives for use, organizing storage into partitions and

formatting them with file systems (e.g., NTFS). It also detects and flags bad sectors.

Initialization and Partition Petite contiguous

file

formatting Partitions
full formatting on as
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Badsector management non destructivetests

Hard bad sector Physicaldamage or companybaseddefects

Softbadsector Powerloss system crash leads to data

corruption
2. Virus Checkers: Scans for and removes malware by comparing files against virus databases and

using heuristic checks. Regular updates and scans are essential.

Is protect computer Malware viruses wormstrojans

1 Pre emptive scanning
archon
2 Virus database Comparison
hacker
Mcafee
full systemscans 3 HeuristicAnalysis
4 Quarantinefunctionality

Limitations
Isolates potentiallyinfected
Falsepositives
files
Impacts systemperformance Automatic deletion

by running itself in background User decision

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3. Defragmentation Software: Rearranges fragmented files on HDDs for faster access. Less

relevant for SSDs due to their design.

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4. Disk Analysis/Repair: Examines and repairs disk issues while identifying space usage and

removing unnecessary files (cache etc).

Disk usageandfile analysis

Seen entiredish identify and analysefiles folders
and directories
Istalspaceused
Large files duplicate old and unusedfiles
Empty space identification unused or wastedspace

Temporarysystemfiles
fragmented files

files that have not beenaccessed

for a long
time
Report Generation
files anddirectories consuming the mostspace
files that could besafetyremoved
Unused
Spacethat can be recoveredfromtemp
Cleanup
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Repair grouped

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Marking Reallocating an

Error Checking and Recovery Attempt to recover

corrupted files
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5. File and Disk Compression: Saves storage space and accelerates file transfers by reducing data

size. Disk compression is rare today due to large storage capacities.

Lossless compression RLE Identify repeating patterns

redundantdata and unnecessary
Zip Rar PNG
elements

Lossycompression Tools
JPEG MP3 MPY Peczip Winror
2042 20kHz Mac OS finder

6. Backup Software: Automates file backups with options for local, external, and cloud storage.

Features include version history (e.g., Windows File History, Mac Time Machine) and restore points

for recovery.

Automated
1
Backup scheduling daily weekly monthly
2 Selective File Backup Confidential data
3 VersionedBackups
4 Cloud and Remote Backups Ensures thatdata is backed
up on a cloud storage to
avoid data loss
Versioned Backups Example:

Example: If a user accidentally overwrites a file with incorrect data, the backup software might allow

them to restore a previous version of the file from an earlier backup.

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Program Libraries

Program libraries are essential in software development, offering reusable pre-written

routines that save time, enhance efficiency, and ensure consistency. error freecodes

Efficient Reliability Scalability Collaboration

Security issues run time issue
Purpose:

• Provide reusable subroutines (library routines) to simplify development.

• Include tools like Dynamic Link Libraries (DLLs) for efficient runtime execution.

Terminology:
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Programstored in a programlib
• Library Program: A reusable, stored program.

• Library Routine: A subroutine stored for integration into other software.

Sortingalgorithm

Animatedgraphics
Music routines

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Static Libraries:

• Linked during compilation; routines are embedded in the executable.

• Results in larger files but ensures the program is self-contained. math lib
Dynamic Libraries (DLLs):

• Linked and loaded at runtime, reducing executable size and memory use. RAM
• Shared across applications, but dependent on DLL availability at runtime.
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Language Translators

Language translators are systems software that convert programming instructions written in a

language other than machine code into executable machine code.

Types of Translators

Assemblers:

• Translate assembly language into machine code.

• Programs are machine-dependent and not portable across different systems.

• Examples: MASM (for x86 chips), PIC, GENIE (for microcontrollers).

Compilers:

python
• Translate high-level source code into machine code or intermediate code.

• Store the translated program (object code) for repeated use without re-translation.

• Faster execution after compilation since no translation occurs during runtime. loader

Interpreters:

• Execute high-level source code line-by-line.

• Do not produce a stored machine code file, so translation happens at runtime every time.

• Useful during development for immediate error detection and debugging.

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Partial Compilation and Interpretation

• Intermediate Code: Programs like Java and Python use a mix of compilation and interpretation.

• Process:

• High-level source code is compiled into bytecode (intermediate machine-independent code).

• Bytecode is interpreted or compiled further for execution.

• Example: Java bytecode runs on the Java Virtual Machine (JVM); Python bytecode runs on the

Python interpreter.
low level
language machinecode

Shorter executiontimes to compiler objectcode

Interpreter
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Integrated Development Environment (IDE)

1. Source Code Editor

• Purpose: Allows programmers to write and edit their code efficiently without switching to a

separate text editor.

Key Features:

• Syntax Highlighting: Different code elements (e.g., keywords, variables, strings) are color-coded

for better readability. For example:

• Strings might appear in green.

• Integers in blue.

• Context-Sensitive Prompts: Suggests variable names, functions, or keywords as you type,

speeding up development.

• Dynamic Syntax Checking: Highlights syntax errors as the code is written, enabling corrections

before running the program.

• Code Collapsing: Allows collapsing code blocks to focus on specific sections of the program.

2. Compiler and Interpreter

Purpose: Translates source code into machine-readable code for execution.

Usage in IDEs:

An interpreter is typically used during development for real-time testing and debugging.

A compiler is used to produce the final, optimized object code.

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3. Run-Time Environment with Debugger

Purpose: Executes the program and assists in identifying and fixing errors.

Debugger Features:

• Single Stepping: Executes the program one line at a time, allowing detailed inspection.

• Breakpoints: Stops program execution at specific points in the code to examine variables and

expressions.

• Variable and Expression Inspection: Displays the type and contents of variables or evaluates

expressions at different points during execution.

4. Auto-Documenter

• Purpose: Automatically generates documentation for the program, explaining the function and

purpose of various code sections.

• Benefit: Saves time and ensures the program is well-documented for future reference or

collaboration.

Benefits of Using an IDE

• Increased Productivity: Combines multiple tools into one, reducing the need to switch between applications.

• Error Reduction: Features like dynamic syntax checking and debugging tools help identify and fix errors early

in development.

• Code Readability: Pretty-printing and syntax highlighting improve code organization and readability.

• Efficient Debugging: Debugger tools make it easier to pinpoint logic errors and inspect program behavior.