PRE CALCULUS

ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

LESSON 1. ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

• Analytic geometry is that branch of Algebra in which the position of the point on the

plane can be located using an ordered pair of numbers called as Coordinates. This

is also called coordinate geometry or the Cartesian geometry. Analytic geometry

is a contradiction to the synthetic geometry, where there is no use of coordinates or

formulas. It is considered axiom or assumptions, to solve the problems. But in

analytic geometry, it defines the geometrical objects using the local coordinates. It

also uses algebra to define this geometry.

• Coordinate geometry has its use in both two dimensional and three-dimensional

geometry. It is used to represent geometrical shapes. Let us learn the terminologies

used in analytic geometry, such as;

o Plane

o Coordinates

PLANE

• To understand how analytic geometry is important and useful, First, We need to learn

what a plane is? If a flat surface goes on infinitely in both the directions, it is called

a Plane. So, if you find any point on this plane, it is easy to locate it using Analytic

Geometry. You just need to know the coordinates of the point in X and Y plane.

COORDINATES

• Coordinates are the two ordered pair, which defines the location of any given point

in a plane. Let’s understand it with the help of the box below.

• In the above grid, The columns are labelled as A, B, C, and the rows are labelled as 1,

2, 3.
 • The location of letter x is B2 i.e. Column B and row 2. So, B and 2 are the coordinates

of this box, x.

• As there are several boxes in every column and rows, but only one box has the point

x, and we can find its location by locating the intersection of row and column of that

box. There are different types of coordinates in analytical geometry. Some of them

are as follows:

o Cartesian Coordinates

o Polar Coordinates

o Cylindrical Coordinates

o Spherical Coordinates

CARTESIAN COORDINATES

• The most well-known coordinate system is the Cartesian coordinate to use, where

every point has an x-coordinate and y-coordinate expressing its horizontal position,

and vertical position respectively. They are usually addressed as an ordered pair

and denoted as (x, y). We can also use this system for three-dimensional geometry,

where every point is represented by an ordered triple of coordinates (x, y, z) in

Euclidean space.

POLAR COORDINATES

• In the case of polar coordinates, each point in a plane is denoted by the distance

‘r’ from the origin and the angle θ from the polar axis.

CYLINDRICAL COORDINATES

• In the case of cylindrical coordinates, all the points are represented by their height,

radius from z-axis and the angle projected on the xy-plane with respect to the

horizontal axis. The height, radius and the angle are denoted by h, r and θ,

respectively.

SPHERICAL COORDINATES
 • In spherical coordinates, the point in space is denoted by its distance from the origin

( ρ), the angle projected on the xy-plane with respect to the horizontal axis (θ), and

another angle with respect to the z-axis (φ).

CARTESIAN PLANE

• In coordinate geometry, every point is said to be located on the coordinate plane or

cartesian plane only. Look at the figure below.

• The above graph has x-axis and y-axis as it’s Scale. The x-axis is running across the

plane and Y-axis is running at the right angle to the x-axis. It is similar to the box

explained above.

LET’S LEARN MORE ABOUT CO-ORDINATES:

• Origin: It is the point of intersection of the axis(x-axis and y-axis). Both x and y-axis

are zero at this point.

• Values of the different sides of the axis:

o x-axis – The values at the right-hand side of this axis are positive and those

on the left-hand side are negative.

o y-axis – The values above the origin are positive and below the origin are

negative.

• To locate a point: We need two numbers to locate a plane in the order of writing the

location of X-axis first and Y-axis next. Both will tell the single and unique position on

the plane. You need to compulsorily follow the order of the points on the plane i.e.,

the x coordinate is always the first one from the pair. (x, y).
 • If you look at the figure above, point A has a value 3 on the x-axis and value 2 on the

Y-axis. These are the rectangular coordinates of Point A represented as (3, 2).

• Using the Cartesian coordinates, we can define the equation of a straight lines,

equation of planes, squares and most frequently in the three dimensional geometry.

The main function of the analytic geometry is that it defines and represents the

various geometrical shapes in the numerical way. It also extracts the numerical

information from the shapes.

ANALYTIC GEOMETRY FORMULAS

• Graphs and coordinates are used to find measurements of geometric figures. There

are many important formulas in analytic Geometry. Since science and engineering

involves the study of rate of change in varying quantities, it helps to show the relation

between the quantities involved. The branch of Mathematics called “calculus”

requires the clear understanding of the analytic geometry. Here, some of the

important ones are being used to find the distance, slope or to find the equation of

the line.

DISTANCE FORMULA

• Let the two points be A and B, having coordinates to

be (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) respectively.

• Thus, the distance between two points is given as- d = √[(x2-x1)2+(y2-y1)2]

MIDPOINT THEOREM FORMULA

• Let A and B are some points in a plane, which is joined to form a line, having

coordinates (x1, y1) and (x2, y2), respectively. Suppose, M(x, y) is the midpoint of the

line connecting the point A and B then its formula is given by; M(x, y) = [(x1+x2)/2,

(y1+y2)/2)]

ANGLE FORMULA
 • Let two lines have slope m1 and m2 and θ is the angle formed between the two lines

A and B, which is represented as; tan θ = (m1-m2)/ (1+m1m2)

SECTION FORMULA

• Let two lines A and B have coordinates (x1, y1) and (x2, y2), respectively. A point P the

two lines in the ratio of m:n, then the coordinates of P is given by;

ANALYTIC GEOMETRY IN THREE DIMENSIONS

• In this, we consider triples (a, b, c) which are real numbers and call this set as three-

dimensional number space and denote it by R’. All the elements in the triple are

called coordinates.

• Let’s see how three-dimensional number space is represented on a geometric

space.

• In three-dimensional space, we consider three mutually perpendicular lines

intersecting in a point O. these lines are designated coordinate axes, starting from

0, and identical number scales are set up on each of them.

ANALYTIC GEOMETRY APPLICATIONS

• Analytic geometry is widely used in the fields such as Engineering and Physics. Also,

it is widely used in the fields such as space science, rocket science, aviation, space

flights and so on. Analytical geometry has made many things possible like the

following:

o We can find whether the given lines are perpendicular or parallel.

o We can determine the mid-point, equation, and slope of the line segment.

o We can find the distance between the points.

the points on the plane.

o Define the equations of ellipse, curves, and circles.

LESSON 2. CONIC SECTIONS

• A curve, generated by intersecting a right circular cone with a plane is termed

as ‘conic’. It has distinguished properties in Euclidean geometry. The vertex of the

cone divides it into two nappes referred to as the upper nappe and the lower nappe.

• In figure B, the cone is intersected by a plane and the section so obtained is known

as a conic section. Depending upon the position of the plane which intersects the

cone and the angle of intersection β, different types of conic sections are obtained.

Namely;

o Circle

o Ellipse

o Parabola

o Hyperbola

• The rear mirrors you see in your car or the huge round silver ones you encounter at

a metro station are examples of curves. Curves have huge applications everywhere,

be it the study of planetary motion, the design of telescopes, satellites, reflectors etc.

Conic consist of curves which are obtained upon the intersection of a plane with a

double-napped right circular cone. It has been explained widely about conic

sections in class 11. Let us discuss the formation of different sections of the cone,

formulas and their significance.

• Check the formulas for different types of sections of a cone in the table given here.

Circle (x−a)2+(y−b)2=r2 Center is (a,b)

Radius is r

Ellipse with the (x−a)2/h2+(y−b)2/k2=1 Center is (a, b)

horizontal major Length of the major axis is 2h.

axis Length of the minor axis is 2k.

Distance between the centre and either

focus is c with c2=h2−k2, h>k>0

Ellipse with the (x−a)2/k2+(y−b)2/h Center is (a, b)

vertical major Length of the major axis is 2h.

axis Length of the minor axis is 2k.

Distance between the centre and either

focus is c with c2=h2−k2, h>k>0

Hyperbola with (x−a)2/h2−(y−b)2/k2=1 Center is (a,b)

the horizontal Distance between the vertices is 2h.

transverse axis Distance between the foci is 2k.

c2=h2 + k2

Hyperbola with (x−a)2/k2−(y−b)2/h2=1 Center is (a,b)

the vertical Distance between the vertices is 2h

transverse axis Distance between the foci is 2k.

c2= h2 + k2

Parabola with (y−b)2=4p(x−a), p≠0 Vertex is (a,b)

the horizontal Focus is (a+p,b)

axis Directrix is the line x=a−p

Axis is the line y=b

Parabola with (x−a)2=4p(y−b), p≠0 Vertex is (a,b)

vertical axis Focus is (a+p,b)

Directrix is the line x=b−p

Axis is the line x=a

• A conic section can also be described as the locus of a point P moving in the plane

of a fixed point F known as focus (F) and a fixed line d known as directrix (with the

focus not on d) in such a way that the ratio of the distance of point P from focus F to

its distance from d is a constant e known as eccentricity. Now,

o If eccentricity, e = 0, the conic is a circle

o If 0<e<1, the conic is an ellipse

o If e=1, the conic is a parabola

o And if e>1, it is a hyperbola

• So, eccentricity is a measure of the deviation of the ellipse from being circular.

Suppose, the angle formed between the surface of the cone and its axis is β and the

angle formed between the cutting plane and the axis is α, the eccentricity is; e = cos

α/cos β

PARAMETERS OF CONIC

• Apart from focus, eccentricity and directrix, there are few more parameters defined

under conic sections.

o Principal Axis: Line joining the two focal points or foci of ellipse or hyperbola.

Its midpoint is the centre of the curve.

o Linear Eccentricity: Distance between the focus and centre of a section.

o Latus Rectum: A chord of section parallel to directrix, which passes through

a focus.

o Focal Parameter: Distance from focus to the corresponding directrix.

o Major axis: Chord joining the two vertices. It is the longest chord of an ellipse.

o Minor axis: Shortest chord of an ellipse.

SECTIONS OF THE CONE

• Consider a fixed vertical line ‘l’ and another line ‘m’ inclined at an angle ‘α’

intersecting ‘l’ at point V as shown below:

1. is the vertex of the cone

2. l is the axis of the cone

3. m, the rotating line the is a generator of the cone

CONIC SECTION CIRCLE

• If β=90o, the conic section formed is a circle as shown below.

CONIC SECTION ELLIPSE

• If α<β<90o, the conic section so formed is an ellipse as shown in

the figure below.

CONIC SECTION PARABOLA

• If α=β, the conic section formed is a parabola (represented by the

orange curve) as shown below.

CONIC SECTION HYPERBOLA

• If 0≤β<α, then the plane intersects both nappes and the conic

section so formed is known as a hyperbola (represented by the

orange curves).

CONIC SECTION STANDARD FORMS

• After the introduction of Cartesian coordinates, the focus-directrix property can be

utilised to write the equations provided by the points of the conic section. When the

coordinates are changed along with the rotation and translation of axes, we can put

these equations into standard forms. For ellipses and hyperbolas, the standard form

has the x-axis as the principal axis and the origin (0,0) as the centre. The vertices

are (±a, 0) and the foci (±c, 0). Define b by the equations c 2= a2 − b2 for an ellipse

and c2 = a2 + b2 for a hyperbola.

the x-axis at the point (a, 0) and the directrix is the line with equation x = −a. In

standard form, the parabola will always pass through the origin.

o Circle: x2+y2=a2

o Ellipse: x2/a2 + y2/b2 = 1

o Hyperbola: x2/a2 – y2/b2 = 1

o Parabola: y2=4ax when a>0

CONIC SECTIONS EXAMPLES

• If the plane intersects exactly at the vertex of the cone, the following

cases may arise:

• If α< β≤90°, then the plane intersects the vertex exactly at a point.

• If α=β, the plane upon an intersection with a cone forms a straight

line containing a generator of the cone. This condition is a

degenerated form of a parabola.

• If 0≤β<α, the section formed is a pair of intersecting straight lines.

This condition is a degenerated form of a hyperbola.

CONIC SECTIONS EQUATIONS

• As we know, the system of linear equations can be written in matrix form. Thus, the

system of linear equations in n variables can be written as:

• Or AX = B. Here,

• Thus, A is called the coefficient matrix.

SOLUTIONS TO SYSTEM OF LINEAR EQUATIONS

• Any set of values of x1, x2, x2,…xn which simultaneously satisfies the system of linear

equations given above is called a solution of the system. If the system of equations

has one or more solutions, the equations are called consistent. Also, if the system of

equations does not admit any solution, then the equations are called inconsistent.

• Consider the system of equations AX = B and these equations are said to be

Homogeneous if B = 0 and Non-homogeneous if B ≠ 0.

HOW TO SOLVE SYSTEM OF LINEAR EQUATIONS?

• The following methods of solving system of linear equations AX = B, are applicable

only when the coefficient matrix A is non-singular, i.e., |A| ≠ 0.

o Cramers method

o Inverse method

o Gauss-Jordan method

o Gauss Elimination method

o LU Decomposition method of factorisation (or) Method of Triangularisation

• The system of linear equations in two variables is the set of equations that contain

only two variables. For example, 2x + 3y = 4; 3x + 5y = 12 are the system of equations

in two variables. There are several methods of solving linear equations in two

variables, such as:

o Graphical method

o Substitution Method

o Elimination Method

o Cross-Multiplication Method

o Matrix method