Bangladesh University of Professionals
Faculty of Science and Technology
Department of Information & Communication Technology (ICT)
Course Title: Microprocessor and Computer Architecture
Course Code: ICE-3201
Review Paper on Processor Technologies
Submitted to
Dr. Mosabber Uddin Ahmed
Professor
Department of EEE
University of Dhaka
Submitted by
Name: Fabiha Tasnim
ID: 2254901051
Section: A
Batch: BICE – 2022
Session: 2021-22
Submission Date: 11– 07– 2025
Advancements in Processor Technologies: A Review of Architectures and Multi-Core
Systems
Abstract
This paper provides a comprehensive review of key advancements in processor technologies,
tracing the evolution from early single-core designs to modern multi-core and multi-CPU
systems. It explores the architectural transitions through pivotal innovations such as Intel’s
Pentium series, Reduced Instruction Set Computing (RISC), Superscalar execution, and Very
Long Instruction Word (VLIW) models. Each architecture is analyzed in terms of design
philosophy, operational functionality, and their response to performance and efficiency
challenges. Particular emphasis is placed on the shift from frequency scaling to parallelism as
a dominant performance strategy, highlighting how multi-threaded and parallel execution
models have become central to contemporary computing. The review also addresses the
limitations associated with each architecture and forecasts how hybrid and heterogeneous
systems will shape the future of processor design.
Introduction
Processors are the central components of all computing systems, handling data processing
and instruction execution. Early processors focused on increasing clock speed to improve
performance, but limitations like overheating and high power usage led to new design
strategies. This prompted a shift towards architectural advancements such as Superscalar
execution, RISC (Reduced Instruction Set Computing), and VLIW (Very Long Instruction
Word) designs. Each aimed to increase efficiency and parallelism. In recent years, multi-core
and multi-CPU systems have become essential, enabling faster and more efficient execution
of multiple tasks simultaneously. This paper reviews these key processor technologies,
exploring their features, functions, versions, and limitations, and highlights how they address
the growing needs of modern computing.
2. Architecture Overview:
Processor architectures define how a CPU processes instructions and manages data. Over
time, several major architectural models have shaped modern computing.
➢ CISC (Complex Instruction Set Computing), used in Intel Pentium processors,
includes a large set of complex instructions, reducing the number of instructions per
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program but increasing decoding complexity.
➢ RISC (Reduced Instruction Set Computing) emphasizes simplicity with a smaller set
of instructions, enabling faster execution, efficient pipelining, and reduced power
consumption—ideal for mobile and embedded systems like ARM and RISC-V.
➢ Superscalar Architecture improves performance by allowing multiple instructions to
be fetched and executed per clock cycle. It relies on dynamic scheduling, out-of-order
execution, and branch prediction.
➢ VLIW (Very Long Instruction Word) achieves parallelism through compile-time
scheduling. Multiple operations are packed into a single long instruction, reducing
hardware complexity but requiring sophisticated compilers.
➢ Multi-Core and Multi-CPU Systems execute several tasks in parallel across multiple
processing units. Features include shared cache, thread-level parallelism,
hyper-threading, and cache coherence protocols like MESI.
Each architecture addresses different goals—performance, efficiency, scalability, or
simplicity—and their combination shapes the design of modern processors.
Various Versions
➔ Intel Pentium: From the original dual-pipeline Pentium to Pentium Pro (out-of-order
execution), Pentium 4 (high clock speeds), and Pentium M (mobile focus).
➔ RISC: ARMv7 (32-bit), ARMv8 (64-bit), and open-source RISC-V with
customizable extensions.
➔ Superscalar: Early Pentium models introduced it; modern Intel Core and AMD
Ryzen processors use advanced dynamic scheduling.
➔ VLIW: Intel Itanium (limited success) and TI DSPs (effective in signal processing).
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➔ Multi-Core/CPU: Intel Core i9 and AMD Ryzen 9 offer many cores/threads; Apple
M1/M2 use heterogeneous cores; servers employ multiple CPUs with fast
interconnects.
Literature Overview
The evolution of processor technologies has been extensively studied across computer
architecture and systems research. Early works focused on the performance gains achieved
through clock speed improvements and instruction set enhancements. Hennessy and
Patterson’s foundational texts on RISC architectures demonstrated how simplified instruction
sets improve pipelining and reduce energy consumption, particularly in embedded and mobile
systems (Ayaz Akram, Lina Swalha,2019) Studies on Intel’s Pentium series (e.g., Smith,
1995) highlighted the introduction of Superscalar execution and dual pipelines, which
doubled instruction throughput compared to earlier x86 processors.
Research on Superscalar architectures has emphasized the role of hardware-level instruction
scheduling, branch prediction, and register renaming in achieving parallel execution. In
contrast, VLIW architectures—explored in works like Fisher (1983)—shifted scheduling
responsibility to the compiler, achieving hardware simplicity at the cost of code portability
and compiler complexity (Michael Klemm,2012). Although VLIW struggled in
general-purpose computing (e.g., Intel Itanium), it found niche success in digital signal
processing.
In recent years, literature has shifted toward multi-core and multi-CPU systems. Amdahl’s
Law continues to serve as a theoretical foundation for understanding parallel performance
limits. Studies by Olukotun and Hammond have shown how multi-core systems improve
power efficiency and throughput, especially when supported by optimized software and
thread-level parallelism (Yang-Suk Kee,2016 ).
Emerging research explores heterogeneous and hybrid architectures, such as ARM
big.LITTLE and Apple’s M-series chips, which combine high-performance and
high-efficiency cores to balance workload and energy usage ( Rajkumar Buyya, 2013).
Discussion
Processor designs have shifted from boosting clock speeds to improving parallelism and
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efficiency. Intel Pentium’s Superscalar architecture showed gains but faced heat and power
limits. RISC processors focus on simpler instructions and better energy use, but rely on good
compilers. Superscalar offers flexible, dynamic scheduling but needs complex hardware,
while VLIW uses simpler hardware but depends heavily on compilers and has limited
adoption.
Multi-core and multi-CPU systems improve performance by running tasks in parallel, but
require careful software and synchronization. Heterogeneous designs like ARM’s
big.LITTLE balance performance and power efficiency, showing the future of processor
technology. Overall, each architecture balances trade-offs, and future processors will likely
combine these strengths.
Limitations
Each processor architecture presents unique challenges. Intel Pentium’s high clock speeds led
to excessive heat and power consumption, limiting further frequency increases. RISC
architectures, while energy-efficient, may require more instructions per task and depend
heavily on compiler optimization, which can affect performance. Superscalar processors face
increased hardware complexity and power demands due to dynamic scheduling and
out-of-order execution. VLIW architectures struggle with compiler complexity and poor
backward compatibility, limiting widespread adoption. Multi-core and multi-CPU systems
introduce software design challenges, such as synchronization overhead and scalability limits
defined by Amdahl’s Law. Additionally, these systems consume more power and require
advanced cooling solutions. Addressing these limitations is crucial for the continued
advancement of processor technology.
Future Directions
Processor technology is moving towards greater integration of heterogeneous and hybrid
architectures, combining high-performance and energy-efficient cores to optimize workload
management. Advances in AI and machine learning demand specialized processing units like
GPUs and TPUs integrated alongside CPUs. Open-source ISAs such as RISC-V offer
flexibility and customization, encouraging innovation in processor design. Quantum
computing and neuromorphic architectures also present promising but still emerging
alternatives. Additionally, improvements in compiler technology, parallel programming
models, and power management will be essential to fully harness multi-core and multi-CPU
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systems. Overall, future processors will focus on balancing performance, energy efficiency,
and adaptability to meet diverse and evolving computing needs.
Conclusion
From scalar and CISC-based designs like the Intel Pentium to more effective and parallel
structures like RISC and Superscalar, processor innovations have experienced a substantial
evolution. Although VLIW presented a novel method for instruction-level parallelism, its
practical implementation was fraught with difficulties.These days, the emphasis is on
multi-core and multi-CPU networks, which provide scalable efficiency while solving power
and thermal limitations.
Hybrid and heterogeneous architectures, including big.LITTLE, GPUs with CPUs, and TPUs,
are becoming more popular as the need for AI manufacturing, computing with outstanding
performance, and low-power handheld devices grows. Future developments will likely
combine several basic architectural principles to meet the diverse needs of modern programs.
References
1. Ayaz Akram, Lina Swalha (2019), A Survey of Computer Architecture Simulation
Techniques and Tools ,IEEE, Volume: 7, page 203-207 doi:
10.1109/ACCESS.2019.2917698
2. Alejandro Duran; Michael Klemm(2012). The Intel® Many Integrated Core
Architecture, IEEE, Volume 3, page 300-310, DOI: 10.1109/HPCSim.2012.6266938
3. Henry Kasim, Verdi March, Rita Zhang & Simon See (2008). Survey on Parallel
Programming Model, Springer Nature Link.Conference paper, pp 266–275,
https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-540-88140-7_24
4. Rajkumar Buyya(2013), Introduction to the IEEE Transactions on Cloud Computing,
IEEE, Volume: 1, Issue: 1, DOI: 10.1109/TCC.2013.13
5. Dongchul Park; Jianguo Wang; Yang-Suk Kee(2016 ), In-Storage Computing for
Hadoop MapReduce Framework: Challenges and Possibilities, IEEE,Page(s): 1 -
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