f PRACTICAL STEPS IN ORDINARY LEVEL MAP WORK BY PETIANGMA DERECK M (PLEG, B.A) GCE EXAMINER AFUETLAIEA DENIS (PLEG, B.Ed) GcE EXAMINER G.B.H.S TIKO.PREFACE. Map work is an indispensable aspect of Ordinary Level Geography. Questions in map work since the inception of the G.C.E are always compulsory Despite this emphasis.on niap work, it remains a nightmare to many students at the Ordinary level. Approximately more than’ 50% of failure'in Ordinary Level Geography at the G.C.E is attributed to poor performance, in map work. This is mainly because students fai to understand that the course is.more practical in nature. Many students and. eve me teachers spend much of their time and strug sleps involved in map work. skills rather than. practicing. Examination questions in map work -do-not ask students to identify or list steps in calculating or describing features. Students are always asked to measure, calculate, describe etc. This maid edition of PRACTIGAL STEPS IN ORDINARY EVEL MAP WORK is a modest attempt to solve some of these problems. ferent techniques and steps in map work have been‘ examined niore ly ‘than thedretically. A\ 9 idealized sketched” maps and revision questios have been introduce ¥y concept or skills to force students practice the skills. Finally, three coloured maps with a wide range of revision have also bee included to boost students” understanding and morale. We shall remain very delighted to welcome constructive criticisms ing this useful and dependable document from the different actorsACKNOWLEDGEMENT This work has come to fruition due to the contributions of some people to whom we are oblige; our dear-wives Mrs. Doreen Afuet Asong, Mrs. Alice Petiangma and the children (Derino Tekwa, Lionel Fiagmenyi and Tracy Kiemenyi) who tolerated long hours of absence from our homes and provided the moral booster for its realization, Mr. Fonge Charles Ngeh who laboured through several hours type-setting and formatting the text. Enormous thanks go to the Geography Head of Department, GBS TIKO, both former and present in persons of Mr. Nkemayang Roger and Mrs. Njock Oben Juliet who pursued and edited the text, The entire Geography department is equally appreciated for their useful suggestions through team work and dynamism. This is why ail members of the department are looked upon by the staff of G.B.H.S TIKO as people tied by consanguinity. We are indebted to all other authors whose material we consulted. Our sincere and paramount thanks go the ALMIGHTY GOD who gave us the wisdom, courage and guided us through this tedious task iiiTABLE OF CONTENTS Preface Acknowledgement ...... Table of contents «2.0.02 7 senesced CHAPTER 1: MAP COMPONENTS 1.1. Map Definition/importance wl 1.2. Map Title ....... . : wl 1.3. ° Map Scale... 1 14. Map Key 3 1.5. Grid references 23 1.6. Direction/Bearing 5 CHAPTER 2: MAP MEASUREMENTS 2.1, Measurement of distances ae eee 8 2.2. Measurement of areas a . we 1O CHAPTER 3: MAP COPYING, REDUCING/ENLARGEMENT Map Copying... 2. Map Reduction 00... oe eS 3.3. Map Enlargement CHAPTER 4: RELIEF 4.1. Relief representation on maps 4.2. Contours and landform recognition: : 4.3, Gradient 0.20 oe aan 4.4. Cross-section Drawing/Vertical Exaggeration ... CHAPTER 5: DESCRIPTION/JINTERPRETATION OF PHYSICAL FEATURES 5.1. Relief = veeseeseene 29 5:2. Drainage... . 5.3. Vegetation 5.4. Rock or GeologyCHAPTER 6: DESCRIPTION/INTERPRETATION-OF HUMAN FEATURES 6.1. Settlements 2... es 36 6.11. Types of Settlement.......... a 36 6.12. Site and Situation.......... a Se eee 37 6.13. Rural Settlement patterns ... cee a . 37 6.14. Functions/Land-use........... a 38 6.2. Communication... se.etccccccn rte vee MAPS/REVISION QUESTIONS ........ccccsssssssssttsttsntintinsinresseseees41-48 BIBLIOGRAPHY .. * 49~ ~ CHAPTER t: MAP COMPONENTS: —-—--—— —— 1.1, . Definition/importance of maps A map is a representation of all or parts of the earth surface on a sheet of paper or any flat (planemetry) surface to scale. This canbe the map of a continent, country, division or a village. There are different types of maps which differ in their uses. The following are some: of the common uses or importance of maps: © Maps are used for geographical studies for example base maps used for field work © Guide maps are used for exploration by travelers~ © Urban engineers and town planners use maps for town planning ® Maps are also used by the military-for military operations * Maps are equally used for mineral prospection Marginal information Map Title The title of a map is the name of a map. Map title or name may be the name of the most important settlement on the map or any other important physical feature: Map names (title) are’ very: important because they help geographers to know the exact location of the area on the earth’s surface. This therefore facilitates the. interpretation of physical and human features such as relief, vegetation, agriculture etc. 1.2.2. Map Scale Scale ‘refers to the relationship that. exists between map distances and actual ground distances. It is thanks to the concept of scale that actual distance between places and areas are calculated accurately using maps. Map scale is presented or written int three different ways inamely:Practical Steps In 0" Level Map Work: Petiangma & Afuetlaj i. Representative Fraction or Ratio scale: This is the presentation of map scale as a fraction (<5 ) ot as a ratio (1: 50.000). A scale of 00 1: 50.000 simply mean that Icm on the map represents 50,000cm on the ground or 0.5km on the ground. The numerator always represents a unit on the map_while-the denominator represents the equivalent ground distance. This type of scale is very popular because of its simplicity. ii, Linear Scale: This is a straight line conveniently marked into primary and secondary divisions each of which represents a certain distance on the ground. From the point zero indicated-on the line, the numbering to the right is the primary division while that to the left is the secondary division. ~ The secondary division graduated into metres is used to determine fractions of the unit of primary division. Linear scale enables map users to easily determine actual ground distances after measurement without any further calculations. Zero is the starting point of all measurements on the linear scale: (iii) . Statement of Scale: This is an expression of scale using words or in the form of a statement. For example one-centimeter on the map.represents 50.000cm or half a kilometer on the ground.Practical Steps In 0° Level Map Work: Petiangma & Afuetlajea RIS ‘1.2.3. Map Key — These’ are symbols or conventional signs used to represent some important features on maps. Without the key, the identification and recognition of feature on maps’ is impossible. Though some symbols are very familiar to regular map users, it is advisable to always consult the key for confirmation. A map without a key is like a well furnished house without a door. 1.2.4, Grid References Grid lines are parallel lines running across a map fromr West to East and from North to South. They help in the location of map features.’ Two main types of grid lines exist namely: the Eastings and the Northings. Eastings are vertical parallel lines running from North to South. They’ are called eastings because their values. (numbers) increased from west to east. Northings are horizontal parallel lines running from west to east. They are called northings because their values (numbers) increased from south to north. See illustration below 13 + 1 ‘Ley fy 12}-—* = | | 4H | : 1 . pa | 7 1 Th Ee 1 : | = 2) | i | co an Che = ise : te = 1gPractical Steps In 0' Level Map Work: Petiangma & Afuetlajea eee OCC Steps Ot NS In order to locate features on maps, two main types of grid reference are used. These are the Four Figure Grid Reference and Six Figure Grid Reference. i Four Figure Grid Reference: It is used to identify a grid square. All the squares on the map above have their four figure grid references. The {first two figures in a four figure grid reference is always from the Easting while the Jast two is always from the Northings. For instance, the shaded square above is 1211. Note that 12 is from the Easting and 11 from the Northings. The correct square is always the square to the top right (North East) of the intersection point of the two grid lines. The shaded square (12 11) above is to the North East of the intersection point of Easting 12 and Northing 11. ii Six Figure Grid Reference: Unlike the Four Figure Grid Reference which identifies grid squares, the six figure grid reference is more precise becausé it gives the exact location of map feature. The first three “figures in the six figure grid reference is always from the Eastings while the dast three is always from the Northings. This law is irreversible. For instance, the six figure grid reference of point A above is 165095, while that of point B is 121093. Note that in each case the first three figures are from the Eastings and the last three from the Northings. The first two figures in each case correspond to a grid line while the third figure is obtained by estimating the “fenth” subdivision of each square. For point A, 16 correspond to Easting 16 while 5 is estimated. Similarly 09 correspond to Northing 09 while 5 is equally estimated. Exercise 1. State the six Figure Grid Reference of the following points: (i) Point C (ii) Point D (it) Point E (iv) Point F (») Point 2. Inwhich grid squares are the following numbers found: 1,2,3 and 4ractcel Spe In 0 Level Map Work: Petiangma & Afuetlajea 1.2.5, Direction and Beariny _ Thé relative location of places or feature on maps can also be given using the compass direction and bearing. () Direction (Compass direction) The compass is uséd to indicate the direction of features on maps: The compass has’16 main (cardinal) points. The diagram below shows the sixteen cardirial points of a compass. To determine the direction of one object from another the following steps must be followed. | a * Identify #he two principal objects or features and note the origin (observation point) 7: * Construct(draw) the cardinal point at the origin ¢ Draw a syaight line linking the two objects NB. The direction that falls on the straight line linking the two objects is the direction of the object: See illustration below.Practical Steps In O° Level Map Work: Petiangma & Afuetlajea —=—=——— What are the direction of A and B from C below. Note that the origin is C_ because the direction of A and B are to be determined from C, thus cardinal point is drawn at C. _ ~ @ 30) W wt : 3 pe ° (iso) From the illustration above it is very clear that A is South West of C and B East North East of C (@) Bearing: This is simply another way of determining direction, It is the angle in degrees made by one object from another in a clockwise direction. All measurement begins from North which is assumed. to have'a bearing of 0°. ‘The steps to follow. are: similar to that of determining: direction above. When this is done, simply place a Protractor on the N-S line making sure that N has a bearing of 0», § 180" and the centre of the protractor placed on the object at the origin (observation point). The angle-made by the straight line linking the two objects is the bearing. The bearing of B and A from C above are illustrated using arrows. The bearing of the four. principal cardinal points have been indicated as follows: East (90°), South (180°), West (276°), and North (0° or 360°) NB. A protractor is the most precise instrument for: determining bearing. 6Practical Steps In 0’ Level Map Work: Petiangma & Afuetlajea ‘Study the map above on page 3 carefully and answer the questions that follow. i, What is the direction and bearing of A from ii.” What is the direction and bearing of D from B?(CHAPTER 2: MAP MEASUREMENT 2.1. Measurement of Distances Two categories of distances exist on maps namely: straight distances and winding distances. i. Straight Distances: This can be-the length or width of a map, distance along a grid line etc, The following steps should be followed when measuring the straight distance between any two points. © Identify the starting and end points for example A and B as shown below Ae, 2k © Place the centimeter scale of your ruler along the straight line making sure that zero centimeters is at thé starting point (in the case below, point A) . The centimeter reading at the end point (Point B) is the map distance in cm. See illustration below A : a 28 RULER In this case, the map distance is 4.5em NB. Students should note that ground distances are not measured in cm. Thus, the map distance obtained in cm MUST be converted to km. The formula below facilities the conversion Map Measurement X Map Scate 100.000 | Actual Ground Distance = U Assuming that the map scale above is 1: 50.000, then the actual ground distance between A and B above is—-Map-Measurement4Map Scale- Ground Distance NB. It is always divided by 100,000 in ord ap distance which is in centimeiers (cm) to ground distance which imust be in kilomeiers (kw). Note that 100.000cm is equivalent to km. Sem X0.000em 48g, ~"400.000em yo eck (ii) Winding Distances: This can be the distance electricity transmission line, pipeline ete Instruments Needed: Clean sheet of paper, string, peneil, and nites . Winding distances can be measured either using a straight edge a/ paper or using a thread (string) a. Measuring ¥ followed: a straight edge © Identify the starting point and the ending point * Use a sharp pencil and-divide the distance into segments that took i straight © Place the edge of a clean sheet of paper along the first straight segment of the r id around the star point and mark the stating point on the paper. Where the winding road deviates from the straight paper edge, PIVOT ihe paper with yo pencil and rotate or align it-with the next straignt segment. KEMEA | tis process unt you reach tne enai point . See iliustration below.Practical Steps in 0” jevei Map Works Petiangma & Afuetiajea © When this ® done, a ruler is now placed along the straight paper-edge with.zero cm placed at the starting point, The reading at th, 2nd point is ack ihe map distance of th © Note that the map distance of ified MUST be converted to actual ground distance wsing the formula Map Measurement X Map Scale 100.000 suring using a thread or string: the following steps si follow: © Identify the starting pomt and the ending point > Place the string at the starting string mink = While making sure that the starting point marked in ink is placed at the exact-point, align the string along the road making sure that it respect the curves (bend) and mark the point on the string Remove the string and place on a ruler making sure the starting point is at zero centimeters and take the centimeter at the end point. + The distance obtained in centimet the formula in “a” above. i point and mark the starting point on the 3 is converted to’ kilometers using NB, The string or thread used should be white and.must noi be elastic 22. MEASUREMENT OF AREAS ‘Two types of areas exist on maps iamely; regular areas and irregular areas regular shapes such as rectangles, squares, circles etc. These shapes have specific formula for the calculation of areas. The illustration below shows how regular areas can be calculated. 1 s: These are areas wit gular 20Practical Steps In O' Level Map Work: Petiangma& Afuetlajea Area of Frukankang = Length x Width (NB. Rectangular shape) Lefgth=9em, Width=Scin + map area = 9x5 = 45cm? NB. This must be converted to actual ground area in km’_using the formula below - _ Map Scale Map Scale Actual Ground Area = map area x PEE MEP SEE 50.000 ' 50.000 160.000 * 100.000 ie 45x = 14.25km? aExercise Study the 1: 50.000 map extract of Mrukangkang above and calculate; () Area of the map East of Hasting 12 (ii). Area of the map West of Easting 14 but North of Northing 20. (2). Irregular Areas: These are areas whose shapes do not have specific formula. These include lake, sea, vegetated areas etc. Three different methods can be used to calculate irregular areas namely: (i) Square method (ii) Strip method (iii) Geometric method The squaré method is the most popular and easiest method. This method requires a graph paper. Below are the various steps and illustration of this method ~ © Step 1: Identify the irregular area to be calculated noting its boundary on your map. For example the lake shown belowPractical Steps In 0’ Level Map Work: Petiangma & Afuetlajea ce ea ¢ Step 3: Count the number of full squares (the two squares ticked above are the full squares) Ne of full square = 2 © Step 4: Count the nutiber of half squares and divide by 2 ie (squares marked x above corresponds to half square) ie No of half squares= 17/2 = 8.5 © Step 5: Add result of step 3 and step 4 to obtain the Total Number of Full Squares(TNES) ie 2+ 8.5 = 10.5 e Step 6: Use the formula below to convert your answer in step 5 to actual ground area. Assume that map scale here is 1: 50.000 Actuat Area = riis-x Ho? Seale, Map Scate ae Map Scale Map Scale ceual Area * 799.000 ~ 100.000 50.000 | 50.000 _ 10.5 AS = 2.625km* * je 10.5x = ne 100.000~" 100.000 4 Exercise Calculate the surface area occupied by woodland on the Extract of Frukangkang shown below. # Po 3 4h IS MePractical Steps In 0’ Level Map Work: Petiangma & Afuetlajea CHAPTER 3: MAP COPYING, REDUCTION/ENLARGEMENT 3.1. MAP COPYING To copy a map means to reproduce a map exactly as it is without any alteration. The dimensions of your copied map must be the same with that of the original map. The following are the steps to follow when copying or reproducing a map. © Measiire the™“length and» width of your original map and draw corresponding dimensions on your answer sheet © - Measure the interval between grid lines and reproduce the grid lines with the same intervals on your copied-maps. Number the grid lines © Insert features asked to insert at their exact locations and add a key Write the title of your map, scale (exact scale of original map) and the cardinal point. . Copy the 1: 50.000 map extract of Fru below aed insert the following @ Main road (i) Church (iti) Patace (iv) Market (x) land above 400. | Metin reed Secoaloy Roce] Palace Howket Church3.2.. MAP REDUCTION ~ Reducing a map means making the map smaller than its original size. Maps can be reduced to. half its scale, one third of its original scale etc. More often than not, students are asked to reduce maps to half its original scale. The following steps MUST be followed: when reducing 2 map to half its original scale, © Measure the length and width of your original map and divide cach by two. The results obtained should be the new length and width of your reduced map : © Measure your grid line intervals and equally divide by two to obtain your reduced map gtid line intervals © Insert features asked at their exact locations and add a key © Write the title of your map, new scale and cardinal point. NB. Note that when a map is reduced, the scale increases. If reduced by half its original scale, the old scale is multiplied by two to-obtain the new scale. For example if old scale is 1: 10.000, then-new scale will be 1: 20.000. Reduce the map extract of Fru above to half its original scale and insert the following (Main and secondary roads (ii) Church (iii) Market (iv) Palace (v) Land above 500m 3.3.. MAP ENLARGEMENT: This means making a map larger than its original size. More often than not, students are asked to enlarge part of a map. To enlarge a map to twice its original scale, the following steps must be followed:Practical Steps In Level Map Work: ngma & Afuetlajea © Measure the length and width of the original map and multiple each by two. The result obtained should be your length and width © Equally measure grid line intervals and multiply by two to obtain your new grid line intervals Insert features-asked at their exact locations and add’a key Make sure your enlarged map has a title, cardinal point and new scale NB. The new scale is obtained by dividing the scale of the original map by 2 Enlarge the area west of Easting 24 but south of Northing 13 on the extract of Fru to twice its original scale and insert the following features. () Main road (ji) Secondary road (iti) Church (iv) Market. NB. Note that students may be asked to copy, reduce or enlarge all or only part of the original map. . NB. For-the exercises in this. book, give your teacher to correct if you doubt your work. 16CHAPTER 4: RELIEF Relief simply refers to'the physical shape of the earth’s surface. That is the different land forms of the earth (highlands and lowlands) 4.1, REPRESENTATION OF RELIEF ON MAP ‘A number of cartographic techniques are used to show or represent relief on topographic maps.-These techniques include the following 1) Contours: These are lines drawn on topographic maps joining places with the same height above sea level. Contours change at regular intervals. Areas with high density contours have steep slopes while those with low density contours have gentle slopes. Similarly, areas with no contours are relatively flat (plains), The diagram below shows contours Which section of the relief has steep slope? 2) Spot height! This is a'dot with a figure written beside it on topographic maps. For example, @125. This example implies that, that particular point is 125m above sea level. Thus, the figure written beside the dot stands for its height above sea level.Practical Steps in 0° Level Map Work: yma & Afuetlajea 3) Trigonometrical Station or Triangular Pillar: This is-a small triangle with a figure beside it representing the height of that particular point above sea level for example 225 4) Bench Mark: This is another technique or way of showing the height of a particular point above sea level. Bencli marks on topographic maps are indicated by BM and a figure written beside it standing for the height of the point above sea level for example BM2225. NB. The major disadvantage of spot height, Trigonometrical siations and Bench Marks is that they can be affécted by earth movements suchi as earthquakes, landslide and volcanic eruptions. This may cause thei to give wrong information. Other cartographic teckiniques used to represent or show relief on topographic maps not explained here include the following: (Layer colouring (shading) (ii) Form line (iii) Hachuring _ How are these techniques used to show differences in relief? (Refresh) 4.2, CONTOURS AND LAND FORMS RECOGNITION Contours are the most popular cartographic technique used to represent relief on maps. This can be attributed (o the fact that contouts can be used to show a multitude of landforms, as earlier mentioned. Areas with high density (closely packed) contours have steeper slopes than areas with low density (widely spread contours). The wide-spread use of contours to represent relief on topographic maps is largely because it can be used fo represent different landforms. The different shapes portrayed by contours on maps simply exhibit the ‘different landforms of the area. Some common landforms and their associated contour shapes include the folowing: 18~Practical Steps In 0" Level Map Work: Petiangma & Afuetiajea 1) Hills ‘and Mountains: Generally, areas with contours rising more that 1000m are said to be mountainous while those with contours generally Jess than 1000m are hilly. Isolated Hills and Mountains in lowland areas are representéd by near circular contours. Study the figures below and identify which of the two isolated highlands is a hill and which is a mountain. 2) Valleys and Spurs: A valley is a deep narrow elongated depression which may be a dry or river valley.-A spur on its part is simply part of a highland area that projects into nearby lowland. On topographic maps, valleys are shown by V-shaped contours with their “V" pointing towards areas of higher elevation (highland) See this illustration below;Practical Steps In 0’ Level Map Work: Petiangma & Afuetlajea. __ Study Fig, 1B carefully and () Identify all the spurs - (ii) Identify all valleys by inserting streams indicating their directions of flow 3) Ridges, Saddle (col) and Pass: A ridge is a narrow elongated highland which may extend from a few to hundreds and even thousands of km. On, maps, ridges are shown by narrow elongated contours. Saddles/Passés are some common features that usually exist “in association with ridges. A saddle is.a narrow passage in a hilly area between two peaks (hills) while a pass is a passage in a mountainous area between two peaks (mountains). The diagram below shows a ridge and shows a ridge and associated features. Note contours values where saddle and pass exists 4) Plateau: A plateau is an extensive highland with’a flat top. On maps a perfect plateau is represented by rectangular contours closely packed outwardly and widely spread in the middle as shown below. 20Practical Steps In 0’ Level. However, it is rare to find-a perfect plateau on most rhaps. Many plateaux have been deformed by rivers into dissected plateaux. The diagram below shows the contour shape of dissected plateau. 5) Cuesta and. Escarpment: A Cuesta is an’ asymmetrical highland or Jandform with an abrupt cliff (escarpment) on one side and a gentle slope (dip slope) on another. An escarpment is also called the scarp slope. On topographic maps a Cuesta is represented in this way;Practical Steps In O' Level Map Work: Petiangma & Afuetlajea NB. Note that the escarpment or, scarp slope of the Cuesta has closely packed contours while: the dip slope of the Cuesta -has widely spread contours. 6) Coastal Features: Contours are hardly used to represent coastal land forms on topographic maps. Some coastal features such as coastal cliffs are often indicated on maps with symbols shown on the key. Students should always consult the key when describing such features Other stich as capes, bays, stacks, spits, tombolos and beaches are not even indicated on the key. Students are expected here to use their knowledge of physical geography to- identify such features. To this regard. they must understand and be able to identify these features on’the earth’s surface, Study the map below carefully and identify the various coastal features lettered A to F. group the features identified into erosional and depositional features.Practical Steps In 0’ Level Map Work: Petiangma & Afuetlajea NB. If you can not identify these features then revise coastal processes and “landforms and try again. 4.3, GRADIENT. Gradient simply refers to the degree of slope steepness. When you say this area is gentle or very steep, you are referring to gradient. Areas with widely spaced contours have gentle gradient while those with closely packed contours have steep gradient. The formula below is used in the calculation of gradient. Vertical Interval (VI) Gradient = 7 oneal Equivalent (HE) Where in: VI = difference between the highest and lowest points. HE= the actual distance in metres between the two points 23Practical Steps In 0’ Level Map Work: Petiangma & Afuetlajea (this may be a straight line or a winding distance in the case of rivers, roads etc). For instance, calculaté the gradient of the slope between point A and B on the sketch map below assuming that HE = 2.7om. 1: 50.000 Solution Vertical Interval (V1) Horizontal Equivalent (HE) * Gradient = VI =900m = 200m = 700m HE = 2.7em (must be converted to km and then to m) «2.7 x 50,000 ig = “ZR ReNt = 1.35km (multiply by 1000 to convert to m) Which is 1.35km x 1000 = 1350m + Gradient = 20 = 1.1.93 (this is in rati « Gradient = som 7 UE (this is in ratio) In degrees = ane = = 186.7 700m — 100 In% = cee 9 130i cae 24NB. Gradient can be written in any of these three ways (ratio, degrees, %) The larger the last figure in ratio form, the lesser the gradient and vice versa. Exercise - Calculate the gradient of the slope between X and Y above assuming that HE 3.2 44. CROSS SECTION (TOPOGRAPHICAL PROFILE)/VERTICAL EXAGGERATION A cross section is a diagram showing variation in relief (beight) along a line drawn across a map. It may equally show some major human and other physical features. The steps in éfoss section drawing are very simple and when understood,can be drawn with relative ease and neatnéss. Assume you are asked to draw a cross section (profile) between XY and to insert the following features; River Sanaga, Hill top settlement and secondary road. Steps (i) Identify the two points XY, (note that the six figure grid reference may be used to refer you to the points). (ii) Join the two points with a straight line as illustrated belowGi) practical tps nO Level Mop Werke Petingma& Aue Place a clean sheet of paper.with straight sides(edge) along the line and mark the points XY on the paper. Again on the paper, put a mark where ever a contour crosses the XY line and write the contour value as shown below. (iv) $ e 2 On your answer sheet draw’a vertical line (Y axis) and a horizontal line (X axis). The horizontal line MUST be exactly the distance between XY. Your vertical line should be graduated in metres using a suitable scale (Use your ruler), taking of the highest and lowest contour values that the XY line crosses. This is shown below. Horizontal scale 1:50000 Fig 1.7c Vertical and Horizontal scalePractical Steps In 0 Level Map Work: Petiongma & Afuetiajea NB. Note that the vertical scale is labeled in metres while the horizontal line is simply the map scale. (¥) Now take your paper with marks and place it along the bottom of your horizontal line as shiown below-Make sure that point X on your paper falls exactly on the vertical line (vertical axis) (vi) Plot corresponding height fourid on the papier as dot on the graph as shown above. (vii) With a pencil join the dots and you will.see the shape of the land between X and Y as shown above. - (viii) Insert all the features required of you at their exact locations (x) Note: your cross section must have a title, labeled and shaded as shown “above. Equally write the vertical scale used for example lem 100m and horizontal scale (map scale). VERTICAL EXAGGERATION (VE) Vertical exaggeration is the vertical scale of a cross section expressed as ratio of the horizontal scale. It usually shows the degree to which the vertical scale (height) is exaggerated or magnified over the horizontal scale. Vertical exaggeration is calculated using the formula. 27Practical Steps In 0’ Level Map Work: Petiangma & Afuetlajea Vertical scale (VS) = Horizontal Scale(HS) Vertical Exaggeration (VE) ~ where in © Vertical scale, which is usually in metres is multiplied by 100 to convert ittocm Horizontal scale is the map scale. The vertical exaggeration of the cross section drawn above can be calculated as follows; ~ Vertical Scale Horizontal Scale Vertical Exaggeration (VE) = Vertical scale = Lein: 100m ie 1em : 100 x 100 (it is multiplied by 100 to convert to cm) ~~= 110,000 Horizontal scale = 1:50,000 1: 10.000 = 1 + i = ~ 10.6000 ~ 50.000 - 1 50000 =——x 10.0000" 1 =5 es or X5_(NB.VE iS written in times) This implies that our vertical scale has been exaggerated 5 times over the horizontal scale. Exercise Study the sketch map above carefully with an assumed scale of 1:50.000 and draw a cross section from point A to B. calculate vertical exaggeration. > 28Practical Steps nO’ Level Map Work: Petiangma & Afuetlajea CHAPTER 5; FEATURES DESCRIPTION/INTERPRETATION OF PHYSICAL 5,1. RELIEF ‘A good description of relief depends largely on the uncerstanding and interpretation of contours. The density and differences in contour shapes give vital information on relief. Before description, it is important te know how to draw a sketch map showing relief regions. How fo divide a map into relief regions This is simply the identification of major highlands, lowlands and large water bodies on 4 ap. This division is based prin ipally of gontour pattern. This is done by simply separating areas with high density contous fron wid ‘1 low density contours and water bodies as shown below. Fig 5.1B isa sketch map showing the major relief regions of Fig 9.1A. Note that the demarcation line between inds and low és is contour 50 and that separating lowiands from the sea is the shoreline, A sketch inp has no scale and the grid lines are not important. However it mast have a title. 29Rractica Steps In 0” Level Mop Work: Petiangma & sfuetigjea How to Describe Relief The following steps must be followed when describing or commenting on the relief of an area, ° Divide the area into relief regions (highlands and lowlands) and make sure that the different relief regions are located. (Map is not necessary, this division is literally done). Describe the different relief regions Separately for example highlands and lowlands * The following steps should be followed when describing each relief region: — Estimate the Approximate area of the map covered by the highland x State the highest Point, lowest point and the average’ height of the highland. Average height = highest point + lowest point = 2 © Identify the area with steep slo es and that with gentle slope ¥ Identify and locate some important landforms inthe highland region For instance, see the description of relief regions of the extract of Njungo below carefully, _, Extract of Nj jungo:This ren i¢ made up of two relief units (highland and lowland } There ate ovo hivhbands: located inthe NE and Sw, while the lowland lies ina Nw- SE direction the hig bland in the NE occupies almost half of the total surface area of the map, Its highest point is 678m (in the grid square 1525 while the lowest point is 50m (contour $0). This implies that this area has an average height of *64m above sea level: This area has steeper slopes in the South (especial! of ly East. ting 14) than inthe West. The lowland which is mainly the valley of river OX occupies approximarery $ or the tofal surface area of the map. This valley 1s generally t thanin NW. ow 50m and is broader in the ce area. Its highest point is 570m (grid square 1122) while its lowest point + The highaidregion in the SW on its part occupies about Kol the tot is $Om, Its average height is therefore 310m. This highland-has a-deep valley in the East drained by a tributary of River Ox 310 5.2. DRAINAGE - Drainage is a general term referring to the distribution and organization ofwater bodies on maps (rivers, lakes, seas, swamps ete). ‘The following steps should always guide you when asked to describe drainage ¢ Identify the major river by name and state their direction of flow © Identify and locate poorly drai nd well drained areas. The presence of lakes, sivamps, niarsh, mangrove and meandering rivers all indicate poor drainage. The absence of these characteristics indicates good drainage toPractical Steps In 0’ Level a} tiangme & Afuet! Radial Pattery wT Freltis Patten ] Parallel Pattern 2 H Nr BB OS | Streams radiata fiom a hill ryibulary slreanns join *he| Trig treme fle purelll Like the spokes ofa bisycle | main stream alist at wght aryl) to anata Sewn bafore joining | Rectangular Paiten | Aanules Pablers NG aoe \ x oT NYA) | x fly nd | a ce | VAX | traswes resenbl?: Tributary strane have Sevan!) Sloéam. 7 PER arp ole one | Shuts deco hit a | Fig: Drainage pattern Exercise Study te map ectract of tha Qyere Basin Selaw and answer questions tatfellows Savanngactical Steps In O' Level Map Wo Petiangma & Afuetlajea Describe the following: () The drainage pattern of the area (i) The relief ~ 5.3. VEGETATION - Vegetation simply refers to the plant cover of an area. Two ain vegetation may be found on topography maps. These are forest (woodland) and grassland Vegetation. -Forest vegetation may bé sub-divided into coniferous forest, and tropical forest. Similarly grassland vegetation is subdivided into Savanna and temperate grassland. How to describe or Comment on Vegetation The following aspects should always be considered and clearly brought out when describing or commenting on vegetation: (Identify and locate the different types of vegetation. Consider vegetation subdivisions if found. Use cardinal point or grid references to locate. (ii) State whether the vegetation types identified are continuous or exist in batches. If in patches identify and locate at least two different areas of each, : 7 Gif) Suggest possible reasons for their locations. Such reasons may be linked to.climate, reliéf, soils and drainage. Note that the existence of coniferous forest and other forest reserves very close to urban areas suggest conservation for recreation. For instance the vegetation of the Oyere Basin above’ can be described as follows; 33Practica Stops in 0” Level Map Worke Petongma & Afuetajea TT Two main vegetation types are found on the extract of the Oyere basin these are forest vegetation and grassland vegetation. Forest vegetation is found mainly along the coastal area in the South. This may be attributed to the deep soils in the lowland Grassland vegetation on its part is found mainly on the ridge west of Easting 22. There is also a small patch of grassland vegetation in the North East precisely in the grid square 2414. The existence of grassland vegetation in highlands may be attributed to the existence of skeletal soils which can not support forest vegetation, The skeletal soit is due to high rates of erosion on highlands - 7 Exercise Following the procedure above, study the map extract of Essoh-Atiah below and describe i) vegetation ii) relief ii) draimage iv) rock typePractical Steps In 0° Level Map Work: 5.4. ROCK AND GEOLOGY ; Two main types of rocks can be identified on topographic maps. These are; () Permieable Rocks: These are Tocks which allow water to infiltrate or penetrate through them rapidly. .Aréas with very few or no streams, rivers and swamps on topographic maps are generally areas with permeable rocks. For example limestone and-chalk. (ii) -Impermeable Rocks: These are rocks which do not! allow little water to infiltrate or perietrate through them.~Areas with many rivers, streams, lakes and. swamps on topographic maps are ateas with impermeable rocks. ‘Apart from these, rocks on maps may also be classed-as resistant and less resistant rocks. Resistant rocks resist erosion and thus form hills and highlands while less resistant rocks are easily. eroded into lowlands. Thus highlands are generally made up_of resistant rocks while lowlands and valleys are generally made up of less resistant rocks. 35 :z eee Eractical Steps In” Level Map Work: Petiangma & Afuetiajea CHAPTER 6: DESCRIPTION/INTERPRETATION OF HUMAN FEATURES - 6.1. SETTLEMENT - settlement is any human habitation big or small inhabited by one or many persons. Settlements therefore Tange from hamlets, villages, towns to cities. The sketch map shows different settlements, thy —NCHIGANG AND ITS eyyinons ee eee area 7 By | Police fost building church a é EH | School [CY | Marked 7 Main oad | Fook path 2S 2b a The following important aspects must be considered when studying settlements on maps. (© Type of Settlements: Two main types of settlements can be identified on maps namely; Urban and Rural settlements. ~ Urban Settlements are usually larger with good roads functions (secondary, tertiary functions). For instance, map above is the lone urban settlement.” and perform so many Nchigang dn the sketch Rural settlements on their part perform prim: ‘ary function especially agriculture. They equall ly have-poor road networks (mainly secondary roads and footpaths). ‘The settlements of Kengang and Nkiteh above ae all rural settlements, 36NB. Settlements should always be named ot located before any form of description. (ii) Settlement Pattern: Settlement pattern refers to the shape and arrangement of building: in an area. Pattern is more often than not associated ‘with rural settlements. The following types of rural settlement patterns are usually common on maps Nucleated or clustered settlement: These are rural settlements with high density or closely packed buildings. For instance, the settlement of Nkiteh in the grid square 2613 is a nucleated settlement. Dispersed rural settlement. These are rural settlement with scattered or widely spaced buildings. For instance the settlement in the highland region between the two tributaries of River Mbeh above is a disperse tural settlement. Also, the settlement on the highland region in the South west is also a dispersed rural séttlement Linear Settlement: These are settlements with buildings arranged in the form of a line. That is it is an elongated narrow settlement probably along a road, river or narrow valley. For instance the settlement of Kengang above is linear settlement. NB. Whether nucleated, dispersed or linear, students should always give at least a reason why the pattern exists. (iii) “Site and’ Situation: Site refers to the physical characteristics of the actual area”where a settlement is located- Aspects like relief and drainage should be considered when discussing settlement sites. A settlement may be sited ona plain, valley; slope of a hill; estuary of a river, foot of a hill etc. For instance, the settlement of Nchigang above is sited on’a coastal plain and is generally below a height of 100m above sea level. It is equally at the foot of the highland region in the North East. ~ 37Practical Steps in O' Level Map Work: Petiangma & Afuetlajea A Situation on its part refers to the location of a settlement in relation to other important physical and human features in its surrounding. It is the relative location of settlements and equally includes how a settlement is linked to other settlement. For instance, Nchigang is situated east of the sea but west of the highland regions in. the North East. It is linked to the linear settlement of Kengang in the West by road and to the settlement of Nkiteh in the East by a footpath, (iv) Punetions: ‘These are the~different activities performed by @ settlement or carried out in a settlement. The following activities are associated with the following functions. 2 Church, Mosque implies religious functions © School implies educational function © Market implies commercial fimnetions Public building, police post ete implies administrative functions ¢ Parking, camps site implies touristic function : 2 Quarry implies miming function etc NB. Since there is no town in the world without these functions outlined above, students must always give evidence on maps by locating each function identified. This must be done to-eliminate guess work. For instance, the presence of a church at 249139 in Nchigang implies that Nchigang performs religious function. Following this same approach comment on three functions of Nehigang - (v) Land use: As the name indicates, land use refers to the different ways in which man exploits the land. Functions and land uses are quite similar, but differ in that functions are mostly isolated individual activities while land uses cover much wider areas. The following land uses can_be identified if evidence of their existence are seen and located. 38Practical Steps In O’Level Map Work: Petiangma & Afuetl ®- Plantations, orchards, grazing land ete implies agricultural land use Forest of any type implies foréstry or forest exploitation ‘© National parks, forest reserves implies recreational land use © Built up area/houses implies settlement land use” © Market, roads; railways implics commercial land use © Manufacturing evidence (industries estate) implies industrial land use © Refuse dump, spoil heap etc, implies waste land use ete NB. Just like for functions. evidence for each land use must be identified and located to eliminate guess work 6.3. COMMUNICATION Communication refers to any méans by which people, goods and even ideas move from one placé to another. These therefore include routes, internet antd telephones. However, much emphasis here is usually on transport network The following steps--must therefore be followed when~asked to describe transport networks on maps. (i) Identify the different types of transport network found on the map for example railway, main roads, secondary roads and footpaths NB. Water and air transport are not left out (ii) © Take each of the transport network and state or identify areas where it is most commonly found (high density) and also areas where it is common or absent (low density). This may be highlands and lowlands or even urban and: rural areas- Suggest at least one reason each for the pattern identified. Some special examination questions usually call on students to comment on relationship between a feature and another. This may includé: () Relationship betweén transport networks and relief. a EsPractical Steps In O' Level Map Work: Petiangma & : 2 Seed Here, students- should study the different transport networks and relief (highland and lowland) on the map. When this is done, they should proceed by identifying the different transport networks common or mostly found on lowlands or plains and those found mainly on highlands, Reason’ for such a pattern should be suggested. It should be noted that a pattcrn identified may not be 100% true. So identify and give reasons for exceptions if they exist, NB. This same approach should be used’ when asked to commént on the relationship between settlement or settlement patterns and relief Gi)__ Relationship between transport or road networks and-¢ Here, students should study carefully the diffe {transport or road networks depending on the question and the drainage of the area. In studying drainage, note well drained and poorly drained regions In writing, state whether transport network are dense or common in -vell drained or poorly drained areas or notExplain why brieily. Also, study, state and locate strategies used to enable roads pass in poorly drained areas and across rivers. That is, identify and locate major ‘bridges and’ areas where embankments have teen constructed. NB. This approach should always be used for questions asking for relationship but noting the variable asked to relate Exercise Study the sketch map of Nchigang and its Environs above carefully and Comment on the distribution of its transport network (i) Comment on the relationships that exist between settlements and relief. 40STIMU IESTIONS AND ANSWERS 1) Study the 1:50.000 map extract of Bamouth and answer the questions that follow. 2) Identify the features found at the following arid points i) 622185, 651149, 722195 ii) _ State the height of the land at the grid point 688171 = iii) "Calculate the distance by rail from the grid point 612120 to point P, South East of Bamouth, iv) What isthe direction and bearing of parking from the camp site atthe grid point 653159? (10mks) »b) With the aid ofa sketch map, divide the entite area in to relief regions and give each region a descriptive name. - ~ (4mks) 7 0) Draw a cross section (topographical profile) from point X (601193) to the point ¥(689172) and indicate where the following features are located (i’Road.A496 ii) tand above 500m : ii) river ; (6mks) 4) (i) Briefly comment on the site and sitvation of Bamonth e i) With map evidence only, state the functions of Bamouth (8mks) ¢) Comment briefly on the drainage of the map extract ____(amks) 2) Study the 1:25000. map extract of Threlkeld and answer the following questions ) Reduce the area west of Easting 35 to half its original scale arid insert the following i) the dual carriage way and a secondary road ii) the settlement of Threlkeld iii) an area of coniferous forest iv) an area above $00m: a v) school vi) soree (8mks) +b) G) Calculate the surface area occupied by the coniferous trees found almost entirely in the grid square 3723 (ii) Calculate the gradient of the slope between point A (341232) and point B (346248) (8mks) 6) (i) Briefly describe the vegétation and relief of the map extract, (i) Comment on the relationship between road networks and relief in the area (12mks) “@) With map evidence only, comment on the landuse of the area (4mks) osQuestion (Answers) - — a) (i) 622185= Trigonometsical station, 651149= Cemp site, 722195=Cafavan site (i) 308m above sea level Gii) Map Measurement = 6.7em > Actual Ground Distance = Map Measurement x Map Scale 100.000 = 6.2.x 50.000 100.000 ~ = 3.35kan Ans The direction is South West. Beating is 90+90+45=225" | isin ee 19 pout ¥ (689172) EES oakal Scale {3 42 Verlicai Seale Jem (ooun4) G) -Bamouth is sited of a narrow coastal plain, generally below a height of 100m-above sea level Its situated to the South west of the highland region north of River Afon Mawddack and is linked to scitleméats in the cast by road A496.and to the settlement of Fairboume in the south by rail. (i) - the presence of camp site-and caravan site in the grid-square 6017 implies touristic function - road A496 and railway implies commercial function <) ~ The aree is drained mainly by R. Afon Mawddach and its tributaries which flows generally from North east to west entering the sea as an estuary ~ the highland south of road A493 has many lakes such as Llynnau Cregennen ~ generally, the Afon Mawddach valley is poorly drained because it has so miiny marshy areas (Morfa Mawddach) while the hiphlands especially the northern highland is well drained, a) A reduced man ¢ omne important featies plete mice? irene Fel Adland) No of half Squares ‘ ‘Total No of Full Squares( TNFS) = 245(i) Gradient = Vertical Interval __(VI) = Horizontal Equivalent (HE) I= Highest contour — Lowest contour i.e. 300m ~250m =250m HES straight distaiice between the two points on the map = 6.4em. NB. This must be converted to kan using map scale and then to'metrés ie, 6.x 250007 = “L.gkm . 100.000 7 > Gradient = 230m e 1.61000 NB.it is multiplied by 1000 to, convert it from km to metres ©) @) Vegetation “The veuetation of this ntea consists coniferous forest ond grassland which is mainly serub and broken rough, coniferous tees are found in patches mainly in the b'ghland tegion south of the dismantled railway Geassland especially scrub is uniforaly distributed ia the highland Relief ~ the area cor ists of @ highland region and a low lowiand region, the highland which occupies about 2/3 of the map is located mainly in the south and east. he slope of the highland is steeper in the west than in the east The lowland, located in the west and north west is principally the valley and flood plain of R. Threlkeld (ii) -Phis area has major roads such as the dual carriage way and main roads, secondary roads and public paths = Major roads (dual carriage way and main roads) are found mainly in lowland probably because of their high coustruction cost while secondary roads and public paths-extend to highlands since they are cheap and easy to construct. 4) ~ coniferous trees (such as in grid square 3723) implies woodland or forest landuse - buildings (Whhrelkeid) imply settlement Janduse -irviyation channels (in the south west) suggest agricultural landuse