VII Sem Latha P

EIE

FLIGHT CONTROL SYSTEMS

When top speeds advanced into the transonic region( transonic refers to the condition of flight in which
a range of velocities of airflow exist surrounding and flowing past an air vehicle that are concurrently
below and above the speed of sound in the range of Mach 0.8 to 1.0, i.e. 965–1,236 km/h (600–768 mph)
at sea level) , there was a need for more complex and sophisticated methods. Complications with top
speeds was aerodynamically related.
Many high performance aircraft which experienced roll/yaw-coupled oscillations commonly called Dutch-
roll led to introduction of yaw dampers and other auto-stabilization systems. In transport aircrafts these
were required for passenger comforts and in military aircrafts it became necessary for target tracking and
weapon aiming reasons. These dampers introduced electronics into flight-control. These electronics
performed complex electronic controls and to guard against equipment failures.
Now the technology can remove the linkage between pilot and flight control actuators and totally rely on
electronic means to control the flight.
Recent development is digital “fly-by-wire” systems which can accommodate multiple channel inputs and
possesses logic to detect failures.

Principles of flight control:

The motion of aircraft is defined in relation to translational motion and rotational motion around a fixed
set of defined axes.

Translational motion is where a vehicle travels from one point to another in space. Ex. The direction in
which the aircraft is flying. Rotational motion relates to the motion of aircraft around three defined axes:
pitch, roll, and yaw.
For many flights, aircraft will be flying straight and level, so velocity vector will be parallel to the surface
of the earth. If the aircraft has to climb, flight control system is required to rotate the aircraft around the
pitch axis (OX) in the nose-up sense to achieve a climb angle. When desired altitude is reached, aircraft
will be rotated in a nose-down sense till it reaches straight and level position.
In fixed wing aircrafts, to alter the heading, a turn is executed to align the aircraft on OY axis (roll axis).
This change in heading is actually a rotation around the yaw axis (OZ).
Difference between climb and turn is that the climb only involves rotation around one axis whereas the
turn involves simultaneous coordination of two axes.
The aircraft flight control system enables the pilot to exercise control over the aircraft in pitch, roll and
yaw axes during all portions of flight.
Flight control surfaces:
The requirements of flight control surfaces vary greatly from one aircraft to another. There are 2 types of
aircraft: 1. Agile fighter aircraft 2. Typical modern commercial airliner.
(a) Primary flight control(for fighter aircraft):
Pitch control is provided by the moving canard surfaces or fore planes located on either side of the
cockpit. Without the benefit of an active computer-driven control system, the aircraft would be
uncontrollable and would crash in a matter of seconds.
Roll control is provided by the differential motion of the fore planes. To roll to the right, the left fore
plane leading edge is raised relative to the airflow generating greater lift than before. Conversely, the right
fore plane moves downwards by a corresponding amount relative to the airlift reducing the lift generated.
This differential force causes the aircraft to roll rapidly to the right.
Yaw control is provided by the single rudder section. For high performance aircraft, yaw control is less
important than a commercial one.
 (b) Secondary flight control(for fighter aircraft):
High lift control is provided by a combination of flaperons and leading edge slats. The flaperons may be
lowered during the landing to increase the wing chamber and improve aerodynamic characteristics of the
wing. During combat, these slats are extended to increase wing chamber and lift.
Primary flight control (for commercial aircraft):
Figure shows the flight control surfaces for the Airbus A320.
Pitch control is exercised by four elevators located on the trailing edge of the tailplane. The entire
tailplane section itself is powered by two or more actuators in order to trim the aircraft in pitch. In
emergency, this facility could be used to control the aircraft.
Roll control is provided by two aileron sections located on the outboard third of the trailing edge of each
wing. During a right turn the spoilers on the inside wing of the turn, will be extended. This reduces the lift
of the right wing causing it to drop.
Both pitch and roll control is powered by dedicated actuators which are powered from hydraulic systems.
Yaw control is provided by three independent rudder sections located on the trailing edge of the fin.
These damp out unpleasant “dutch roll” oscillations which occur during flight causing discomfort to the
passengers seated at the rear of aircraft.
Secondary flight control (for commercial aircraft):
Flap control is effected by several flap sections located on the wing trailing edges. Flaps during take-off or
landing extends rearwards and downwards to increase wing area thereby increasing lift for a given speed.
Number of flap sections may vary. For A320 there would be 5 per wing, making a total of 10.
Slat control is provided by leading edge slats, which extend forward and outwards from the wing. It
increases the wing area and therefore overall lift. A typical aircraft may have 5 slat sections per wing,
making a total of 10.
Speed-brakes are deployed when all the over-wing spoilers are extended together which has the effect
of reducing lift as well as increasing drag. The fighter control surfaces are much greater than the
corresponding control surfaces on an airliner.
The commercial airliner has more modest control requirements and has more flying time, so fuel
economy, passenger comforts and safety is the prime target than the performance.
Flight Control Actuation:
Fly-by-wire and active control units are the new flight systems advent. The key element is the power
actuation. Actuation is important for the flight control system to attain its specified performance.
Actuation leads to following categories:
- Simple mechanical actuation, hydraulically powered.
- Mechanical actuation with simple electromechanical features.
- Multiple redundant electromechanical actuation with analogue control inputs and feedback.

(a) Simple mechanical/Hydraulic Actuation:

Conventional Linear Actuator:

Linear actuator is usually powered by one of the aircraft hydraulic systems-blue channel. In functionally
critical applications a dual hydraulic supply from another aircraft hydraulic system may be used. A
mechanically operated servo valve (SV) directs the hydraulic supply to the appropriate side of the piston
ram.
As the pilot feeds a mechanical input to the flight control actuator, the summing link will rotate about the
bottom pivot, thus applying an input to SV. Hydraulic fluid then flows into one side of the ram and exiting
from the other side resulting in movement of ram in a direction the pilot commands.
As the ram moves, the feedback link will rotate the summing link about the upper pivot returning the SV
to the null position. For most applications the mechanical actuator accepts hydraulic power. The benefit
is full control is retained following loss of fluid or a failure in either hydraulic system.
The actuators themselves have a simple reversion mode following failure. This mode is called
aerodynamic centring.
(b) Mechanical Actuation with Electrical Signaling :

Modern aircrafts use electrical signaling and hydraulically powered actuators. These actuators are of 2
types: simple demand signals or auto stabilization inputs.
Autopilots are used to reduce pilot work load. For this electrical and mechanical inputs need to be coupled
to the actuator as shown in figure. When the autopilot is engaged, electrical demands from autopilot
computer drive an electrical input which takes precedence over pilot’s demand.
The actuator operates with the mechanical inputs to the summing link causing SV to move. When the pilot
retrieves control by disengaging autopilot, normal mechanical link to the pilot is restored.
For noncritical flight control surfaces, using an electrical link may be cheaper, easier lighter. ex. a spoiler
actuator uses duplex electrical signaling with a simplex hydraulic supply. There are 4 actuators filter on
the aircraft, 3 per wing for roll augmentation.
(c) Multiple redundancy actuation:
Modern flight control systems are adopting fly-by-wire solutions. The benefits include a reduction in
weight, improvement in handling performance and passenger comfort.
For simplicity figure shows only one lane or channel. The solenoid valve is energized to supply hydraulic
power to the actuator from 2 hydraulic systems. Control demands are fed to the servo valves. The SV
control the position of the first-stage valves that are mechanically summed before applying demands to
control valves which modulate the position of control ram. LVDTs measure the position of the first-stage
actuator and output ram positions of each lane and these signals are fed back to flight control computers.
Ex of quadruplex actuation system are-tornado quadruplex taileron and rudder actuators associated with
Control Stability Augmentation System (CSAS) and EAP flight control system.
CSAS flight control computation is provided by pitch (pitch computations) and lateral computers (handle
roll and yaw computations). There are 3 computing lanes. Computing is analog in nature and voter
monitors are present to vote out lanes operating outside specification.

The EAP flight control system is a quadruplex digital computing system in which control computations are
undertaken in all four computing lanes.
Figure shows the relationship between the flight control computers (FCCs), Actuator Drive Units(ADUs)
and the actuators. Analog demands are fed from the digital FCCs. The ADUs receive the pitch, roll and
yaw demands from FCCs, the digital to analog conversion happens in ADUs.
Advanced Actuation Implementations:
The recent developments in the actuation over the existing mechanical or electro-hydraulic
implementations are
 Direct drive actuation
 fly-by-wire(FBW) actuation
 electro-hydrostatic actuator(EHA)
 -electro-mechanical actuator(EMA)
Direct Drive Actuation: (DDA)
In electro-hydraulic actuator a servo valve requires a relatively small electrical drive signal(10-15mA). This
is amplified within the hydraulic section of the actuator.
In DD actuator, electrical drive with sufficient power is used to match the need of SV. The main power is
driven be torque motors requiring a higher signal current, hence “direct drive”.
Fly-by-wire actuator: (FBW)
The advent of FBW flight control systems in civil aircraft needs a more sophisticated interface between
FCS and actuation. FBW aircraft may operate in 3 distinct modes.
 Full FBW mode: this mode includes the full FBW algorithms and protection and is the normal
mode of operation
 Direct Electrical Link Mode: this mode provides rudimentary algorithms or only a direct electrical
signaling capability in the event that the primary FBW mode is not available
 Mechanical Reversion Mode: this provides a crude means of flying the aircraft using a limited
number of flight control surface following the failure of the above 2 modes.
The digital FBW or the direct link demands are processed by the Actuator Control Electronics (ACE) which
gives an analog command to the actuator. This allows aircraft systems hydraulic power to be supplied to
the appropriate side of the ram piston moving the ram to the desired position.
Here the ram position is detected by LVDT and fed back to ACE and the loop around the actuator is closed.
Ace performs two functions:
 Conversion of digital flight control demands into analogue signals
 Analogue loop closure around the actuator.
Electro-Hydrostatic Actuator (EHA):
This uses the state-of-the-art power electronics and control techniques to provide more efficient flight
control actuation. Here the actuator draws only a significant power when a control demand is sought; for
the remainder of the flight the actuator is quiescent.

The EHA uses three-phase AC power to feed power drive electronics which in turn drive a variable speed
pump together with a constant displacement hydraulic pump. When there is no demand, the only power
drawn is to maintain the control electronics.
When a demand is received from the ACE, the power drive electronics is able to react rapidly to drive the
variable speed motor and pressurize the actuator such that the control surface is moved to satisfy the
demand. Once the demand has been satisfied, the power electronics resumes its normal state.
Power is drawn from the aircraft bus bars while the actuator is moving which is great energy saving. EHAs
are used in Unmanned Air Vehicle (UAV) developments.
Electro-Mechanical Actuator:
This actuator replaces the electrical signaling and power actuation of the electro-hydraulic actuator with
an electric motor and gearbox assembly applying the motive force to move the ram. EMAs are used in
trim and door actuation.

The three main technology advancements that have improved EMA are:
 The use of rare earth magnetic materials in 270 VDC motors
 High power solid-state switching devices
 Microprocessors for light weight control of the actuator motor
EMA is the more electric version of the screw-jack actuator as shown in figure. The power drive electronics
drives a brushless DC motor operating a reduction gear that applies rotary motion allowing the jack ram
to extend or retract to satisfy input demands.
EMAs are used in civil aircrafts and helicopter flight control systems. The major concern is the actuator
jamming case due to which it is not used in primary flight controls on conventional aircrafts.

Fly-by-wire control laws:

The application of normal, alternate and direct control laws and the in the final analysis, mechanical
reversion is the typical format.
The various levels are
 Normal laws: provision of basic control laws with additional co-ordination algorithms to enhance
the quality of handling and protection to avoid exceeding certain attitude rates. Double failures
in computing causes sensors or actuation power channels will cause reversion to Alternate mode.
 Alternate laws: provision to basic control laws, but without many additional features offered by
normal mode. Further failures cause reversion to mechanical mode
 Direct laws: Direct relationship from control stick to control surface, manual trimming etc. in
certain specific cases, crew intervention may enable re-engagement of the alternate mode.
Further failures results in reversion to mechanical mode
 Mechanical reversion: rudimentary manual control of the aircraft using pitch trim and rudder
pedals to facilitate recovery of the aircraft electrical system or land the aircraft as soon as possible.
Interrelationship of flight control, guidance and flight management:
Figure shows main control loops in aircraft flight control, flight guidance and flight management
The inner loop provided by the FBW system and the pilot’s controls effectively control the attitude of the
aircraft.
The middle loop is affected by AFDS that controls the aircraft trajectory-where the aircraft flies.
Finally FMS controls where the aircraft flies on the mission. The FCDU controls the lateral demands of the
aircraft by means of a series of waypoints within the route plan executed by the FMS computer.
ENGINE CONTROL SYSTEMS

Early jet engines based on a centrifugal compressor used a fuel pump, a relief valve and a throttle valve
for controlling fuel to the engine combustion chamber. This design was based on Sir Frank Whittle’s design
which was simple.
With the development of gas turbine engine technology, increase in pressure ratios and turbine inlet
temperatures for improved performance increased.
Electronic trimmers called “supervisory controls” provided temperature limiting and thrust management
thus relieving the flight crew of this workload.

Engine/Airframe Interfaces:
The engine is a major, high value item in any aircraft. As the technology improves, demand is increasing
for improved propulsion and airframe areas. Control of the interfaces between the engine and the
airframe is essential. The interface may be between engine and a nacelle in the case of a podded engine
or between the engine and fuselage as in fast jet military aircrafts.
Typical interfaces declared are:
Engine technology and principles of operation:

Digital technology and serial data transmission systems led to introduction of FADEC(Full Authority Digital
Electronic Control). When mounting these electronic controls on the engine, the units must be isolated
from the hostile environment by providing anti-vibration mounts and forced-air cooling.
Engine technology has advanced considerably leading to smaller, lighter and more efficient engines. The
core of the gas turbine engine is the gas generator. Figure shows single and two shaft versions of the
typical gas generator.

The single shaft version has limited capability because both the low pressure and high pressure stages of
the compressor rotate at the same speed. In the two shaft design, the low pressure and high pressure
spools can rotate at different speeds for improved performance and efficiency.
In each case the output is “gas horsepower”, a stream of high energy gas that can be used to develop pure
thrust to drive an additional turbine to develop torque.
In turbofan applications the fan may be driven by the low pressure shaft of the gas generator with an
additional low pressure turbine stage added to convert the exhaust gas energy into torque. Rolls Royce
turbofan designs incorporate a third shaft allowing the fan and its power turbine to rotate at speed
independent of either of the two gas generator shafts as shown in figure.

Turbofan: Thrust = M*∆V large mass flow, small velocity change.

Turbojet: Thrust= M*∆V small mass flow, large velocity change.
The control problem:
The basic control action is to control a flow of fuel and air to the engine to allow it to operate at its
optimum efficiency for different speeds, altitudes and temperatures allowing the pilot to handle the
engine without fear of malfunction.
To obtain these objectives control can be done on
 Fuel flow- to allow varying engine speeds and to be handled without damage by limiting rotating
assembly speeds, rates of acceleration and temperatures.
 Air flow- to allow the engine to be operated efficiently throughout the aircraft flight envelope and
with adequate safety margins
 Exhaust gas flow- by burning the exhaust gases and varying the nozzle area to provide additional
thrust
(a) Fuel flow control:
Control of power is achieved by regulating the fuel flow into the combustor. When changing the
thrust or power setting, the fuel control system must limit the rate of acceleration or deceleration
of the engine rotating assemblies to prevent flame out.

Airflow modulation through the compressor may also be necessary to provide adequate surge
margin. When a higher thrust is required the throttle is opened. The fuel pressure to the burners
increases due to the higher fuel flow. This affects the increasing gas temperature which increases
the gas through the turbine to give high engine speed and increased thrust. To meet the change
in air flow through the engine, change in fuel flow must occur.
This control is provided by means of fuel control unit(FCU) or fuel management units(FMU). This
is a hydro mechanical device mounted on the engine. It contains valves to direct and restrict fuel,
pneumatic capsules to modify flows and dashpot/damper/spring combination to control
acceleration rates.
Engine speed must be controlled from idle to maximum rating. Over speed and temp must be
avoided. Typical fuel control circuit is shown. Here the fuel is used as a cooling medium for oil by
passing it through fuel cooled oil cooler(FCOC).

Fuel dip: the fuel system receives a demand from weapon release or gun trigger. This modifies
fuel flow to the engines to take care of the disturbance from missile exhaust, shock of gun smoke
etc.

Air flow control:

It is necessary to control the flow of air to the engine to ensure efficient operation. Commercial
engines have bleed valves to provide optimum acceleration.

Figure illustrates some aspects of air management at various stages in the compressor to achieve
inlet air stability.