UNDERGRADUATE FINAL YEAR PROJECT REPORT

Department of Electrical Engineering

NED University of Engineering and Technology

Advanced Protection Scheme of No Load and Over

Load for

Induction Motor
Group Number: 48 Batch: 2021 – 2025

Group Member Names:

Hamza Ahmed Siddiqui EE-21205

Arsalan Shahzad EE-21199
Muhammad Umar Ahmed EE-21210
Suhaib Ahmed EE-21200

Approved by

………………………………………………………………………………………
……...

Miss Najia Naveed

Lecturer
Project Advisor
© NED University of Engineering & Technology. All Rights Reserved –
June, 2025
 Author’s Declaration

We declare that we are the sole authors of this project. It is the actual copy of the
project that was accepted by our advisor(s) including any necessary revisions. We also
grant NED University of Engineering and Technology permission to reproduce and
distribute electronic or paper copies of this project.

Signature and Date Signature and Date Signature and Date Signature and Date

.............................. .............................. .............................. ..............................

Hamza Ahmed Arsalan Shahzad Muhammad Umar Suhaib Ahmed

EE-21205 EE-21199 EE-21210 EE-21200

siddiqui4408834@ shahzad4402633@ ahmed4405130@ ahmed4403484@

cloud.neduet.edu.pk cloud.neduet.edu.pk cloud.neduet.edu.pk cloud.neduet.edu.pk

iii
 Statement of Contributions

Each member of the group contributed significantly to the successful completion of

the project titled "Advanced Protection Scheme of No Load and Over Load for
Induction Motor". The following are the individual contributions of each member:

1. Arsalan Shahzad (EE-21119)

o Led the design and coding for the AVR microcontroller-based
protection system.
o Configured and implemented the ADC for current sensing and designed
the LCD interface for real-time monitoring.
o Worked on integrating the ACS713 current sensor and developed the
relay control logic for overload/no-load conditions.
o Assisted in documenting the methodology and carried out the
calculations in the project report.

2. Muhammad Umar Ahmed (EE-21210)

o Conducted research and compiled the literature review, analyzing
existing motor protection techniques.
o Collaborated in the development of the schematic diagrams and
implemented the simulation for relay operation and motor protection.
o Collaborated on real-time testing and optimization of the system logic.
o Provided quality checks and organized the final report layout, including
tables, figures, and formatting.

3. Hamza Ahmed Siddiqui (EE-21205)

o Assisted in designing the relay-based backup protection mechanism for
fail-safe operations.
o Assisted in documenting the methodology and system design process in
the project report.
o Worked on the development of hardware and final testing of the
protection system.
o Assisted in simulation testing and debugging to ensure accurate system
responses.

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 4. Suhaib Ahmed (EE-21200)
o Managed the executive summary, introduction, and conclusion of the
report.
o Focused on the simulation aspects using Proteus software and verified
system responses under various load conditions.
o Assisted in simulation testing and debugging to ensure accurate system
responses.
o Worked on the development of hardware and final testing of the
protection system

Each team member collaborated effectively throughout the project, ensuring that all
tasks were completed on time and met the objectives.

v
 Executive Summary

This report details the creation of a protection scheme for single-phase induction
motors. Its primary function is to safeguard these motors against both no-load and
overload conditions, thereby improving their performance and safety

While induction motors are likely to be adopted across industrial and residential
sectors due to their inherent reliability and cost, they often lack adequate protection
from abnormal operations. Traditional protection systems have limitations, requiring a
more advanced, automated approach.

Single-phase induction motors are particularly prone to damage when subjected to no-
load or overload scenarios. Such conditions result in excessive current draw,
overheating, and motor failure. To mitigate these failures, an efficient and dependable
protection system is required.

Our solution involved developing a protection system developed around an

Atmega328p microcontroller. This system accommodated an ACS712 current sensor
for real-time current monitoring and used a relay-based switching mechanism. We
initially simulated the circuit in Proteus software to test the functionality of both the
primary and backup protection systems. The microcontroller's ADC proceed the
current values, and RMS current calculations were integrated to ensure precise
readings. An LCD interface was included to show live current values and the system's
status. The simulation perfectly evaluated the system's response under both no-load
and overload conditions, confirming the responsiveness of the protection relays.

Following the successful simulation phase, the hardware for the proposed protection
system was designed and implemented, with careful consideration given to its
durability. The system then observed with further testing with a motor operating under
various simulated fault conditions.

The system consistently demonstrated its ability to correctly identify abnormal current
conditions and shut downing the motor when required. This capability ensures reliable
protection, extending the motor's operational lifespan and significantly reducing repair
and maintenance costs

vi
 Acknowledgments

We would like to express our gratitude to our supervisor, Ms. Najia Naveed, lecturer
in the Department of Electrical Engineering, for her support of our final year project's
research and study. Her motivation and knowledge have been invaluable throughout
every phase of our project. Her guidance has been instrumental, and we could not have
asked for a better mentor for our work.

vii
 Table of Contents
Author’s Declaration ..................................................................................................... iii
Statement of Contributions ............................................................................................ iv
Executive Summary ....................................................................................................... vi
Acknowledgments .........................................................................................................vii
List of Figures ................................................................................................................ xi
List of Abbreviations ....................................................................................................xii
List of Symbols ........................................................................................................... xiii
United Nations Sustainable Development Goals ......................................................... xiv
Similarity Index Report ............................................................................................. xv
Chapter 1 ......................................................................................................................... 1
Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Background Information ....................................................................................... 1
1.2 Significance and Motivation ................................................................................. 1
1.2.1 Importance of the Project ............................................................................... 1
1.2.2 Benefits .......................................................................................................... 1
1.3 Aims and Objectives ............................................................................................. 2
1.3.1 Aim................................................................................................................. 2
1.3.2 Objectives....................................................................................................... 2
1.4 Methodology ........................................................................................................ 2
1.5 Report Outline ....................................................................................................... 6
1.5.1 Scope .............................................................................................................. 6
1.5.2 Outline ............................................................................................................ 6
Chapter 2 ......................................................................................................................... 7
Literature Review ............................................................................................................ 7
2.1 Introduction: .......................................................................................................... 7
2.2 Deep Dive into Motor Faults: ............................................................................... 7
2.2.1 Overload Conditions: ..................................................................................... 7
2.2.2 No-Load Conditions:...................................................................................... 8
2.3 Traditional Approaches to Motor Protection: ....................................................... 8
2.3.1 Fuses: ............................................................................................................. 9
2.3.2 Thermal Overload Relays: ............................................................................. 9
2.3.3 Circuit Breakers: .......................................................................................... 10
2.4 The Microcontroller Revolution: ........................................................................ 10
2.4.1 The Transformative Advantages of Microcontroller-Based Protection:...... 11
2.4.2 The Atmega16 Microcontroller: .................................................................. 11
2.5 The Crucial Role of Current Sensing and Measurement: ................................... 12
 2.5.1 Current Transformers (CTs): ....................................................................... 13
2.5.2 Signal Conditioning: .................................................................................... 13
2.6 Implementing Protective Actions: ...................................................................... 14
2.6.1 Relays: .......................................................................................................... 14
2.6.2 Relay Driver Circuit: .................................................................................... 14
2.7 Providing User Feedback: ................................................................................... 15
2.7.1 The Value of an Informative User Interface: ............................................... 15
2.8 Energy Efficiency and Sustainability Implications ............................................. 15
2.8.1 Preventing Motor Damage and Reducing Waste ......................................... 16
2.8.2 Minimizing Energy Consumption During No-Load Operation ................... 16
2.8.3 Alignment with Sustainable Development Goals ........................................ 16
2.9 Review of Existing Literature and Research ....................................................... 17
2.10 Conclusion: ....................................................................................................... 19
Chapter 3 ....................................................................................................................... 20
Motor Protection System Design and Simulation ......................................................... 20
3.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................... 20
3.2.1 Step 1: Software Setup ................................................................................. 20
3.2.2 Step 2: Creating the Project in Microchip Studio ........................................ 20
3.2.3 Step 3 Initial Simulation Setup with ADC Conversion and Motor .............. 22
__________ Operation in Proteus: ....................................................................... 22
3.2.4 Step 4: Integrating the ACS713 Current Sensor .......................................... 25
3.2.5 Step 5: Implementing the Primary Relay Control for Overload/No-Load... 25
____________Protection ...................................................................................... 25
3.2.6 Step 6: Implementing the Secondary/Backup Relay.................................... 27
3.2.7 Step 7: Final System Validation and Results ............................................... 27
3.3 AVR Code Designed for the Protection Scheme ................................................ 30
3.3.1 Code: ............................................................................................................ 30
3.3.2 Detailed Description of the Code: ................................................................ 38
3.4 Load Current Calculations .................................................................................. 40
Chapter 4 ....................................................................................................................... 44
Hardware Implementation............................................................................................. 44
4.1 Components for Hardware .................................................................................. 44
4.1.1 5V Relay Module (10A) .............................................................................. 44
4.1.2 AC Contactor (220V, 18A) .......................................................................... 44
4.1.3 Induction Motor (0.5 HP / 2.5A).................................................................. 45
4.1.4 ACS712 Current Sensor (30A) .................................................................... 46
4.1.5 16x2 LCD Display ...................................................................................... 46
 4.1.6 Microcontroller (Arduino UNO – ATmega328P) ................................... 47
4.2 Procedure ............................................................................................................ 48
4.2.1 Software Setup and Microcontroller Configuration ..................................... 48
4.2.2 Interfacing the 16x2 LCD with Arduino UNO ............................................ 49
4.2.3 Integrating the ACS712 Current Sensor Module ......................................... 50
4.2.4 Connecting the 5V Relay Module and AC Contactor ................................. 50
4.2.5 Final Assembly and Testing ......................................................................... 51
4.3 Testing and Validation ....................................................................................... 54
4.3.1 Code Adaption and Offset Calibration ........................................................ 54
4.3.2 Normal Operating Condition ...................................................................... 55
4.3.3 No-load testing ............................................................................................ 56
4.3.4 Overload Testing ......................................................................................... 57
4.3.5 Final Assembly and Testing ........................................................................ 58
4.4 Troubleshooting Challenges and Solutions........................................................ 59
4.4.1 LCD Display Issues .................................................................................... 59
4.4.2 Incorrect Current Readings from ACS712 Sensor ...................................... 60
4.4.3 Relay Module Not Operating the Contactor ............................................... 60
4.4.4 Loose Connections and Noise Interference ................................................. 61
Conclusions ................................................................................................................... 62
5.1 Summary ............................................................................................................. 62
5.2 Recommendations for Future Work .................................................................... 63
References ..................................................................................................................... 64

x
 List of Figures

Figure 1: Flow Chart Representation of Proposed Scheme ............................................ 5

Figure 2 Creating AVR Project ..................................................................................... 21
Figure 3: selecting Atmega16 Microcontroller ............................................................. 21
Figure 4: Creating New project on Proteus ................................................................... 22
Figure 5: Linking Atmel code with proteus Model....................................................... 23
Figure 6: Simulink model to verify ADC conversion ................................................... 24
Figure 7: Adding Relay to the simulink model ............................................................. 24
Figure 8: Verifying Relay Operation ............................................................................ 26
Figure 9: Testing protection scheme at normal load conditions ................................... 27
Figure 10:Testing protection scheme at overload conditions ....................................... 28
Figure 11:Testing Protection Scheme at NO-Load Conditions .................................... 29
Figure 12: Testing Protection Scheme at Under Load Conditions ............................... 30
Figure 13: Veroboard integration of the protection scheme ......................................... 52
Figure 14: Wiring of the protection scheme ................................................................. 53
Figure 15: Overall View of the protection scheme with the motor and contactor ........ 53
Figure 16: Checking the No-Load current to calibrate current sensor offset ................ 55
Figure 17: Normal Operating Condition ...................................................................... 56
Figure 18: No-Load Testing .......................................................................................... 57
Figure 19: Over Load Testing ....................................................................................... 58

xi
 List of Abbreviations

ADC Analog-to-Digital Converter

CT Current Transformer

DC Direct Current

IEEE Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers

I/O Input/Output

LCD Liquid Crystal Display

PC Personal Computer

PCIM Power Conversion and Intelligent Motion

PIC Programmable Interface Controller

PWM Pulse Width Modulation

RMS Root Mean Square

SCADA Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition

xii
 List of Symbols

Symbols

I Current (A)

V Voltage (V)

P Power (W)

t Time (s)

T Temperature (∘C or K)

f Frequency (Hz)

R Resistance (Ω)

L Inductance (H)

C Capacitance (F)

Greek

θ Phase Angle (degrees or radians)

ϕ Magnetic Flux (Wb)

ω Angular Frequency (rad/s)

τ Torque (Nm)

η Efficiency (%)

xiii
 United Nations Sustainable Development Goals

The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) are the blueprint to achieve a better and more
sustainable future for all. They address the global challenges we face, including poverty,
inequality, climate change, environmental degradation, peace and justice. There is a total
of 17 SDGs as mentioned below. Check the appropriate SDGs related to the project.

□ No Poverty

□ Zero Hunger

□ Good Health and Well being

□ Quality Education

□ Gender Equality

□ Clean Water and Sanitation

□ Affordable and Clean Energy

□ Decent Work and Economic Growth

 Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure

□ Reduced Inequalities

□ Sustainable Cities and Communities

 Responsible Consumption and Production

□ Climate Action

□ Life Below Water

□ Life on Land

□ Peace and Justice and Strong Institutions

□ Partnerships to Achieve the Goals

xiv
 Similarity Index Report

Following students have compiled the final year report on the topic given below for
partial fulfillment of the requirement for Bachelor’s degree in Electrical Engineering.

Project Title Advanced Protection Scheme of No Load and Over Load for Induction
Motor

S. No. Student Name Seat Number

1. Arsalan Shahzad EE-21199

2. Suhaib Ahmed EE-21200

3. Hamza Ahmed Siddiqui EE-21205

4. Muhammad Umar Ahmed EE-21210

This is to certify that Plagiarism test was conducted on complete report, and overall
similarity index was found to be less than 20%, with maximum 5% from single source,
as required.

Signature and Date

.................................

Najia Naveed

xv
 Chapter 1

Introduction

1.1 Background Information

Single-phase induction motors are the most common motors used both in industrial
and domestic sectors. The motors are simple, efficient, and economical. However, such
motors are very likely to get damaged when faulty load conditions, like no-load or
overload, occur. This might lead to energy wastage, mechanical wear and tear, or even
motor burnout.
This project is to design a No-Load and Overload Protection System for single-phase
induction motors. Using the Atmega16p microcontroller, the system monitors the
motor load conditions by measurements of current and ensures protection in abnormal
conditions by shutting down the motor. This design introduces a no-load protection
feature that improves motor life and operational safety beyond conventional protection
devices
The Proteus software is used for the design of the protection system. The feasibility of the
design was verified under different load conditions and the design was found to be
working efficiently as intended. Hardware implementation and test will be followed in
the next stages.

1.2 Significance and Motivation

1.2.1 Importance of the Project

Induction motors are most widely used in water pumps and many sorts of conveyor
belts and in some household appliances as well. Preventing the induction motor
from operational failures ensures:

• Prevention of energy wastage during no-load conditions.

• Protection against motor damage from overloading or short circuit.

• Improved safety by the elimination of overheating-related fire hazards.

1.2.2 Benefits

• Energy Efficiency: Saving unnecessary power consumption during no-load operation.

• Deterioration: Prevents deterioration which leads to early depreciation in motor life.

1
 • Cost savings: Saves cost on maintenance and motor replacement cost.
• Safety: Minimizes fire and electrical hazard risks.

The motivation behind this project is the need to bridge the gap between conventional
motor protection methods and advanced microcontroller-based solutions offering
realtime monitoring and automated responses.
1.3 Aims and Objectives

1.3.1 Aim

To design a reliable, safe, and energy-efficient single-phase induction motor

protection system for abnormal load conditions, that ensure operational safety and
energy efficiency at all times.

1.3.2 Objectives

• Developing a microcontroller based reliable protection system for single-phase induction

motors for no-load and over load protection mechanism to prevent unnecessary energy
consumption when the motor runs on these conditions.

• Implementing a system that detects and protects the motor from overcurrent conditions
caused
by mechanical overload, ensuring the motor is shut down before damage occurs.
1.4 Methodology

Step 1: Design of the Protection Scheme

The methodology involves designing a protection scheme for induction motors through
simulation using Proteus software. The system is based on a relay-based primary and
backup protection mechanism integrated with current sensing and monitoring.

Step 2: Implementation of Current-Sensing Mechanism

The project began with the implementation of a current-sensing mechanism using the
ACS713 30A current sensor module. This module detects variations in current and
converts them into corresponding voltage signals. In the simulation, the ACS713 sensor
was connected to the analog input channel PA0 of the AVR microcontroller to measure
the current. The sensor output was designed to reflect real-time current variations,
which were simulated using a potentiometer in Proteus to simulate load changes. The

2
potentiometer generates a variable input signal corresponding to the current that the
microcontroller processes for real-time analysis.

Step 3: Configuration of the ADC

The next step involved configuring the ADC (Analog-to-Digital Converter) of the
AVR microcontroller to convert the analog voltage signal from the ACS713 into a
digital value. PORTA was designated as the input port for ADC readings. The ADC
was set to operate in 10-bit resolution mode, and a 128 prescalar was used to ensure
accurate sampling of the signal. A formula was programmed to calculate the
corresponding current using the sensor’s sensitivity of 66mV/A and an offset voltage
of 2500mV. The calculated current was further processed to determine the RMS (Root
Mean Square) value, essential for monitoring alternating current (AC) loads.

Step 4: Interfacing an LCD Module

For the display of current values and system status, an LCD module was interfaced
with the microcontroller. The PORTD pins were used for data communication with
the LCD, while PORTB pins PB0 and PB1 controlled the LCD’s RS (Register Select)
and EN (Enable) signals. The LCD was initialized in 8-bit mode and configured to
display real-time current values along with the system’s operational status. The
current is displayed in amperes, and the status dynamically updates based on the load
conditions, indicating whether the system is in a "Normal," "Overload," or "No Load"
state.

Step 5: Implementation of Protection Mechanism

To implement the protection mechanism, two relays were connected to PORTB pins
PB2 (Primary Relay) and PB3 (Backup Relay) of the microcontroller. These relays
control the load circuit based on the current conditions. The program logic ensures that
the primary relay operates under normal conditions, tripping as soon as the motor
experiences overload or no-load conditions. The backup relay activates during
overload or no-load scenarios as a fail-safe mechanism. The relays were simulated in
Proteus to switch states based on the current thresholds defined in the code. For
instance, when the load current exceeds 20A or falls below 5A, the backup relay takes
over while the primary relay is momentarily disabled. This switching mechanism was

3
tested and verified in the simulation environment, with the LCD reflecting the
corresponding status for these events.

Step 6: Real-Time Monitoring Optimization

The software was structured to handle real-time monitoring efficiently. The ADC was
programmed to perform multiple readings in rapid succession (500 samples in a loop),
and the peak value was identified for precise current measurement. This approach ensures
that transient fluctuations in current are captured accurately. The results are displayed on
the LCD in a human-readable format, with two lines showing the current value and the
operational status of the system.

Step 7: Establishing a Reliable Foundation

Through careful design and simulation, a reliable foundation for the relay-based
protection system has been established. This methodology will be further extended to
include hardware implementation and additional protective features in the future
stages of the project.

4
 Figure 1: Flow Chart Representation of Proposed Scheme

Figure 1: Flow Chart Representation of Proposed Scheme. Refer to the flowchart for the system's
operational logic, encompassing initialization, continuous ADC reading and display,
configurable overload and no-load current limits, condition checking, and the delayed shutdown
sequence.

5
1.5 Report Outline

1.5.1 Scope

This induction motor protection system proposed model is specifically developed

to handle the many problems that a single-phase induction motor experiences
under abnormal load conditions. It efficiently offers a reliable solution in terms of
preventing the motors from damage that could occur in an overload or no-load
scenario, resulting in overheating, mechanical stress, and wastage of energy. The
operational safety is assured, and the lifespan of the motor is prolonged by this
realtime current monitoring and control in the system.

It detects the loading conditions by way of current by means of a microcontroller

method. Thresholds are pre-set with regards to the requirement of the site. In this
system running motor conditions are controlled through relay tripping, when current
raises or lowers beyond defined set limits in an unsafe condition. Such conditions,
incorporating delay mechanism won't let shut down on a false account since
transient conditions can influence normal operations of motors.

1.5.2 Outline

This report covers the entire process of designing the no-load and overload protection
system of the induction motor from start to end. It includes the literature review for
existing systems and equipment and the need of this proposed system.

• Chapter One: Introduction – Provides the background, motivation, objectives,

methodology, and report outline.

• Chapter Two: Literature Review – Discusses different motor operation

anomalies and existing motor protection methods and their limitations.

• Chapter Three: Simulation Design – Details the schematic design and

simulation results.

• Chapter Four: Conclusion and Future Work – Summarizes the findings and
outlines the next steps.

6
 Chapter 2

Literature Review

2.1 Introduction: The Critical Role of Induction Motors and the Imperative for Robust
Protection

Induction motors form the core of a wide variety of equipment ranging from the factory
equipment in complexes to domestic appliances utilized on a daily basis within our homes
(Shaikh, 2022). They are so popular due to their rugged construction, reliable operation, and
economy, making them a critical component in the conversion of electrical energy into
mechanical work (Shaikh, 2022). However, it also becomes important to note that even such
reliable machines tend to be subject to a number of operating stresses and faulty states that
decrease their efficiency, life, and safety. Of these potential faults, overload and no-load
conditions are particularly critical instances, calling for effective protection schemes in order to
provide safety both for the motor itself and the device that is driven by it (Rahul Santhosh,
2021).

2.2 Deep Dive into Motor Faults: Understanding Overload and No-Load Conditions

2.2.1 Overload Conditions: A Threat to Motor Integrity

An overload condition occurs when an induction motor is subjected to a mechanical load that
exceeds its design specifications. This excessive load demands a higher current draw from
the power supply, leading to a corresponding increase in the heat generated within the motor
windings (Rahul Santhosh, 2021). This phenomenon of increased heat due to excessive
current, known as "I²R losses," can have severe consequences if prolonged. The insulation
materials that protect the windings are particularly vulnerable to thermal degradation;
sustained exposure to high temperatures can cause these materials to break down, leading to
short circuits between windings or between windings and the motor frame (Rahul Santhosh,
2021); (Cohen, 1997). Ultimately, this can result in catastrophic motor failure.

It's important to recognize that overloads can arise from various factors, some of which
include:

• Mechanical Jamming: A sudden obstruction or blockage in the driven equipment can

impose a load far exceeding the motor's capacity (Rahul Santhosh, 2021).

7
 • Excessive Friction: Increased friction in bearings or other mechanical components can
gradually increase the load on the motor over time.
• Incorrect Sizing: In some cases, the motor may have been undersized for the application
from the outset, leading to inherent overload issues.

The consequences of operating a motor under overload conditions extend beyond the
immediate risk of motor damage. Overloads also lead to decreased energy efficiency, as a
larger proportion of the electrical energy is converted into heat rather than useful mechanical
work. In severe cases, the excessive heat can even pose a fire hazard.

2.2.2 No-Load Conditions: A Subtle but Significant Concern

In contrast to the obvious danger of overloads, no-load conditions might seem innocuous at
first glance. A no-load condition occurs when the induction motor is operating with minimal
or no mechanical load on its shaft (Rahul Santhosh, 2021). While it's true that the absence of
a load prevents the risk of overheating due to excessive current, prolonged no-load operation
can still present several drawbacks and potential problems.

One key concern is energy inefficiency. Even when running without a load, the motor still
consumes some electrical energy to overcome its internal friction and windage losses. This
energy consumption is wasteful, especially in applications where motors frequently cycle
between loaded and unloaded states.

Moreover, certain types of motors or driven equipment may be designed with the expectation
of a minimum load for stable operation. For instance, some pumps rely on the fluid being
pumped to provide lubrication and cooling; running them dry for extended periods can lead
to damage (Rahul Santhosh, 2021). Similarly, in some control systems, the absence of an
expected load can disrupt the control loop and lead to instability.

As highlighted by Rahul Santhosh et al. (Rahul Santhosh, 2021), the detection of no-load
conditions can also serve as an indicator of other system malfunctions, such as a broken belt
or coupling. In such cases, the no-load condition is a symptom of a larger problem that needs
to be addressed.

2.3 Traditional Approaches to Motor Protection: An Overview of Limitations

8
For many years, induction motors have been protected by a range of electromechanical devices,
each designed to address specific types of faults. However, these traditional methods often
exhibit limitations in terms of their precision, responsiveness, and ability to handle the
complexities of modern industrial processes.

2.3.1 Fuses: Basic Overcurrent Protection

Fuses are perhaps the simplest and oldest form of motor protection. They are essentially
sacrificial devices designed to protect a circuit from overcurrents. When the current exceeds
the fuse's rating, the fuse element melts, interrupting the circuit and protecting downstream
components, including the motor (Shaikh, 2022).

While fuses are effective in providing basic overcurrent protection, they have several
drawbacks:

• Limited Coordination: Fuses have fixed time-current characteristics, making it difficult

to coordinate them with other protection devices in the system. This can lead to situations
where a fuse blows unnecessarily, interrupting power to other essential equipment.
• Lack of Discrimination: Fuses cannot differentiate between transient inrush currents
(which occur during motor starting) and sustained overcurrents (which indicate a fault).
This can result in nuisance tripping, where the fuse blows during a normal motor start-up
(Shaikh, 2022).
• One-Time Operation: Once a fuse has blown, it must be manually replaced, leading to
downtime and maintenance costs.
• No No-Load Protection: Crucially, fuses are designed to respond to overcurrents; they
offer no inherent protection against no-load conditions (Rahul Santhosh, 2021).

2.3.2 Thermal Overload Relays: Responding to Heat Buildup

Thermal overload relays offer a more sophisticated form of protection against sustained
overloads. These relays utilize the heating effect of the motor current to indirectly monitor
the motor's temperature (Shaikh, 2022). They typically employ a bimetallic strip or a melting
alloy that deflects or melts when heated by the current flowing through them. This action
triggers a mechanism that opens a set of contacts, disconnecting the motor from the power
supply.

9
 Thermal overload relays provide better overload protection than fuses because they are
designed to respond to the cumulative heating effect of the current, which more closely
mimics the thermal behavior of the motor. However, they still have limitations:

• Slow Response: Thermal relays have a relatively slow response time, especially for short-
duration overloads. This delay can allow the motor to experience damaging temperatures
before the relay trips (Cohen, 1997).
• Ambient Temperature Sensitivity: The tripping characteristics of thermal relays are
affected by ambient temperature. This means that the relay may trip at different current
levels depending on the surrounding environment.
• Inability to Protect Against No-Load: Like fuses, thermal overload relays are designed
to protect against overcurrents and do not offer any protection against no-load conditions
(Rahul Santhosh, 2021).

2.3.3 Circuit Breakers: Enhanced Overcurrent and Short-Circuit Protection

Circuit breakers offer a step up in functionality compared to fuses and thermal overload
relays. They provide both overcurrent and short-circuit protection and can be reset after a
fault has been cleared, minimizing downtime. Circuit breakers use electromagnetic or
thermal mechanisms to trip and interrupt the circuit.

While circuit breakers offer improved protection and convenience compared to fuses, they
may still lack the advanced features needed for comprehensive motor protection in complex
industrial settings. Basic circuit breakers may not provide:

• Precise Coordination: Achieving precise coordination with other protection devices can
still be challenging with standard circuit breakers.
• Advanced Protection Functions: Features like phase unbalance protection, undervoltage
protection, and, importantly, no-load protection are not typically included in basic circuit
breaker designs.

2.4 The Microcontroller Revolution: Intelligent Motor Protection Systems

The advent of microcontroller technology has ushered in a new era of motor protection, enabling
the development of intelligent and highly adaptable systems (Mehmet ÇUNKAŞ, 2000).
Microcontrollers are small, programmable computers on a chip, and their integration into motor

10
protection systems offers a wealth of advantages over traditional electromechanical devices
(Farag, 1996).

2.4.1 The Transformative Advantages of Microcontroller-Based Protection:

• Unparalleled Flexibility and Programmability: Microcontrollers can be programmed to

implement highly customized protection characteristics, allowing for precise tailoring to
the specific requirements of the motor and the application (Farag, 1996). This
programmability also allows for easy modification of protection parameters and
algorithms through software updates, providing a level of adaptability that is simply not
possible with fixed-characteristic electromechanical devices. For instance, the time-
current curve of an overload protection system can be precisely shaped to match the
thermal withstand capability of the motor, preventing both nuisance tripping and
inadequate protection.
• Enhanced Precision and Real-Time Control: Microcontrollers enable high-precision
measurement and real-time analysis of motor parameters, such as current, voltage, and
temperature. This allows for the rapid and accurate detection of fault conditions, enabling
the system to take protective actions much faster than traditional relays (Mehmet
ÇUNKAŞ, 2000). The ability to respond quickly to developing faults is crucial in
minimizing damage to the motor and associated equipment.
• Integration of Comprehensive Protection Functions: A single microcontroller-based
system can often integrate protection against a wide range of fault types, including
overload, overcurrent, undervoltage, phase imbalance, and, crucially for this project, no-
load conditions (Farag, 1996). This integration simplifies the overall protection design
and reduces the number of components required.
• Data Logging and Communication for Improved Diagnostics: Many microcontroller-
based systems can log valuable data about motor operation and fault events. This
information can be used for diagnostics, troubleshooting, and predictive maintenance,
helping to improve the reliability and efficiency of motor-driven systems. Furthermore,
some systems offer communication capabilities, allowing for remote monitoring and
control of the motor and its protection system.

2.4.2 The Atmega16 Microcontroller: A Powerful Core for Motor Protection

11
 The Atmega16 microcontroller, produced by Atmel Corporation (now Microchip
Technology), is a popular choice for embedded control applications, and it is well-suited for
the demands of motor protection systems (Atmel Corporation, 15). Here's why the Atmega16
is a strong candidate:

• Integrated Analog-to-Digital Converter (ADC): The Atmega16 features multiple ADC

channels, which are essential for converting analog signals from current and voltage
sensors into a digital format that the microcontroller can process (Atmel Corporation, 15).
This capability is fundamental for accurately monitoring motor current, the key parameter
for detecting overload and no-load conditions.
• Flexible Timers and Counters: The microcontroller's timers and counters provide
precise timing capabilities, which are crucial for implementing time-delayed tripping
characteristics for overload protection and for accurately measuring the duration of no-
load conditions (Atmel Corporation, 15). These timing functions are essential for
distinguishing between transient events and sustained fault conditions.
• Versatile Digital Input/Output (I/O) Pins: The Atmega16 offers a sufficient number of
digital I/O pins to interface with external devices, such as relays for disconnecting the
motor from the power supply and LCDs for displaying status and fault information to the
user (Atmel Corporation, 15).
• Sufficient Processing Power: The Atmega16's processing capabilities are adequate for
executing the algorithms required for real-time monitoring, fault detection, and control
actions in motor protection applications. It can handle the computational demands of
comparing measured values with thresholds, implementing time delays, and controlling
output devices.
• Ease of Programming: The Atmega16 can be programmed using high-level languages
like C, which simplifies the development and maintenance of the protection software
(Atmel Corporation, 15). This ease of programming is crucial for implementing complex
protection logic and ensuring the system's reliability.

2.5 The Crucial Role of Current Sensing and Measurement:

Accurate and reliable measurement of motor current is fundamental to the operation of any
effective motor protection system, especially one designed to detect overload and no-load
conditions. Current Transformers (CTs) are the most common devices used for this purpose
(Rahul Santhosh, 2021).
12
2.5.1 Current Transformers (CTs): Safely Measuring High Currents

A current transformer is a type of instrument transformer that produces an alternating current

in its secondary winding that is proportional to the alternating current in its primary winding.
CTs are designed to safely and conveniently measure high AC currents without requiring a
direct electrical connection to the high-voltage circuit (Rahul Santhosh, 2021; Mehmet
ÇUNKAŞ, 2000).

Here's how CTs work and why they are essential:

• Isolation: CTs provide electrical isolation between the high-current motor circuit and the
low-current measurement circuit, protecting the microcontroller and other sensitive
electronic components.
• Current Reduction: CTs step down the high motor current to a lower, manageable value
that can be easily measured by the microcontroller's ADC. This is crucial because
microcontrollers typically operate at low voltage levels and cannot directly handle the
high currents flowing through a motor.
• Accuracy: When properly selected and applied, CTs provide accurate and linear
measurements of motor current, enabling the protection system to reliably detect both
overload and no-load conditions.

2.5.2 Signal Conditioning: Preparing the Current Signal for the Microcontroller

The output of a current transformer is an AC signal, but microcontrollers typically require a

DC voltage input for their ADC. Therefore, the CT's output signal needs to be conditioned
before it can be processed by the microcontroller. This signal conditioning usually involves
two main steps:

• Rectification: Diodes are used to rectify the AC signal, converting it into a pulsating DC
waveform. This process essentially converts the AC current into a unidirectional current
(Dhruva, 2014).
• Filtering: Capacitors are used to filter out the AC components from the rectified signal,
resulting in a relatively smooth DC voltage that is proportional to the RMS (Root Mean
Square) value of the motor current. The RMS value is a measure of the effective value of

13
 the AC current and is directly related to the power dissipated by the motor (Swamy Vivek,
2021).

This conditioned DC voltage signal provides the microcontroller with the necessary
information to continuously monitor the motor's current consumption.

2.6 Implementing Protective Actions: The Role of Relays and Relay Drivers

When the microcontroller detects a fault condition, such as an overload or no-load, it needs a
way to physically disconnect the motor from the power supply to prevent damage or conserve
energy. This is where relays come into play (Mehmet ÇUNKAŞ, 2000).

2.6.1 Relays: Electromechanical Switches for Motor Control

A relay is an electromechanical switch that can be controlled by an electrical signal from the
microcontroller. It consists of an electromagnet (coil) and a set of contacts. When the
microcontroller sends a control signal, it energizes the relay's coil, creating a magnetic field
that attracts an armature and causes the contacts to either close or open (Mehmet ÇUNKAŞ,
2000).

Here's why relays are essential in motor protection systems:

• High Current Switching: Relays are capable of switching relatively high currents and
voltages, making them suitable for controlling the power supply to the motor.
Microcontrollers, on the other hand, can only handle small currents and voltages.
• Isolation: Relays provide electrical isolation between the low-voltage control circuitry
(microcontroller) and the high-voltage motor circuit. This isolation is crucial for
protecting the microcontroller from damage.

2.6.2 Relay Driver Circuit: Interfacing the Microcontroller with the Relay

Microcontrollers typically cannot provide enough current to directly energize the relay coil.
Therefore, a relay driver circuit is used to amplify the microcontroller's output signal and
provide the necessary current to activate the relay (Pandian, 2020 )

This driver circuit often uses a transistor as a switch. The microcontroller's output signal
controls the transistor, which in turn controls the current flow through the relay coil. When

14
 the microcontroller outputs a "high" signal, the transistor turns on, allowing current to flow
through the relay coil and actuate the relay. When the microcontroller outputs a "low" signal,
the transistor turns off, de-energizing the relay coil.

2.7 Providing User Feedback: The Importance of an LCD Display

A user interface is an important part of any motor protection system. It allows users to monitor
the motor's operating status, receive alerts about fault conditions, and interact with the protection
system. A Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) is a commonly used component for providing this user
feedback (Rahul Santhosh, 2021).

2.7.1 The Value of an Informative User Interface:

• Real-time Monitoring: An LCD can display real-time information about the motor's
operating parameters, such as the current, voltage, and temperature. This allows users to
quickly assess the motor's condition and identify any potential problems.
• Fault Indication: When a fault condition is detected, the LCD can display a clear and
informative message, such as "Overload Detected" or "No-Load Condition." This helps
users understand the nature of the problem and take appropriate action. In some cases, the
LCD can also display fault codes or other diagnostic information to aid in
troubleshooting.
• System Status: The LCD can also display the status of the protection system itself, such
as "System Ready," "Protection Enabled," or "Relay Tripped." This provides users with
confidence that the protection system is functioning correctly.
• Parameter Setting: In some systems, the LCD and associated input devices (like push
buttons or a keypad) can be used to set or adjust protection parameters, such as the
overload and no-load current thresholds. This allows for customization of the protection
system to specific motor and application requirements.

2.8 Energy Efficiency and Sustainability Implications

The development of advanced motor protection schemes, particularly those that address no-load
and overload conditions, carries significant weight in the context of energy efficiency and
sustainability (Vijayakumar, 2020). By minimizing energy waste and extending the operational

15
life of electric motors, such systems contribute to more responsible resource utilization and
reduced environmental impact.

2.8.1 Preventing Motor Damage and Reducing Waste

Overload conditions, as discussed earlier, can lead to premature motor failure due to thermal
stress and insulation breakdown (Rahul Santhosh, 2021; Cohen, 1997). Implementing
effective overload protection significantly reduces the likelihood of such failures, thereby
extending the operational lifespan of the motors (Bonnett, 1997). This increased longevity
directly translates to a reduction in the demand for new motors, conserving the raw materials
and energy required for their manufacturing and minimizing the disposal of damaged units,
aligning with principles of waste reduction and circular economy.

2.8.2 Minimizing Energy Consumption During No-Load Operation

Electric motors, even when operating without a significant mechanical load, continue to
consume electrical energy to overcome internal friction and windage losses (Rahul Santhosh,
2021). In applications where motors frequently operate under no-load conditions for extended
periods, this energy consumption can accumulate to a substantial amount of wasted electricity
(Swamy Vivek, 2021) (Vijayakumar, 2020). A protection system capable of detecting
prolonged no-load operation and initiating an automatic shutdown can significantly reduce
this unnecessary energy consumption, leading to lower operating costs and a reduced carbon
footprint. This aligns directly with the goals of energy conservation and efficient resource
management.

2.8.3 Alignment with Sustainable Development Goals

The guiding principles of advanced motor protection systems highly aligns with the UN's
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). The focus on industrial innovation and efficiency is
particularly aligned with SDG 9, "Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure." The initiative
contributes to making industrial practices more sustainable by promoting the development
and utilization of technologies that promote longer lifetime and increased efficiency of
industrial equipment, like electric motors. Also, SDG 12, "Responsible Consumption and
Production," advocating for more frugal utilization of natural resources and reduced waste

16
 generation, is facilitated directly by reducing energy waste and material usage gained via
effective motor protection.

2.9 Review of Existing Literature and Research

The field of motor protection has come a long way with the passage of time, and numerous
technologies and strategies have emerged for protecting induction motors against a variety of
fault conditions. In this section, some of the current motor protection systems are discussed and
the limitations, applications, and design requirements with reference to the given literature and
general knowledge.

Conventional electromechanical devices of protection like thermal overload relays and fuses have
been utilized for decades (Shaikh, 2022). Fuses, as previously stated, offer a simple form of
overcurrent protection by opening the circuit whenever the current surpasses a known value. Due
to their simplicity and low price, they were a popular option used in numerous early motor
protection designs. Nonetheless, their constraints, such as a lack of synchronism, inability to
identify transient and sustained overcurrents, and single-shot use, have necessitated the invention
of more advanced solutions (Shaikh, 2022). Today, they are applied in some places as reserve
protection or for small and less significant motors.

Thermal overload relays provided an advance by reacting to the motor current heating effect,
giving protection for continuous overloads (Shaikh, 2022). They were developed to trip according
to an inverse-time characteristic that is close to the thermal withstand curve of the motor. They
were used extensively in industrial applications to protect motors from continuous overloads due
to excessive mechanical load. Nevertheless, their tripping time can be sluggish and can be
affected by ambient temperature changes, which influences their tripping behavior (Cohen,
1997). They also fail to offer short circuit or no-load protection (Rahul Santhosh, 2021)

More sophisticated motor protection relays, which commonly employ solid-state electronics,
have been designed to circumvent the shortcomings of electromechanical devices (Farag, 1996).
These relays provide faster and more accurate tripping characteristics, as well as other protection
functions like undervoltage, overvoltage, phase imbalance, and ground fault protection. They are
generally equipped with current transformers and voltage transformers to monitor motor
parameters and use advanced algorithms to identify fault conditions. These relays are typically

17
applied for the protection of larger, more important induction motors in industrial and
commercial processes where dependable and extensive protection is necessary. The design
options of these relays differ extensively based on the application, such as programmable current
and time settings, several types of tripping curves, and communication options to be integrated
with supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) systems.

The use of microcontrollers, which has been widely discussed, is another notable breakthrough in
motor protection technology (Mehmet ÇUNKAŞ, 2000). Relays based on microcontrollers are
even more flexible, programmable, and able to execute sophisticated protection algorithms. As
noted by Çunkaş et al. (Mehmet ÇUNKAŞ, 2000), microcontrollers can also be employed for
simultaneous monitoring of several motor parameters, including current, voltage, and winding
temperature, enabling more elaborate and adaptive schemes of protection. Their research showed
the ability of microcontrollers such as the PIC16C84 to protect induction motors from
overcurrent, undervoltage, and over-temperature.
Rahul Santhosh et al. (Rahul Santhosh, 2021)specifically deal with the protection of single-phase
induction motors against no-load and over-load conditions through a microcontroller. Their paper
discusses the basic concepts of sensing these particular fault conditions based on monitoring the
motor current and triggering a shutdown after an appropriate time delay. This shows the
increasing acknowledgment of the need to deal with both overload and no-load conditions for
overall motor protection and energy saving, especially in single-phase motors that find extensive
usage in household and light industrial processes.

In summary, motor protection systems available vary from basic electromechanical devices to
advanced electronic and microcontroller-based relays. While conventional techniques provide
minimum protection against overcurrents and overloads, they are usually deficient in precision,
speed, and flexibility for effective motor protection, particularly against situations such as no-
load operation. Contemporary microcontroller-based devices provide enormous benefits in
flexibility, integration of various protection functionalities, and the capability of deploying
intelligent protection algorithms based on specific motor attributes and application demands. The
continual R&D in this field continue to revolve around improving the reliability, efficiency, and
intelligence of motor protective devices to reduce downtime, avoid equipment failures, and
support power conservation.

18
2.10 Conclusion: Contribution of the Proposed Project

This project will add to the current developments bank by developing an advanced no-load and
overload protection strategy for single-phase induction motors using the Atmega16
microcontroller as the main controller. By identifying these widespread and fundamental fault
conditions, the project aims to present an efficient, cost-effective, and practical solution for
improving operational safety, life, and energy efficiency of single-phase induction motor-driven
equipment in applications across a broad spectrum. Full design, implementation, and
experimental testing of the system being studied will give hands-on experience with utilization of
protection using microcontrollers for these very common motors.

19
 Chapter 3

Motor Protection System Design and Simulation

3.1 Introduction

This section of the report describes the systematic approach taken to complete the
simulation and development of the induction motor protection project. The procedural
flow outlines every stage, starting from software setup to achieving functional outputs.

3.2 Procedural Steps of Simulation:

3.2.1 Step 1: Software Setup

The project began by downloading and installing essential software tools:

3.2.1.1 Proteus Professional 2021

This software was used to simulate the motor's real-time behavior, such as
during noload and overload conditions. Proteus provided a platform to virtually
test the hardware and circuit design before physical implementation.

3.2.1.2 Microchip Studio for AVR (formerly Atmel Studio)

This IDE was selected for writing, compiling, and debugging the embedded C
code. It is used to program the microcontroller responsible for motor protection.

3.2.2 Step 2: Creating the Project in Microchip Studio

After setting up the software, a new project was created:

1. Opened Microchip Studio for AVR and selected the option to create a GCC C
Executable Project under the C/C++ section.

20
 Figure 2 Creating AVR Project

Figure 2 Creating AVR Project. Refer to the screenshot for the "New Project" dialog,
specifically showing the selection of "GCC C Executable Project" under the C/C++
category, along with project naming ("FypCode") and location details.

2. The target microcontroller ATmega16 was chosen in the device selection window as
it met the requirements for ADC operation and I/O control.

Figure 3: selecting Atmega16 Microcontroller

21
 Figure 3: selecting Atmega16 Microcontroller. Refer to the "Device Selection" dialog,
particularly the selection of "ATmega16" and its listed memory specifications and
supported tools.

3. A project directory was done, and the coding environment was configured for
development.

3.2.3 Step 3 Initial Simulation Setup with ADC Conversion and Motor Operation in
Proteus:

After becoming familiar with the Proteus environment, the next step was to create
a new simulation project and implement ADC conversion to verify the system
functionality.

3.2.3.1 New Project Creation:

A new project was created in Proteus to simulate the motor protection system.
The ATmega16 microcontroller was added to the workspace as the central unit
for ADC operation and control.

Figure 4: Creating New project on Proteus

Figure 4: Creating New project on Proteus refers to the Proteus Design Suite 8.13 home
page for options like "Open Project," "New Project," and "New Flowchart" under the
'Start' section.

3.2.3.2 ADC Conversion Task:

Before applying the protection mechanism, the primary focus was to test the
Analog-to-Digital. Conversion (ADC) functionality because the values of
current that will be monitored during no load or overload condition are in analog

22
form so understanding and implementation of ADC is important. The ADC pin
PA0 was chosen to receive input from a simulated potentiometer. The ADC
conversion logic was written in Atmel Studio. The code was compiled to
generate the corresponding hex file.

3.2.3.3 Linking Code with Proteus:

To integrate the written code into Proteus. The ATmega16 microcontroller in

Proteus was double-clicked to open its properties window. The compiled file
from Atmel Studio was provided in the Program File.

Figure 5: Linking Atmel code with proteus Model

Figure 5: Linking Atmel code with proteus Model. Refer to the "Edit Component" dialog
for configuring the ATMEGA16, including its part reference, program file path,
oscillator options, fuses, and clock frequency settings.

3.2.3.4 Testing ADC:

The simulation was run to verify the ADC conversion. As the potentiometer
input varied, the ADC values were displayed on a virtual 16x2 LCD in Proteus.
This validated that the ADC task was working correctly before proceeding
further.

23
 Figure 6: Simulink model to verify ADC conversion

Figure 6: Simulink model to verify ADC conversion. Refer to the circuit schematic for
the ATmega16 microcontroller connected to a variable resistor (RV1), an LCD display
(LM016L), and an LED (D1), illustrating input, output, and power connections.

3.2.3.5 Simulation of Motor:

Replacing the LED with a relay which is acting as a switch here to control the motor
operation based on analog input from the pot.

Figure 7: Adding Relay to the simulink model

Figure 7: Adding Relay to the simulink model. Refer to the circuit schematic displaying
an ATmega16 microcontroller system, including an LCD, a variable resistor (RV1) as
input, and a relay (RL1) controlling an AC motor, depicting an expanded output control.

24
3.2.4 Step 4: Integrating the ACS713 Current Sensor

With ADC operation validated, the next step was to interface the ACS713 current sensor
to monitor motor current variations:

3.2.4.1 Current Sensing Mechanism

The ACS713 module outputs a voltage proportional to the current flowing

through the motor. The output voltage is centered at 2.5V (at 0A current), and
any variations reflect the actual current.
3.2.4.2 Simulation in Proteus

The ACS713 current sensor module was connected to the ADC input (PA0) of
the ATmega16. A potentiometer was used to simulate current variations by
adjusting the voltage output of the sensor.

3.2.4.3 Voltage-to-Current Conversion

To display current values on the LCD, the following steps were implemented:

1. Subtract the offset voltage of 2.5V from the sensor output.

2. Convert the resulting voltage difference to current using the sensor sensitivity of
66mV/A.
3. The final current value was displayed on the LCD in amps.

3.2.5 Step 5: Implementing the Primary Relay Control for Overload/No-Load Protection

To achieve motor overload protection, a relay was integrated into the system:

3.2.5.1 Relay Setup

A relay module that acts as the primary protection for the motor was connected to
Pin PB2 of the ATmega16 microcontroller, serving as an output control pin.

3.2.5.2 Overload Threshold

The microcontroller continuously monitored the current using the ADC. A threshold
value of 20A was set for overload detection.

25
3.2.5.3 No-load Threshold

The microcontroller continuously monitored the current using the ADC. A threshold
value of 5A was set for No-load detection
3.2.5.4 Relay Operation Logic

• If the current exceeded 20A, the microcontroller triggered the relay via PB2,
simulating a trip mechanism.
• The LCD displayed the motor status as "Status: Overload".

• If the current was below 20A, the relay remained in its normal state, and the LCD
display "Status: Normal".
3.2.5.5 Simulation Testing:

By adjusting the potentiometer, current values were simulated to exceed or stay

below the threshold, and the relay operation was verified in Proteus.

Figure 8: Verifying Relay Operation

Figure 8: Verifying Relay Operation Refer to the circuit schematic showing an

ATmega16 microcontroller system monitoring "LOAD CURRENT" via a sensor,
displaying "Current=22.18A Status: Overload" on an LCD, and controlling a "LOAD"
via a relay (RL1).

26
3.2.6 Step 6: Implementing the Secondary/Backup Relay

To extend the protection scheme, the secondary or backup relay is implemented at PB3
which will operate when the primary relay fails to operate, with a delay of 1 sec.

3.2.7 Step 7: Final System Validation and Results

After integrating all components and implementing the protection logic, the system
was tested in Proteus by monitoring real-time current values displayed on the LCD
based on the potentiometer input and observing the tripping mechanism of both
primary and secondary relays.

3.2.7.1 Testing at Normal Condition

Testing of the protection at rated condition of the motor shown below

Figure 9: Testing protection scheme at normal load conditions

Figure 9: Testing protection scheme at normal load conditions. Refer to the circuit
schematic displaying an ATmega16 microcontroller system monitoring current (7.06A,
Status: Normal) via an ACS712 current sensor and controlling primary and backup loads
with relays.

27
3.2.7.2 Testing at Overload Conditions

Testing of the protection at overload condition of the motor shown below

Figure 10:Testing protection scheme at overload conditions

Figure 10:Testing protection scheme at overload conditions Refer to the circuit

schematic showing an ATmega16 microcontroller system indicating "Current=23.28A
Status: Overload" on the LCD, with an ACS712 current sensor and relay-controlled
primary and backup loads.

28
3.2.7.3 Testing at No-Load Conditions

Testing of the protection at No load condition of the motor shown below

Figure 11:Testing Protection Scheme at NO-Load Conditions

Figure 11:Testing Protection Scheme at NO-Load Conditions Refer to the circuit

schematic showing an ATmega16 microcontroller system indicating "Current=0.16A
Status: No Load" on the LCD, with an ACS712 current sensor and relay-controlled
primary and backup loads.

29
 3.2.7.4 Testing at Under-Load Conditions

Testing of the protection at underload condition of the motor shown below

Figure 12: Testing Protection Scheme at Under Load Conditions

Figure 12: Testing Protection Scheme at Under Load Conditions. Refer to the circuit
schematic showing an ATmega16 microcontroller system indicating "Current=4.16A
Status: Under Load" on the LCD, with an ACS712 current sensor and relay-controlled
primary and backup loads.

3.3 AVR Code Designed for the Protection Scheme

3.3.1 Code:

#include <avr/io.h>
#include <util/delay.h>
#include <string.h> // For strcpy and strcat
#include <stdlib.h> // For dtostrf()
#define LCD_DPRT PORTD // LCD DATA PORT
#define LCD_DDDR DDRD // LCD DATA DDR
#define LCD_DPIN PIND // LCD DATA PIN
#define LCD_CPRT PORTB // PORT for LCD Control Pins
#define LCD_CDDR DDRB // DDR for LCD Control Pins
#define LCD_CPIN PINB // PIN Reg for LCD Control Pins
#define LCD_RS 0 // LCD RS (RS is connected at PB0)

30
#define LCD_EN 1 // LCD EN (EN is connected at PB1)
#define RELAY_PRIMARY PB2 // Primary Relay connected to PB2
#define RELAY_BACKUP PB3 // Backup Relay connected to PB
// Function to send command to LCD
void lcdCommand(unsigned char cmnd) {
LCD_DPRT = cmnd;

LCD_CPRT &= ~(1 << LCD_RS);

LCD_CPRT |= (1 << LCD_EN);

_delay_us(1);

LCD_CPRT &= ~(1 << LCD_EN);

_delay_ms(2);

// Function to send data to LCD

void lcdData(unsigned char data) {

LCD_DPRT = data;

LCD_CPRT |= (1 << LCD_RS);

LCD_CPRT |= (1 << LCD_EN);

_delay_us(1);

LCD_CPRT &= ~(1 << LCD_EN);

_delay_ms(2);

// Function to initialize LCD

void lcd_init() {

31
LCD_DDDR = 0xFF; // Set data port as output

LCD_CDDR |= (1 << LCD_RS) | (1 << LCD_EN); // Set control pins as

output

_delay_ms(20);

lcdCommand(0x38); // 8-bit mode, 2 lines, 5x7 matrix

lcdCommand(0x0C); // Display ON, Cursor OFF

lcdCommand(0x01); // Clear display

_delay_ms(2);

lcdCommand(0x06); // Move cursor right

// Function to print string on LCD

void lcd_print(char *str) {

unsigned char i = 0;

while (str[i] != 0) {

lcdData(str[i]);

i++;

// Function to clear LCD display

32
void lcd_clear() {

lcdCommand(0x01);

_delay_ms(2);

int main(void) {

// Initialize LCD and ADC

lcd_init();

_delay_ms(1000);

DDRA = 0x00; // Set PORTA as input (ADC input)

DDRB |= (1 << RELAY_PRIMARY) | (1 << RELAY_BACKUP); // Set PB2 and

PB3 as output

ADCSRA = 0b10000111; // Enable ADC, set prescaler to 128

ADMUX = 0b01000000; // Select ADC channel 0, right adjust result

// Variables

char buffer[8]; // Buffer for current value as string

char lcd_line1[16]; // Line 1: Display current

char lcd_line2[16]; // Line 2: Display status

33
const int sensitivity = 66; // ACS713 30A Sensitivity (mV/A)

const int offsetvoltage = 2500; // Offset voltage in mV

const float threshold_high = 20.0;

const float threshold_under_low = 5.0;

const float threshold_low = 1.0;

unsigned int temp, maxpoint;

float ADCvalue, Voltage, Current, AC_Current;

while (1) {

// Measure ADC and find peak value (maxpoint)

maxpoint = 0;

for (int i = 0; i < 500; i++) {

ADCSRA |= (1 << ADSC); // Start ADC conversion

while (ADCSRA & (1 << ADSC)); // Wait for conversion to

complete

temp = ADC;

if (temp > maxpoint) {

maxpoint = temp;

34
 // Convert ADC value to RMS current

ADCvalue = maxpoint;

Voltage = (ADCvalue / 1024.0) * 5000; // Convert ADC to

voltage (mV)

Current = ((Voltage - offsetvoltage) / sensitivity); // Convert

to current (A)

AC_Current = Current / sqrt(2); // Convert peak

current to RMS

// Display current value on LCD

dtostrf(AC_Current, 4, 2, buffer);

strcpy(lcd_line1, "Current=");

strcat(lcd_line1, buffer);

strcat(lcd_line1, "A");

// Relay and Status Logic

if (AC_Current > threshold_high) {

strcpy(lcd_line2, "Status: Overload");

PORTB &= ~(1 << RELAY_PRIMARY); // Turn off primary relay

PORTB |= (1 << RELAY_BACKUP); // Turn on backup relay

_delay_ms(1000);

PORTB |=(1 << RELAY_PRIMARY);

PORTB &=~ (1 << RELAY_BACKUP);

35
}

else if (AC_Current < threshold_low) {

strcpy(lcd_line2, "Status: No Load");

PORTB &= ~(1 << RELAY_PRIMARY); // Turn off primary relay

PORTB |= (1 << RELAY_BACKUP); // Turn on backup relay

_delay_ms(1000);

PORTB |=(1 << RELAY_PRIMARY);

PORTB &=~ (1 << RELAY_BACKUP);

else if (AC_Current < threshold_under_low) {

strcpy(lcd_line2, "Status:UnderLoad");

PORTB &= ~(1 << RELAY_PRIMARY); // Turn off primary relay

PORTB |= (1 << RELAY_BACKUP); // Turn on backup relay

_delay_ms(1000);

PORTB |=(1 << RELAY_PRIMARY);

PORTB &=~ (1 << RELAY_BACKUP);

else {

strcpy(lcd_line2, "Status: Normal");

PORTB |= (1 << RELAY_PRIMARY); // Turn on primary relay

PORTB |=(1 << RELAY_BACKUP); // Turn off backup relay

36
}

// Update LCD Display

lcd_clear();

lcd_print(lcd_line1);

lcdCommand(0xC0); // Move to second line

lcd_print(lcd_line2);
_delay_ms(500); } return 0; }

37
3.3.2 Detailed Description of the Code:

1. LCD Initialization and Control:

o The code initializes an LCD display in 8-bit mode using the lcd_init
function, which configures the data and control pins as output and sends
necessary commands to set up the LCD (e.g., clearing the screen, enabling
display).

o Commands are sent to the LCD using the lcdCommand function, while
the lcdData function is used to send data to be displayed.

o The lcd_print function displays a string on the LCD, and the lcd_clear
function clears the display for updated information.

2. ADC Configuration:

o The ADC (Analog-to-Digital Converter) of the AVR microcontroller is

configured to read analog signals from the ACS713 current sensor
module.

o The ADC operates with a prescaler of 128, ensuring accurate

conversion of signals, and is set to right-adjust the results for easy
calculations.

o Channel 0 of the ADC is used, corresponding to the input pin

connected to the sensor.

3. Current Measurement:

o The ADC reads analog voltage values from the ACS713 current
sensor.

o These voltage values are converted to current using the sensor’s

sensitivity (66 mV/A) and offset voltage (2500 mV).

o RMS current is calculated from the peak current values to

account for the alternating current (AC) characteristics.

38
4. Peak Detection and Sampling:

o The code performs 500 ADC readings in a loop to identify the peak
current value for precise RMS current calculation.

o This ensures the system captures transient spikes or fluctuations in the

current for accurate monitoring.

5. Relay Control Logic:

o Overload Condition: If the RMS current exceeds the threshold_high

(20A), the primary relay (connected to PB2) is disabled, and the
backup relay (connected to PB3) is activated to protect the motor.

o No Load Condition: If the RMS current falls below the threshold_low

(1A), the backup relay is similarly activated, and the primary relay is
turned off.

o Under Load Condition: For RMS current values between

threshold_under_low (5A) and threshold_low (1A), the relays switch
states accordingly to indicate an under-load situation.

o Normal Condition: If the current is within the safe operating range

(between threshold_under_low and threshold_high), the primary relay
remains active while the backup relay stays off.

6. LCD Status Updates:

o The current value is calculated, converted to a string, and displayed

dynamically on the first line of the LCD.

o The system status, such as "Overload," "No Load," "Under Load," or

"Normal," is displayed on the second line of the LCD based on the
measured current conditions

7. Relay Switching and Delays:

o The relays are switched with a 1-second delay between operations to

ensure smooth transitions and prevent false triggering caused by
transient current fluctuations.

39
 8. Real-Time Monitoring:

o The system continuously monitors the current in real time, updating

the LCD display and relay states every 500 milliseconds, ensuring
responsive and accurate motor protection.

This code was designed for the protection of single-phase induction motors from
abnormal load conditions, including overload, no-load, and under-load scenarios. It
provides an efficient and real-time solution to monitor the motor's current and ensure
its safety through prompt relay switching. The system dynamically detects abnormal
operating conditions, such as excessive or insufficient current, and takes corrective
action by activating either the primary or backup relay. Additionally, it provides clear
and continuous feedback to the user via an LCD display, showing real-time current
values and the motor's operational status. This ensures enhanced motor protection
while improving its operational reliability and lifespan.

3.4 Load Current Calculations

Consider,

Offset Voltage = 2500 mV (2.5V midpoint when no current flows).

Sensitivity = 66 mV/A (for ACS713 30A).

Reference Voltage = 5000 mV (5V).

ADC Range = 0 to 1023 (10-bit resolution).

Formulas:

Voltage Conversion Formula:

maxpoint
Voltage = ( ) × 5000
1024

Current Formula:

Voltage after offset

Current(A) =
Sensitivity

For AC Current (RMS):

40
 Peak Vaue
Ac Current(RMS) =
√2

1) Normal Condition:

Assume maxpoint = 643.

Step-by-Step Calculations:

643
Voltage = ( ) × 5000
1024

Voltage = 3139.648mV

Voltage After Offset:

Voltage after Offset = 3139.648 mV – 2500 mV = 639.648mV

Current:

639.648mV
Current(A) =
V
66m(A)

Current(A) = 9.691A (Peak)

AC RMS Current:

9.691
Ac Current(RMS) =
√2

Ac Current(RMS) = 6.8653A (RMS)

41
Condition Verified: Normal Current is approximately 6.8A (according to the motor
rating).

2) No Load Condition:

Assume maxpoint = 530.

Step-by-Step Calculation:

530
Voltage = ( ) × 5000
1024

Voltage = 2585.94mV

Voltage After Offset:

Voltage after Offset = 2585.94 mV – 2500 mV = 85.94 mV

Current:

85.95mV
Current(A) =
V
66m(A)

Current(A) = 1.30A(Peak)

AC RMS Current:

1.30
Ac Current(RMS) =
√2

Ac Current(RMS) = 0.92A(RMS)

Condition Verified: No Load Current is approximately 0.92 A (below 1A).

3) Under Load Condition:

Assume maxpoint = 590.

Step-by-Step Calculation:

590
Voltage = ( ) × 5000
1024

Voltage = 2880.859mV

Voltage After Offset:

42
Voltage after Offset = 2880.859 mV – 2500 mV = 380.859 mV

Current:

380.859mV
Current(A) =
V
66m(A)

Current(A) = 5.770A (Peak)

AC RMS Current:

5.770
Ac Current(RMS) =
√2

Ac Current(RMS) = 4.080A (RMS)

Condition Verified: Under Load Current is approximately 5A (below 6Amp).

4) Over Load Condition:

Assume maxpoint = 1000.

Step-by-Step Calculation:

1000
Voltage = ( ) × 5000
1024

Voltage = 4882.812mV

Voltage After Offset:

Voltage after Offset = 4882.812 mV – 2500 mV = 2382.812mV

Current:

2382.812mV
Current(A) =
V
66m(A)

Current(A) = 36.103A (Peak)

RMS Current:

36.103
Ac Current(RMS) = = 25.528A (RMS)
√2

43
 Chapter 4

Hardware Implementation

4.1 Components for Hardware

The selection and integration of the appropriate hardware components is a most

important phase in the design and implementation of a functional and reliable
protection and monitoring system for an induction motor. This section outlines the
hardware components finalized for the project, along with justification for their use
based on electrical ratings, functionality, and compatibility with the system design.

4.1.1 5V Relay Module (10A)

The relay module acts as an electromechanical switch to control high-power

electrical devices through the low-power digital signals from the microcontroller
(Arduino UNO). A 5V relay module rated at 10A was chosen for this project due
to the following reasons:

a. Control Signal Compatibility: The relay operates on a 5V trigger signal,

which is ideal for interfacing directly with the digital I/O pins of the Arduino
UNO.

b. Load Handling Capability: Although the connected motor is rated at

2.5A, the 10A relay provides a safe margin to handle inrush currents and
overload surges, especially during motor startup conditions which can
momentarily exceed the nominal current rating.

c. Protection and Switching: The relay module helps in isolating the control
side (low voltage) from the load side (high voltage), ensuring safety and
reliable switching of the motor based on current conditions (normal,
overload).

44
4.1.2 AC Contactor (220V, 18A)

An AC contactor rated at 220V and 18A is used to switch the main power supply
to the motor. It functions as the main switching device that physically connects or
disconnects the motor from the AC supply. Its inclusion is justified for the
following reasons:

a. High Current Capacity: Rated at 18A, the contactor can easily handle
load currents higher than the 2.5A motor rating, making it feasible against
potential overloads and ensuring long-term reliability.

b. Electromagnetic Operation: The contactor operates electromagnetically

and is capable of rapid switching without sparking, ensuring minimal wear
and tear during frequent operations.

c. Motor Protection: It ensures that the motor is disconnected during fault

conditions such as overload or no-load situations based on the logic provided
by the relay and microcontroller.

4.1.3 Induction Motor (0.5 HP / 2.5A)

The motor used in this project is a 0.5 horsepower single-phase induction motor,
which has a rated current of 2.5A. This type of motor is commonly used in
domestic and light industrial applications, making it a suitable choice for testing
and validating the protection system. Reasons for selection:

a. Realistic Load: A motor with 0.5HP provides a realistic operational

scenario for implementing and testing various fault conditions such as
overload, and no-load.

b. Manageable Power Requirements: Its power rating allows for easy

handling using commercially available low-cost protective components like
relays and contactors.

45
 c. Standard Characteristics: This type of motor exhibits standard behavior
during faults, making it ideal for testing current sensing and protection logic.

4.1.4 ACS712 Current Sensor (30A)

The ACS712 current sensor module is used to continuously monitor the motor's
load current. The 30A and 66mV/A sensitivity (MicroSystems) variant was
selected to ensure high sensitivity and reliability under varying current
conditions. Justification includes:

a. High Current Range: With a 30A range, it provides a broad window for
both normal operation and fault condition monitoring, even though the motor
typically operates around 2.5A.

b. Analog Output: The sensor provides an analog voltage proportional to the

sensed current, which is easily read by the Arduino's ADC pin.

c. Electrical Isolation: The sensor offers isolation between the sensing and
control circuits, ensuring safety and stability in the system.

d. Compact and Efficient: Its small size and efficient output make it ideal
for integration into the hardware prototype.

4.1.5 16x2 LCD Display

To provide real-time feedback and monitoring, a 16x2 alphanumeric LCD is used

to display current values and motor status. Its key features include:

a. User-Friendly Display: It can display up to 16 characters per line across

two lines, making it suitable for showing real-time current and system status
messages.

b. Parallel Interface Compatibility: The LCD is easily connected with the

Arduino using a standard 4-bit or 8-bit parallel interface, in the project the 8-
bit mode is used.

46
 c. Low Power Consumption: Operates on 5V and draws minimal current,
making it ideal for embedded systems.

d. Instant Feedback: Allows the user or evaluator to immediately observe

the behavior of the system during different operational states (Normal,
Overload, Underload, etc.).

4.1.6 Microcontroller (Arduino UNO – ATmega328P)

The central controller of the system is the Arduino UNO board based on the
ATmega328P microcontroller. It is responsible for executing the protection
logic, reading current data, controlling relay outputs, and interfacing with the
LCD. Reasons for using Arduino UNO:

a. Ease of Development: Arduino provides a simple and flexible

development environment for rapid prototyping and testing.

b. Multiple I/O Pins: It offers sufficient GPIO pins to interface with the
current sensor, relay module, and LCD simultaneously.

c. Built-in ADC: The onboard 10-bit ADC is suitable for accurately

converting the analog output of the ACS712 into digital values for processing.

d. Open-Source Ecosystem: Arduino is well-supported with a large

community, documentation, and libraries, making it convenient for debugging
and modifications.

Q: Why was the ATmega328P microcontroller used in the hardware

implementation instead of the ATmega16 used during simulation?

Answer:

The switch from ATmega16 to ATmega328P in the hardware phase was primarily
due to practical availability and development ease. While ATmega16 served well in
simulation using Atmel Studio and Proteus, the ATmega328P—readily available
through the Arduino Uno—offered a more hardware-friendly platform.

47
It comes with built-in USB support, as atmega16 do not have USB support and
requires manual wiring but atmega328p using Arduino UNO eliminate the need for
an external programmer and it is breadboard friendly and has sufficient flash memory
(32KB) and RAM (2KB) (Atmel Corporation, 15) as compared to the atmega16
because it has 16KB of flash memory and 1KB of RAM to handle the project’s
logic, including ADC processing and LCD control. Moreover, the ATmega328P
benefits from extensive Arduino library support, simplifying the integration of
components like the LCD, relay, and current sensor.

In summary, the ATmega328P was chosen for its ease of use, availability, and
compatibility with Arduino-based development, which made it ideal for rapid
prototyping and real-time testing in hardware.

4.2 Procedure

The successful hardware implementation of the protection and monitoring system for
a single-phase induction motor involved following methodical steps, beginning from
software configuration to physical wiring and final testing. This section outlines the
complete process followed during the practical realization of the system.

4.2.1 Software Setup and Microcontroller Configuration

The initial stage in the hardware setup involved configuring the Arduino UNO
(based on the ATmega328P microcontroller) to interface correctly with the
development environment on a personal computer. While earlier simulation tasks
were carried out using Atmel Studio, which facilitated virtual interfacing and
code validation, the actual hardware implementation required a more tailored
toolchain setup.

To achieve this, Code::Blocks IDE (Blocks, 2022) was installed and integrated
with the AVR toolchain using WinAVR, which was downloaded from the
official repositories. This setup provided a reliable and flexible platform to
compile and upload code to the physical microcontroller(atmega328p).

48
Once Code::Blocks was configured, the compiler was set to GNU GCC for
AVR, ensuring compatibility with the ATmega328P architecture. Additional
settings were adjusted to enhance code optimization and execution efficiency. In
particular, compiler flags such as -Os were included to prioritize size-optimized
code generation, which is ideal for embedded systems with limited memory.
Proper configuration of include directories and library paths was also ensured to
allow proper compilation and microcontroller AVR C programming.

4.2.2 Interfacing the 16x2 LCD with Arduino UNO

After the software setup, the next step was to connect the 16x2 LCD display the
Arduino UNO to allow real-time monitoring of current and motor status.

The connections were made as follows (Hitachi, Ltd. , 1998)

a. Data Pins (D0–D7) of the LCD were connected to PORT D(Digital Pins
0–7) of the Arduino UNO.

b. RS (Register Select) pin of the LCD was connected to Digital Pin 8

(PB0).

c. EN (Enable) pin was connected to Digital Pin 9 (PB1).

d. RW (Read/Write) pin of the LCD was connected to Ground, since the

LCD was only used in write mode.

e. The anode of the LCD backlight was connected to 5V through a current-

limiting resistor to avoid excess brightness or damage.

f. The cathode was grounded.

g. VDD and GND pins of the LCD were connected to 5V and Ground of the
Arduino respectively.

h. For contrast control, the Vo (contrast pin) of the LCD was connected to
the middle pin of a potentiometer, while the two side pins of the

49
 potentiometer were connected to 5V and Ground. This configuration allowed
for manual adjustment of display contrast.

4.2.3 Integrating the ACS712 Current Sensor Module

The next essential component integrated into the hardware was the ACS712
(30A) current sensor, which is responsible for real-time current measurement of
the induction motor.

The AC side of the sensor (input terminals) was connected in series with the
motor’s power supply line. This allowed the sensor to accurately detect the actual
load current flowing to the motor. On the digital side of the sensor:

a. The OUT pin was connected to the A0 analog input pin of the Arduino
UNO.

b. The VCC pin was connected to the 5V supply of the Arduino.

c. The GND pin was grounded to the Arduino’s GND.

This analog output from the sensor represented the sensed current in the form of a
voltage, which was then processed by the Arduino using its internal ADC to
determine the real-time current.

4.2.4 Connecting the 5V Relay Module and AC Contactor

With the current sensor and LCD integrated, the next step involved connecting
the 5V relay module, which acted as the intermediary switching control between
the microcontroller and the AC contactor, and ultimately the motor.

On the AC side of the relay module:

a. The NO (Normally Open) terminal was connected to one side of the AC

contactor coil.

50
 b. The COM (Common) terminal of the relay was connected to the AC
power supply through a plug connector which means in short the relay
connected in series with the contactor coil.

c. This arrangement ensured that the contactor coil would only energize when
the relay switched from NO to closed state, which occurred under normal
current conditions as determined by the microcontroller.

When the contactor coil is energized, its internal plunger activates, closing the
contactor’s main contacts and allowing full current to pass through to the motor.
In contrast, if any abnormal condition is detected (such as no-load, overload), the
microcontroller disables the relay, keeping the NO terminal open and preventing
the contactor from energizing. This mechanism ensures safety and automatic
protection of the motor.

On the digital side of the relay module:

a. The IN pin was connected to Pin PB2 (Digital Pin 10) of the Arduino,
which provided the control signal.

b. The ‘+’ pin was connected to the 5V supply of the Arduino.

c. The ‘–’ pin was connected to Ground.

4.2.5 Final Assembly and Testing

After all individual components were integrated and their connections double-
checked, the entire hardware system was assembled on a veroboard or breadboard
Special care was taken to:

a. Use proper insulation for AC connections.

b. Maintain short and neat wiring to reduce electrical noise.

c. Secure all modules and sensors in place to prevent movement during

testing.

51
 Before powering the circuit, a final verification of all connections was
performed to avoid short circuits or wrong polarity.

4.2.6 Hardware Enclosure Design

The placement of the components with soldering on Vero-board shown below

Figure 13: Veroboard integration of the protection scheme

Figure 13: Veroboard integration of the protection scheme refers the hardware
setup used in the proposed system. The setup includes an Arduino Uno
microcontroller, which serves as the central processing unit for data acquisition
and control logic. To the left of the Arduino, an LCD display is connected,
which is responsible for real-time monitoring and display of system parameters
such as current status and load conditions. Adjacent to the display is a relay
module, which operates as a switching mechanism for controlling external loads
based on the sensed input. A potentiometer is interfaced at the top-right section,
used to simulate varying analog input, often for testing current levels or sensor
calibration. Finally, a current sensor module (e.g., ACS712) is placed at the far-
right, enabling the system to measure load current and detect overload or fault
conditions. This physical layout corresponds directly to the block diagram and
logic flow described in the methodology section.

52
 Figure 14: Wiring of the protection scheme

Figure 14: Wiring of the protection scheme to the wiring of the each components
of the circuit

Figure 15: Overall View of the protection scheme with the motor and contactor

53
 Figure 15: Overall View of the protection scheme with the motor and
contactor to the overall hardware view including motor, contactor and
programming setup

4.3 Testing and Validation

Before powering the circuit, a final verification of all connections was performed to
avoid short circuits or wrong polarity. Once verified, the circuit was powered up, and
functionality was tested under different motor load conditions. It is important phase
where the test and validation of the entire system under different operating conditions
namely no-load, normal load, and overload. This phase ensured the reliability and
accuracy of the protection mechanism before full-scale deployment.

4.3.1 Code Adaption and Offset Calibration

The first step in the testing process involved updating the previously developed
AVR simulation code (initially tested in Atmel Studio) to make it compatible
with the physical Arduino hardware setup, essential adjustments were made to
suit the real-time interfacing requirements of the system. These included
modifying the LCD control commands to match the actual pin configuration and
behavior of the 16x2 LCD connected to the Arduino UNO.

A important part of the code update was calibrating the current sensor offset.
In theory, the load current under a no-load condition should ideally be zero, but in
practice, electric motors still draw a significant amount of current when at no
load, typically around 70% of their rated current. For the 2.5A rated induction
motor used in this project, this amounts to approximately 1.75A.

To determine the exact offset value for calibration, a multimeter was used to
measure the actual current drawn by the motor when running under no-load
conditions. The reading observed was 1.720A. This value was then programmed
into the code as the no-load threshold to ensure the current sensor readings
displayed on the LCD were accurate and aligned with real-world observations.

54
 Figure 16: Checking the No-Load current to calibrate current sensor offset

Figure 16: Checking the No-Load current to calibrate current sensor offset. Refer to a
multimeter reading used to measure the actual current drawn by the motor when
running under no-load conditions. The reading observed was 1.720A.

4.3.2 Normal Operating Condition

When the sensor offset correctly configured, the system was first tested under
normal operating conditions. The motor was run with a moderate mechanical
load, and the sensor registered a current draw of around 2.29A on the LCD. This
value fell within the acceptable range for normal operation, being above the no-
load threshold and below the overload limit. In this state, the system's logic
allowed the relay module to activate, thereby energizing the contactor coil
connected to the AC circuit. This, in turn, completed the power path to the motor,
allowing it to run continuously. The status message displayed on the LCD
confirmed a “Normal” operating state, with displaying the current values ,
validating that the protection circuit recognized and permitted healthy operation.

55
 Figure 17: Normal Operating Condition

Figure 17: Normal Operating Condition Refers to the testing of the motor at normal
condition.

4.3.3 No-load testing

The next test scenario involved removing the mechanical load from the motor
shaft to simulate a no-load condition. With the offset pre-set in the code, the
LCD displayed a current of 1.604A, which was below the defined threshold of
1.7A for normal operation.

As expected, the system recognized this as a no-load condition and triggered the
protection mechanism. The relay was deactivated, which in turn de-energized the
contactor coil, thereby cutting off the AC power supply to the motor. The LCD
displayed a “No Load” status message, confirming the accuracy and
responsiveness of the protection logic.

This successful response not only validated the detection of no-load operation but
also demonstrated the system’s ability to prevent motor damage due to
prolonged running in no load condition that can cause overheating and reduced
motor lifespan.

56
 Figure 18: No-Load Testing

Figure 18: No-Load Testing Refers to the testing of the motor at No-Load condition.

4.3.4 Overload Testing

Finally, the system was subjected to an overload condition to test its protection
capability against excessive current draw. An artificial load was applied to the
motor, causing the current to spike to 10.05A, far exceeding the rated current
limit.

The system instantly recognized this surge as an overload event. The relay output
was promptly switched OFF, which interrupted the contactor coil circuit and cut
power to the motor, thus preventing any potential damage due to overheating or
insulation breakdown.

The LCD displayed an “Overload” warning, and the relay acted swiftly,
indicating that the system was effective in identifying and responding to high-risk
electrical anomalies.

57
 Figure 19: Over Load Testing

Figure 19: Over Load Testing Refers to the testing of the motor at Over load
condition.

4.3.5 Final Assembly and Testing

All three test conditions normal, no-load, and overload were conducted multiple
times to ensure repeatability and reliability. Each condition consistently produced
the expected response, confirming that the system could:

a. Accurately measure real-time current draw via the ACS712 sensor.

b. Respond appropriately to different operational states through relay

actuation.

c. Display real-time current values and system status messages on the

LCD with minimal lag.

d. Maintain stable operation under real-world noise and voltage

fluctuation conditions.

58
 The entire system was monitored over extended periods to ensure there were no
false triggers or unintended behaviors. This final phase of validation confirmed the
efficiency of the protection mechanism for single-phase induction motors, as
implemented using an ATmega328P microcontroller on an Arduino UNO
board.

4.4 Troubleshooting Challenges and Solutions

During the hardware implementation phase, several challenges were encountered that
required systematic troubleshooting and corrective measures. This section outlines
the major problems faced, their root causes, and how each issue was successfully
resolved.

4.4.1 LCD Display Issues

Problem:
During the initial hardware testing, the 16x2 LCD display was not functioning as
expected. Upon powering up the circuit, the LCD either remained blank or
displayed garbled characters. At some points, the backlight was on, but no
readable information appeared on the screen.

Investigation and Cause:

This issue prompted a step-by-step debugging process. The connections were
cross-verified, and the code was reviewed to ensure the initialization commands
were correct. Two critical observations led to the resolution:

The contrast control potentiometer connected to the Vo pin of the LCD was not
properly adjusted, resulting in an unreadable display.

Additionally, it was found that the LCD control commands used in the code
(originally written for simulation) were not entirely compatible with the physical
LCD hardware during real-time execution.

Solution:
The contrast potentiometer was carefully tuned until the characters appeared

59
clearly. Simultaneously, the LCD initialization commands were modified to
match the 4-bit mode operation as per the physical configuration. After these
corrections, the LCD began displaying real-time current readings and system
status messages accurately.

4.4.2 Incorrect Current Readings from ACS712 Sensor

Problem:
The ACS712 current ensor was initially producing unrealistically high current
values when tested on the physical setup. For example, even at no-load or
minimal load conditions, the LCD was displaying values close to the motor’s
rated full-load current (2.5A) or higher around 5amp, which was clearly incorrect.

Investigation and Cause:

Upon closer inspection, it was discovered that the issue was due to offset voltage
generated by the ACS712 sensor. By design, the sensor outputs 2.5V or 2500mV
at zero current, and any variation above or below this corresponds to positive or
negative current flow. However, the simulation code did not account for this
offset, and thus real-world values were skewed.

Solution:
Using a multimeter, the actual no-load current was measured to be approximately
1.20A. The code was then calibrated by subtracting the observed sensor offset
and scaling the sensor output correctly to match real-time values. After this
correction, the current values on the LCD closely matched the readings on the
multimeter, confirming accurate current sensing.

4.4.3 Relay Module Not Operating the Contactor

Problem:
One of the more puzzling issues occurred when the 5V relay module failed to
activate the AC contactor, even though the relay’s status LED indicated that it
was switching. The expectation was that the relay would energize the contactor
coil directly, but no motor response was observed.

60
Investigation and Cause:
Initially, the contactor coil was connected directly to the NO (Normally Open)
terminal of the relay module without proper understanding of current path
behavior. However, it was later realized that the contactor’s AC coil must be
connected in series with the relay’s output terminals (NO and COM) and to
the AC supply. This ensures that when the relay closes, it completes the path for
the AC to flow through the contactor coil.

Solution:
The connection was revised by placing the contactor coil in series between the
NO and COM terminals of the relay, with the other side connected to the AC
phase and neutral. Once this correction was implemented, the relay successfully
energized the contactor coil, and the motor responded as expected during both
test and operational conditions.

4.4.4 Loose Connections and Noise Interference

Problem
Another minor but recurring challenge was the inconsistent behavior due to lose
jumper wires, especially on the breadboard during repeated testing.

Investigation and Cause:

While testing the circuit under load, even a slight movement of the board or
cables would cause loss of signal to or from components like the ACS712 or
relay. This led to erroneous motor shutdowns or display failures.

Solution
The final circuit was soldered onto a vero board to eliminate loose connections.
Wire joints were also secured with terminal connectors and hot glue where
needed to enhance mechanical stability.

61
 Chapter 5

Conclusions

5.1 Summary

This project has developed an Advanced Protection Scheme for Single-Phase

Induction Motors, specifically designed to guard against both no-load and overload
conditions. Our system effectively handles significant operational challenges, such as
power losses during no-load operation and the overheating that occurs when motors
are overloaded. These issues, if left uncontrolled, often lead to motor failures, reduced
lifespan, and require high maintenance. By using an Atmega328p microcontroller, the
system constantly monitors the motor's current in real time using an ACS712 current
sensor, taking necessary control actions through its relay-based method

After simulations, we successfully implemented and validated the system's

functionality through hardware as well. During these tests, the protection mechanism
was continuously performed under various abnormal operating conditions. The
system precisely detects when the motor current varies, for instance, recognizing
overload conditions when the current exceeds 10A or no-load situations when it drops
below 2A. The moment these unusual current variations are observed, the system
activates the relay to shut down the motor, ensuring effective protection. Main
features of this design include highly accurate analog-to-digital conversion (ADC) of
current readings, displaying the information through an LCD interface, and
responsive control mechanisms, all designed to keep the motor safe.

The hardware results confirmed that our system protects the single-phase induction
motor by providing dependable shutdowns when critical conditions arise. This makes
the system both cost-effective and highly adaptable for a wide range of uses in
residential, commercial, and industrial settings, places where single-phase motors are
extensively used..

62
5.2 Recommendations for Future Work

While this project successfully achieved its main objectives, there's still plenty of
room to refine its functionality. An important next step after hardware is to extend it
more with advance monitoring mechanisms like frequency harmonics, moving
beyond purely protection environments. Furthermore, incorporating IoT-based
modules – like Wi-Fi or GSM, would open up possibilities for remote monitoring
and control of the motor. This means users could receive real-time notifications and
alarming signals directly through their mobile devices or web applications.

Looking ahead, we could significantly improve the system by developing more

advanced fault detection algorithms. These would be capable of identifying
additional anomalies, such as short circuits, phase failures, or even transient
disturbances. Developing an energy logging feature would also be valuable feature,
providing concrete data on motor energy consumption. This would directly help in
optimizing efficiency and reducing long-term operational costs. On the user
experience front, enhancing the interface with graphical displays or touch-screen
panels would make data visualization more detailed and much easier for users to
understand.

By addressing these suggested improvements, the system has the potential to grow
into an even more versatile and efficient solution for motor protection. This would
ensure even more reliable operation and extend the lifespan of motors across a wide
array of applications.

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