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Math 1 Lecture Notes

The document provides an introduction to the nature of mathematics, emphasizing its role in identifying patterns and its importance in everyday life. It covers various mathematical concepts such as sequences, patterns in nature, and the Fibonacci sequence, illustrating how mathematics is present in various aspects of the world. Additionally, it introduces mathematical language, symbols, and operations, along with exercises and activities to reinforce understanding.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
14 views93 pages

Math 1 Lecture Notes

The document provides an introduction to the nature of mathematics, emphasizing its role in identifying patterns and its importance in everyday life. It covers various mathematical concepts such as sequences, patterns in nature, and the Fibonacci sequence, illustrating how mathematics is present in various aspects of the world. Additionally, it introduces mathematical language, symbols, and operations, along with exercises and activities to reinforce understanding.

Uploaded by

foxsmrk
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as DOCX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Lesson 1

THE NATURE OF MATHEMATICS

Objectives: At the end of the lesson, the student is expected to:


1. Identify patterns in nature and regularities in the world.
2. Articulate the importance of mathematics in one’s life.

What and Where is Mathematics?

Mathematics is the study of patterns, structures, quantities, and logical relationships. It serves
as a universal language, utilizing numbers, symbols, and formulas to describe and analyze both
abstract concepts and real-world phenomena. Its diverse branches—arithmetic, algebra, geometry,
calculus, and statistics—form the foundation of countless fields, including science, engineering, and
economics (Devlin, 1994).

Mathematics is everywhere, woven into nature, technology, art, and everyday life. It
manifests in the symmetry of a butterfly’s wings, the spirals of galaxies, the algorithms powering
internet searches, and the architecture of buildings. Even our schedules, budgets, and daily decisions
rely on mathematical reasoning. Far from being confined to textbooks and classrooms, mathematics
is an essential element of the universe itself (Stewart, 2008).

Patterns

A pattern is a set of numbers or objects where all members are related by a specific rule.
Pattern recognition can help us make predictions. Here are some intriguing examples:

 Crime Prediction: Predictive policing algorithms use statistical models to analyze historical
crime data and predict where crimes are likely to occur in the future.
 Weather Forecasting: There are mathematical models that recognize patterns in temperature, air
pressure, and humidity.
 Financial Analysis: Stock market analysts use patterns in data to predict price trends.
 Science and Engineering: Chemical reactions, growth rates, and mechanical systems are
predicted based on observed patterns.

Sequences

A sequence is a chain of numbers (or objects) that follow a particular pattern. The individual
elements in a sequence are called terms. Here are a few examples. Determine their patterns and
predict the next term.
4, 7, 10, 13, 16,19, 22, __
2, 3, 5, 8, 12, 17, 23, __
1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, __
1, 8, 27, 64, 125, 216, 343, __

Difference Table

Some sequences have patterns that are not immediately obvious. One useful technique for
identifying the next terms in such sequences is to construct a difference table.

Example. Construct a difference table to predict the next term of the following sequence:
1, 7, 17, 31, 49, 71, __

Solution

1, 7, 17, 31, 49, 71, 97

1st difference 6 10 14 18 22 26

2nd difference 4 4 4 4 4

Answer: 97

Exercise. Construct a difference table to predict the next term of the following sequence:
-2, 1, 3, 9, 24, 53, ____

Mathematics in Nature

How you ever wondered why honeycomb cells are hexagonal in shape and a soap bubble forms a
sphere? Are such things just coincidence? Or is there something deeper at play? Here are some
patterns that you can spot in nature.

Fractals
A fractal is a detailed pattern that looks similar at any scale and repeats itself over time. A fractal’s
pattern gets more complex as you observe it at larger scales. Examples of fractals in nature are
snowflakes, trees branching, lightning, and ferns.

Spirals

A spiral is a curved pattern that focuses on a center point and a series of circular shapes that
revolve around it. Examples of spirals are pine cones, pineapples, and hurricanes. A spiral shape
causes plants to condense themselves and not take up much space, causing it to be stronger and more
durable against the elements.

Voronoi Patterns

Voronoi patterns appear quite frequently in nature, often in the form of tessellations where
space is divided into distinct regions. These natural occurrences are fascinating because they show
how efficient and optimized certain processes can be. Here are some examples of Voronoi patterns in
nature:

Examples of Voronoi Patterns in Nature:

1. Honeycombs: The hexagonal cells in a beehive are a type of Voronoi pattern. Bees create
these patterns to maximize space and structural efficiency.
2. Plant Cells: The arrangement of cells in plant tissues often follows a Voronoi pattern. This can be
observed in the epidermal cells of leaves.
3. Animal Skins and Shells: The markings on the skins of animals, like the spots on a giraffe or the
patches on a cow, often follow Voronoi patterns. Similarly, the structure of some mollusk shells
follows these patterns.
4. Blood Vessels and Leaf Veins: The branching pattern of blood vessels and the venation pattern of
leaves can also be modeled using Voronoi diagrams, as they optimize the distribution of nutrients and
fluids.
5. Crystals and Minerals: The formation of crystals and some types of mineral deposits exhibit
Voronoi patterns. For example, the way basalt columns form in places like the Giant's Causeway in
Northern Ireland.
6. Foam Bubbles: When foam bubbles cluster together, the thin walls between the bubbles form
Voronoi patterns, optimizing the space and minimizing the surface tension.

These patterns demonstrate the efficient and organized ways in which nature structures itself,
often resulting in beautiful and functional designs. Studying these patterns can provide insights into
the principles of efficiency and optimization that can be applied in various scientific and engineering
fields.

Fibonacci Sequence

The first two Fibonacci numbers are 0 and 1. The next number is found by adding up the two
numbers before it. Hence, the Fibonacci numbers are as follows:

0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89,…

The sequence of numbers above is the famous Fibonacci sequence. It was first described by
mathematicians in India about 1300 years ago, and introduced to the west in 1202 by Leonardo
Pisano (a.k.a. Fibonacci). He was also responsible for introducing the Hindu-Arabic numerals to
Europe.

The Fibonacci numbers occur frequently in nature. Here are some examples:

 The number of petals of a flower


 The number of clockwise and counter-clockwise spirals at the bottom of a pine cone are
consecutive Fibonacci numbers. The same is true for the number of clockwise and counter-
clockwise spirals formed by the seeds in a sunflower.
 The spiral shape of a nautilus shell and the Milky way galaxy are based on the Fibonacci
numbers.
 The human DNA molecule is 34 angstroms long and 21 angstroms wide – consecutive
Fibonacci numbers!
Activity No. 1

Name: _________________________________________ Course & Year: _____________ Score: ______


Instructor:_______________________________________ Class Schedule: _________________________

Direction. Write a 200–250 word essay explaining your understanding of the statement: “Mathematics
is everywhere.”

Rubrics:
Excellent Very good Good Approaching Needs
21 – 25 points 16 – 20 points 13 – 15 pts standards improvement.
8 – 12 pts 1 – 7 pts

Complete, accurate, Comprehensive Answers are not Answers are No clear answers
comprehensive and accurate comprehensive incomplete and to the given
answers, key points answers, some and complete. partial. Key questions. No
are clearly stated, key points are Key points are points are not key points are
explained, and stated and stated but not clear. mentioned.
supported by explained. explained or Questions not
examples/situations. supported. adequately
answered.

1. Follow the rubrics in your discussion.


2. Use one page short bond paper.
Activity No. 2

Name: _________________________________________ Course & Year: _____________ Score: ______


Instructor:_______________________________________ Class Schedule: _________________________

Direction: Capture at least 5 pictures that depict patterns in the natural world (like the patterns of the petals of
a flower, the pattern of the skin of animals or any natural objects around you) and briefly discuss the
significant role of mathematics in the pictures. (25 points)

1. Make sure that the submitted pictures are your own and not taken from books or the internet.
2. Make a collage of your pictures and place it in a short bond paper or just place the pictures
individually in a short bond paper.
3. Write your discussion on the second page with at least 5 sentences.
Activity No. 3

Name: _________________________________________ Course & Year: _____________ Score: ______


Instructor:_______________________________________ Class Schedule: _________________________

Direction: Do as instructed. Show all solutions.

Determine the next three terms of each of the sequences below. Show your solution. (20 points)
1. 2, 7, −3, 2, −8, −3, −13, −8, −18, _____, _____, _____
2. 1, 5, 12, 22, 35, _____, _____, _____
3. 9, 4, 3, 12, 37, 84, _____, _____, _____
4. 17, 15, 25, 53, 105, 187, ____, ____, ____
Lesson 2

MATHEMATICAL LANGUAGE AND SYMBOLS

Objectives: At the end of the lesson, the student is expected to:


1. Explain the nature of mathematics as a language.
2. Discuss the language, symbols, and conventions of mathematics.
3. Perform operations on mathematical expressions correctly.

Mathematics is a language, like any language it has its own symbols, syntax and rules. It is
also an exact science, so we have to express our mathematical thoughts and write mathematical
statements with high degree of precision. A small mistake may lead to a complete distortion of the
intended meaning (Oberste-Vorth et. al., 2012).

Dr. Carol Burns mentioned three characteristics of the mathematical language. The
characteristics of the language are the following.

 Precise (able to make very fine distinctions)


 Concise (able to say things briefly)
 Powerful (able to express complex thoughts with relative ease)

The mathematical analogue of a ‘noun’ is called an expression.

English Mathematics

NOUN (person, place, thing) EXPRESSION


Ex. Cathy, Ozamiz, bag Ex. 5, 2 + 3, ½, x + 7, y – 4

The mathematical analogue of a ‘sentence’ is also called a sentence.

English Mathematics

SENTENCE SENTENCE
Ex. Ex.
The capital of Malaysia is Kuala Lumpur. 3+4=7
The capital of Philippines is Cebu. 3+4=8
Mathematical Sentence

Definition. A mathematical sentence is the analogue of an English sentence; it is a correct


arrangement of mathematical symbols that conveys a complete thought. It is logical to evaluate the
truth of such a sentence by asking: Is it true? Is it false? Is it sometimes true and sometimes false?

Sets

A set is a collection of objects which are called elements of the set. If an object y belongs to a
particular set S, then we write y ϵ S.

y ϵ S is read as “ y is an element of S”

The following are examples of sets.

Let A be the set of natural numbers less than 7.


Let B be the set of vowels in the English alphabet.
Let C be the set of positive even numbers.

Two Ways of Specifying a Set

1. Roster method – by writing all of its elements between braces.

Examples
A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
B = { a, e, i, o, u}
C = { 2, 4, 6, …}

2. Set-builder notation – presents the elements by stating their common properties. It is


useful when describing infinite sets.

Examples
A = {x / x is a natural number less than 7}
B = { x / x is a vowel in the English alphabet}
C = { x / x is a positive even number}

Exercise. Let D be the set of even integers between 1 and 9. Describe D using a) the roster method;
and b) the set-builder notation.
Basic Number Sets

Natural Numbers or Counting Numbers N = {1, 2, 3, … } infinite set

Whole Numbers W = {0, 1, 2, 3, … }

Integers I = { …, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2,… }

Rational Numbers Q = the set of all terminating or repeating decimals.


= the set of all numbers that can be expressed as quotient or fraction p/q
of two integers.

Ex. All fractions are rational numbers.


All integers are rational numbers.

0=0/1
1 = 1/1
2 = 2/1
-1 = -1/1

Irrational Numbers Q̄ = the set of all nonterminating, nonrepeating decimals.


= the set of all numbers that cannot be expressed as quotient or fraction
p/q of two integers.

Ex. π = 3.14159...
√2
1 + √2
2 + √2

Exercises. Determine if the given decimals are rational or irrational numbers.

0.275
0.1333…
0.232323…
1.414213562…
5.67089

Real Numbers R = the set of all rational or irrational numbers.


All rational nos. are real nos.
All irrational nos. are real nos.
Subset

If A and B are sets, then A is called a subset of B, written A ⊆ B , if and only if, every
element of A is also an element of B.

Examples
B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}
A = {2, 4, 5, 6}
A⊆B
A⊆ A
B⊆ B

The last two examples illustrate that a set is a subset of itself.

Empty Set or Null Set


The empty set is a set which contains no elements. It is a subset of any set.

Notations: {}, Ø

Examples
The set of letters between b and c
The set of integers between 4 and 5

Quantifiers in the Mathematical Language

1. Universal Quantifier

Symbol Meaning
∀ “For all” or “For every”

Examples

∀ x ∈ ℕ( x+2 ∈ ℕ) read as “For all x element of ℕ, x + 2 is an element of ℕ.


∀ y ∈ R( y +0= y ) read as “For all y element of R, y + 0 equals y”
∀ x , y ∈ ℕ (x + y ∈ ℕ ) read as “For all x and y elements of ℕ, x + y is an element of ℕ .
2. Existential Quantifier

Symbol Meaning
∃ “There exists” or “For some”

Examples

∃ x ∈ I (x is even) read as “There exists x element of I such that x is even.”


∃ c ∈ R (5 c=1) read as “There exists c element of R such that 5c = 1.”
Activity No. 4

Name: _________________________________________ Course & Year: _____________ Score: ______


Instructor:_______________________________________ Class Schedule: _________________________

Direction. Classify each entry as a mathematical expression (EXP), or a mathematical sentence


(SEN). Classify the truth value of each entry that is a sentence: (always) true (T); (always) false (F);
or sometimes true/sometimes false (ST/SF).

(sample) 1+2 EXP


(sample) 1+2=3 SEN, T

1.) x – 1 Ans.

2.) x – 1 = 3 Ans.

3.) 1 + 2 + x Ans.

4.) x ÷ 3 Ans.

5.) x ÷ 4 = 2 Ans.

6.) 1 + 2 + x = x + 1 + 2 Ans.

7.) ¼ Ans.

8.) x > 7 Ans.

9.) y – 3 = y + 2 – 5 Ans.

10.) x + 5 = x – 7 Ans.
Activity No. 5

Name: _________________________________________ Course & Year: _____________ Score: ______


Instructor:_______________________________________ Class Schedule: _________________________

I. Describe each of the following sets using a) the roster method, and b) the set-builder notation.

1. Let A be the set of odd integers between 6 and 22.


2. Let B be the set of distinct letters of the word Philippines.
3. Let C be the set of multiples of 3 between 5 and 25.

II. Find all the subsets of each of the following sets.

1. E = {x, y}
2. F = {1, 2, 3}
Activity No. 6

Name: _________________________________________ Course & Year: _____________ Score: ______


Instructor:_______________________________________ Class Schedule: _________________________

Direction: Translate each of the following into a mathematical expression/sentence. Use as few
variables as possible.

1. The sum of a number and 8

2. The product of two numbers is 56.

3. One-third of the sum of two numbers

4. Twice a number equals 62.

5. Five less a number

6. Five less than a number

7. Six more than a number

8. The square of a number

9. Four times the square of a number

10. One-third of a number

11. The sum of two consecutive positive integers

12. The sum of the squares of two numbers


13. The sum of three consecutive even integers

14. There are twice as many boys as there are girls.

15. There are 10 more cars than jeeps.

16. A man’s age 7 years ago

17. The sum of two consecutive positive integers is 63.

18. The sum of two consecutive odd integers is 44.

19. For all c element of R, c minus 5 is an element of R.

20. There exists g element of R such that twice g equals 5.

REFERENCES:

Aufmann et al. (2013). Mathematical Excursions 3rd ed. Belmont: Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning

Aufmann et al. (2018). Mathematics in the Modern World Philippine ed. Manila: Rex Book Store, Inc.

Burns, Carol JVF. One Mathematical Cat, Please! A First Course in Algebra

Jamison, R.E. (2000). Learning the language of mathematics. Language and Learning
across the Disciplines, 4(1), 45-54

Oberste-Vorth et al. (2012). Bridge to Abstract Mathematics. The Mathematical Association of America

http://www.onemathematicalcat.org/pdf _files/LANG1.pdf

https://www.dpmms.cam.ac.uk/~wtg10/grammar.pdf
Lesson 3

PROBLEM SOLVING AND REASONING

Objectives: At the end of the lesson, the student is expected to:


1. Use different types of reasoning to justify statements and arguments made about
mathematics and mathematical concepts.
2. Solve problems involving patterns and recreational problems using Polya’s Four-
Step Problem Solving Strategy.
3. Organize one’s methods and approaches for proving and solving problems.

Mathematics is not just only about numbers, it is also about problem solving and reasoning. Logic
and reasoning are needed skills that are useful tools in decision making.

Reasoning is stating of ideas to arrive at a conclusion clearly and precisely.

Inductive Reasoning

Inductive reasoning is the process of reaching a general conclusion by examining specific examples.

When you examine a list of numbers and predict the next value in the list according to some pattern
you have observed, you are using inductive reasoning. The conclusion formed by using inductive
reasoning is a conjecture, since it may or may not be correct.

Examples of Inductive Reasoning

1. Ms. Jean is pretty.


She is my Math teacher.
Therefore, all math teachers are pretty.

2. Alfred is a maritime student.


Alfred is male.
Therefore, all maritime students are males.

3. Ana and Elsa are female students of MU.


Ana and Elsa are beautiful.
Therefore, all female students of MU are beautiful.

4. Consider the list of numbers below. Predict the next number.

5, 15, 25, 35, ?


Solution: Add 10 to the preceding number. The next number in the list is 45.

5. Draw the next figure inside the box provided.

Answer:

Deductive Reasoning

Deductive reasoning is the process of reaching a conclusion by applying general assumptions,


procedures, or principles. Examples of deductive reasoning are called syllogism.

Examples of Deductive Reasoning

1. All men are mortal (Major Premise)


Mario is a man. (Minor Premise)
Therefore, Mario is mortal. (Conclusion)

2. All of my cousins are tall.


Alex is one of my cousins.
Therefore, Alex is tall.

3. A number is divisible by 3 if the sum of its digits is divisible by 3. Consider 669. The sum of 6, 6,
and 9 is 21. Therefore, 669 is divisible by 3.

Exercise

Determine whether each of the following arguments is an example of inductive reasoning or


deductive reasoning.

a. During the past 7 years, a tree has produced fruits every other year. Last year the tree did not
produce fruits, so this year the tree will produce fruits.

b. All home improvements cost more than the estimate. The contractor estimated that my home
improvement will cost $60,000. Thus my home improvement will cost more than $60,000.
Activity No. 7

Name: _________________________________________ Course & Year: _____________ Score: ______


Instructor:_______________________________________ Class Schedule: _________________________

Direction : Determine which of the following statements is INDUCTIVE or DEDUCTIVE


REASONING.

1. If a quadrilateral has four sides, then a square is a quadrilateral. 1. ___________

2. I find people with glasses intellectual. Krystal is wearing glasses.


Therefore, Krystal is intellectual. 2. ___________

3. My math teacher last semester was a woman. This semester,


my math teacher is a woman. Therefore, all math teachers are
women. 3. ___________

4. The sum of two odd integers is even. Hence, the sum of 3 and 7 is 4. ___________
even.

5. For the first five activities, Zachary is the first one to complete 5. ___________
the activity. He concludes that he will be the first one to finish
in all activities.
Activity No. 8

Name: _________________________________________ Course & Year: _____________ Score: ______


Instructor:_______________________________________ Class Schedule: _________________________

Direction: Complete the following:

1. To be eligible for a student driver’s license, a person must be at least 16 years old. Rowena
will be 16 years old in three days.

CONCLUSION: _________________________________________________________

2. Employees are given a designated “wash day” every Wednesday to allow them to wash their
office clothes. Today is Wednesday.

CONCLUSION: _________________________________________________________

3. All humans are rational. I am a human.

CONCLUSION: ________________________________________________________

4. A car is a tangible material. All tangible materials are destined to depreciate.

CONCLUSION: ________________________________________________________

5. Ester is a student. All students are eligible to be in the dean’s list.

CONCLUSION: ________________________________________________________
POLYA’S 4-STEPS IN PROBLEM SOLVING

George Pólya (December 13, 1887 – September 7, 1985) was a Hungarian mathematician
who significantly influenced problem-solving in mathematics education. Known as the "Father of
Modern Problem Solving," he developed the renowned 4-Step Process for solving problems.

Polya’s Four- Step Process: (Aufmann et al. ,2013))

1. UNDERSTAND THE PROBLEM (See).

In understanding the problem, consider the following questions:

 Can you restate the problem in your own words?


 Can you determine what is known about these types of problems?
 Is there missing information that, if known, would allow you to solve the
problem?
 Is there extraneous information that is not needed to solve the problem?
 What is the goal?

2. DEVISE A PLAN.(Plan)

To start devising a plan, try doing the following:

 Make a list of the known information.


 Make a list of information that is needed.
 Draw a diagram.
 Make an organized list that shows all the possibilities.
 Make a table or a chart.
 Work backwards.
 Try to solve a similar but simpler problem.
 Look for a pattern.
 Write an equation. If necessary, define what each variable represents.
 Perform an experiment.
 Searching for patterns.

3. CARRY OUT THE PLAN. ( Do)


Solve the equation you have set up and observe analytical rules and
procedures until you arrive at the answer.

 Work carefully.
 Keep an accurate and neat record of all your attempts.
 Realize that some of your initial plans will not work and that you may
have to devise another plan or modify your existing plan.

4. REVIEW THE SOLUTION. (Check)

 Ensure that the solution is consistent with the facts of the problem.
 Interpret the solution in the context of the problem.
 Ask yourself whether there are generalizations of the solution that could
apply to other problems.
 Label your final correct answer.

Below are some illustrations of how Polya’s 4-Step Process is performed.

EXAMPLE 1. Each of four neighbors, Jeah, Zachary, Earl, and KC, has a
different occupation (teacher, manager, banker, or staff). From the following
clues, determine the occupation of each neighbor.

1. Zachary gets home from work after the manager but before the staff.
2. Earl, who is the last to get home from work, is not the teacher.
3. The staff and Earl leave for work at the same time.
4. The manager lives next door to KC.

Solution:
STEP 1: UNDERSTAND THE PROBLEM

Given:
1. Zachary gets home from work after the manager but before the staff.
2. Earl, who is the last to get home from work, is not the teacher.
3. The staff and Earl leave for work at the same time.
4. The manager lives next door to KC.
Required: Determine the occupation of each neighbor.

STEP 2: Devise a plan. ““ MAKING A TABLE or CHART”

The method “ MAKE A TABLE or CHART ” is helpful when solving problems


involving numerical relationships. It enables to display the given information in a
visual manner – making it easier to recognize patterns and relationships.
(DEDUCTIVE REASONING) ( Manlulu, Hipolito, 2019)

STEP 3: Carry out the plan.


A. From clue 1, Zachary is not the manager or the staff. So, mark X 1 in the
manager’s column of Zachary’s row and X 1 in staff’s column of
Zachary’s row.
Teacher Manager Banker Staff
Jeah
Zachary X1 X1
Earl
KC

B.From clue 2, Earl, who is the last to get home from work, is not the
teacher. Mark X 2 in the teacher’s column of Earl’s row.

 If Earl is the last to get home from work and from clue 1, we know that the
manager is not the last to get home from work, then , we mark X 2 in manager’s
column of Earl’s row because Earl is not the manager.

Teacher Manager Banker Staff


Jeah
Zachary X1 X1
Earl X2 X2
KC

C. From clue 3, the staff and Earl leave for work at the same time. We mark
X 3 in the staff’s column of Earl’s row.

 Place a in banker’s column of Earl’s row since there are already X’s
in the three occupations in Earl ’s row.
 Since Earl is the banker then none of the other three people can be the
banker. Hence, write X 3 in the banker’s column of Jeah, Zachary and KC’s
row.

 Since the three occupations are marked with X in Zachary’s row, then,
Zachary must be the teacher. Hence, place a in teacher’s column of
Zachary’s row.

 Since Zachary is already the teacher, mark X 3 in teacher’s column of


Jeahand KC’s row.

Teacher Manager Banker Staff


Jeah X3 X3
Zachary  X1 X3 X1
Earl X2 X2  X3
KC X3 X3

D. From clue 4, the manager lives next door to KC. Write X 4 in the manager’s column of KC’s
row.

 Since there are three X’s in the manager’s column, then Jeah must be the manager.
Write a in manager’s column of Jeah’s row.

 Finally, KC must be the staff. Write a in staff’s column of KC’s row.

Teacher Manager Banker Staff


Jeah X3  X3 X4
Zachary  X1 X3 X1
Earl X2 X2  X3
KC X3 X4 X3 
STEP 4: Review the solution.

CONCLUSION: Jeah is the manager.


Zachary is the teacher.
Earl is the banker.
KC is the staff.

EXAMPLE 2 : A volleyball team won three out of their last four games. In how many different
orders could they have three wins and one loss in four games?

Solution:

STEP 1: UNDERSTAND THE PROBLEM

Given:
 There are many different orders.
 The team may have won three straight games and lost the last one
(WWWL).
 Or maybe they lost the first game and won the last three (LWWW). Of
course there are other possibilities, such as WLWW.

Required: Determine the total number of different orders in four


games with three wins and one loss.

STEP 2: DEVISE A PLAN. “Make an organized list of all possible orders”


An organized list is a list that is produced using a system that ensures that
each of the different orders will be listed once and only once.
(INDUCTIVE REASONING)( Manlulu, Hipolito, 2019)

STEP 3: CARRY OUT THE PLAN.

Each entry in our list must contain three Ws and one L. A strategy will be used in order to make sure
each order is considered, with no duplications. One such strategy is to write a W on the first three
wins then L on the last. Then, make a pattern on the position of L until L will be moved on the first.
This strategy produces the four different orders shown below.

1. WWWL (Start with win)

2. WWLW

3. WLWW

4. LWWW(Start with a loss)


STEP 4: REVIEW THE SOLUTION.
We have made an organized list. The list has no duplicates and the list considers all
possibilities, so we are confident that there are four different orders in which a volleyball team can
win exactly three out of four games.

CONCLUSION: There are four different orders in which a volleyball team can win
exactly three out of four games.

EXAMPLE 3: A police station has 30 vehicles of motorcycles and cars. The total number of
wheels is 100. Find the number of motorcycles and cars the station has.

Solution:
STEP 1: UNDERSTAND THE PROBLEM

Given:

 There are 30 vehicles and 100 wheels

Required: Determine the number of motorcycles and cars the station has.

STEP 2: DEVISE A PLAN. “ Write and perform the operations on equation.”


Writing an equation requires the ability to translate English statements to Mathematical
statements and ability how to perform operations on equations. Defining what each variable
represents in mathematical expression/equation is also a requirement.
(DEDUCTIVE REASONING)( Manlulu, Hipolito, 2019)

Let C be the number of cars

M be the number of motorcycles

 Since there are 30 vehicles, then C + M = 30 vehicles.

 Since cars have 4 wheels and motorcycles have 2 wheels, and there are 100 total
wheels, then 4wheels( C=cars) + 2 wheels (M = motorcycles) = 100 wheels.

 Based on the problem, the two equations formed are:

C + M = 30
4C + 2M = 100
STEP 3: CARRY OUT THE PLAN.
Since there are two equations with two variables involved, the process of
ELIMINATION BY ADDITION/SUBTRACTION will be performed.

a. C + M = 30
4C+2M= 100

b. -2( C + M ) = 30 -2C - 2M = -60


4C + 2M = 100 4C + 2M = 100
2C + 0 = 40

2C = 40
2 2
C = 20
 Since C denotes the number of cars , so, there are 20 cars.

 However, solving for M as the number of motorcycles is as follows:

since C + M = 30
20 + M = 30
M = 30 – 20
M = 10 so, there are 10 motorcycles in the station

STEP 4: REVIEW THE SOLUTION.


Check: C + M = 30 4C + 2M = 100
20 + 10 = 30 4(20) + 2(10) = 100
30 = 30 80 + 20 = 100
100= 100

CONCLUSION: There are 20 cars with 4 wheels and 10 motorcycles with 2 wheels in
the station. The total number of wheels is 100 wheels.
EXAMPLE 4: Determine the units digit(one’s digit) in 4 200.

Solution:

STEP 1: UNDERSTAND THE PROBLEM

Given:
 The expression is expressed in the form of 4 n where n is a positive integer.

 Units digit of a number is the digit in the one's place of the number, that is,
it is the rightmost digit of the number. For example, the units digit of 546 is 6,
the units digit of 42 is 2.

Required: Determine the units digit in 4 200 .

STEP 2: DEVISE A PLAN. “ Searching for pattern “


The ability to recognize patterns is one important problem solving skill. It
enables a person to see order or regularity in what takes place in our surroundings and so be
able to make sense of what is going on. (INDUCTIVE REASONING)
( Manlulu, Hipolito, 2019)

STEP 3: CARRY OUT THE PLAN.


Write a list of expressions written in a form of 4 n where n is a positive integer . Evaluate
the expression and search for a pattern for the unit digit of the results.
1
4 =4
2
4 = 16
3
4 = 64
4
4 = 256
5
4 = 1,024
6
4 = 4,096

Observing the list of results of 4 n , if n is replaced with an ODD integer, the unit digit is 4,
while if n is an EVEN integer, the unit digit is 6.

Hence, since the exponent of 4 200is an even integer then its unit digit is a 6.

STEP 4: REVIEW THE SOLUTION.


CONCLUSION: The unit digit in 4 200 is a 6.

EXAMPLE 5: Julia has a certain amount of money in her bank account on Monday morning.
During the day she wrote a check for Php550.50, made an ATM withdrawal of
Php606 and deposited a check for Php761. At the end of the day, she saw that her balance was
Php977.25. How much money did she have in the bank at the beginning of the day?

Solution:

STEP 1: UNDERSTAND THE PROBLEM

Given:
 Php550.50 check
 ATM Withdrawal Php606
 Check deposit Php 761

Required : Amount of money that Julia had in the bank at the beginning of the
day.

STEP 2: DEVISE A PLAN. “ Working Backward”


Working backward is a strategy that starts at the end of the problem and works
backward. (INDUCTIVE REASONING)( Manlulu, Hipolito, 2019)

Start with 977.25. Subtract 761, add 606, and then add 550.50.

STEP 3: CARRY OUT THE PLAN.

977.25 – 761 + 606 + 550.50 = Php1,372.75

STEP 4: REVIEW THE SOLUTION.


You can also solve the problem by writing an equation.(DEDUCTIVE REASONING)

Let M be the money of Anne she had in the bank at the beginning of the day.

So, [ (M -550.50) – 606 ] + 761 = 977.25

[ M -1,156.5 + 761] = 977.25


M -395.50 = 977.25

M = 977.25 +395.50

M = 1,372.75

CONCLUSION: Julia had Php1,372.75 in the bank at the beginning of the day.
Activity No. 9

Name: _________________________________________ Course & Year: _____________ Score: ______


Instructor:_______________________________________ Class Schedule: _________________________

Direction: Use Polya’s 4 step problem solving strategy and procedures to solve the

following problems.

1
1.What is the 44th decimal digit in the decimal representation of 11 ?

1
2. Mrs. Dizon withdrew of her savings early in July and later deposited a total of Php 1,500 on
4
four separate days. If her bank statement showed a balance of Php3,500 after four deposits, what
was the balance immediately before her withdrawal?

3. Manny rode his bicycle 6 km east, 4 km west , and then 5 km east. How far is he from his
starting point?

4. Each of the Little League teams in a small rural community is sponsored by a different local
business. The names of the teams are the Dodgers, the Pirates, the Tigers, and the Giants. The
businesses that sponsor the teams are the bank, the supermarket, the service station, and the
drugstore. From the following clues, determine which business sponsors each team.

a. The Tigers and the team sponsored by the service station have winning records this
season.

b. The Pirates and the team sponsored by the bank are coached by parents of the players,
whereas the Giants and the team sponsored by the drugstore are coached by the director of
the community center.

c. Jake is the pitcher for the team sponsored by the supermarket and coached by his
father.

d. The game between the Tigers and the team sponsored by the drugstore was rained out
yesterday.

5. Shelly has saved some money for a vacation. Shelly spends half of her vacation money on an
airline ticket; she then spends $50 for sunglasses, $22 for a taxi, and one-third of her remaining
money for a room with a view. After her sister repays her a loan of $150, Shelly finds that she
has $326. How much vacation money did Shelly have at the start of her vacation?

6. In how many different ways can a basketball team win exactly four out of their last six games?
REFERENCES: (a)Aufmann et al. (2013). Mathematical Excursions 3 rd ed. Belmont:
Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning Aufmann et al. (2018). Mathematics in the
Modern World Philippine ed. Manila: Rex Book Store, Inc.

(b)Esmeralda A. Manlulu, Liza Marie M. Hipolito(2019)A course Module for


Mathematics in the Modern World, OBE

Lesson 4

DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS

Objectives: At the end of the lesson, the student is expected to:


1. Calculate correctly the measures of central tendency.
2. Calculate correctly the measures of variation.
3. Calculate correctly the measures of relative position.

Statistics involves the collection, organization, summarization, presentation, and


interpretation of data. There are two areas / branches of statistics.

Areas / Branches of Statistics

1. Descriptive Statistics is the branch of statistics that involves the collection,


summarization, organization, and presentation of data.

2. Inferential Statistics is the branch that interprets and draws conclusions from the data.

Population and Sample

Statisticians often collect data from small portions of a large group in order to
determine information about the group. The entire group under consideration is known as the
population, and any subset of the population is called a sample.

Population
All graduating students of Misamis University during S.Y. 2020-2021
All registered voters in Ozamiz City
All sales made by a restaurant last month
Weights of all college students of MU

Sample
A random sample of 50 graduating students of Misamis University during S.Y. 2020-2021
A random sample of 100 registered voters in Ozamiz city
A random sample of 80 sales made by a restaurant last month
Weights of a random sample of 200 college students of MU

Summation Notation

n
∑ x i =x 1 + x 2 +. ..+ x n
i=1 read as “summation of x sub i where i is from 1 to n.”

4
∑ x 2i =x 21 + x 22 + x 23 + x24
i=1

3
∑ ( x i−μ ) 2=( x1 −μ ) 2 + ( x 2 −μ )2 + ( x 3−μ )2
i=1

Measures of Central Tendency

1. The Arithmetic Mean


The mean of n numbers is the sum of the numbers divided by n.

n
∑ xi
i=1

Mean = n
μ → population mean . Greek letter “ mu”
x̄ → sample mean “x bar”

Rounding Rule for the Mean: The mean should be rounded to one more decimal place than
occurs in the raw data.

Example 1. Six friends in a biology class of 20 students received test scores of 92, 84, 65, 76,
88, and 90. Find the mean of these sample test scores.

Solution

n=6

92+ 84+65+76 +88+90 495


x̄= = =82 . 5
6 6 one decimal place
Example 2. The number of employees at 5 different drugstores are 3, 5, 6, 4, and 6. Treating
the data as a population, find the mean number of employees for the 5 stores.

Solution
N=5
3+5+ 6+4 +6 24
μ= = =4 . 8
5 5

Example 3. The weights of a random sample of 4 college students are 116.2, 130.4, 140.5,
and 135.6 lbs. Find the mean weight of these students.

Solution
n=4
116. 2+130 . 4+140. 5+135 . 6 522. 7
x̄= = =130. 675=130 .68
4 4 lbs two decimal places

2. The Median

The median of a set of observations arranged in an increasing order of magnitude is the


middle value when the number of observations is odd or the arithmetic mean of the two
middle values when the number of observations is even.

~
μ ----- population median read as “mu curl”
~
x ---- sample median read as “x curl”

Example 1. On 5 term tests in statistics a student has made grades of 82, 93, 86, 92, and 79.
Find the median for this population of grades.
Solution

Arranging the data values in increasing order yields


79, 82, 86, 92, 93.

~
The middle value is 86; hence μ=86 .

Example 2. The nicotine contents for a random sample of 6 cigarettes of a certain brand are
found to be 2.3, 2.7, 2.5, 2.9, 3.1, and 1.9 milligrams. Find the median.

Solution

Arranging the data values in increasing order yields


1.9, 2.3, 2.5, 2.7, 2.9, 3.1

The two middle values are 2.5 and 2.7; hence

~ 2. 5+2 .7
x= =2. 6
2 mg

3. The Mode

The mode of a set of observations is that value which occurs most often or with the
greatest frequency. The mode does not always exist. This is certainly true when all
observations occur with the same frequency. For some sets of data there may be several
values occurring with the greatest frequency in which case we have more than one mode.

Examples

Find the mode or modes for each of the following sets of data.

a). 9, 10, 5, 9, 9, 7, 8, 6, 10, and 11.


Answer: The mode is 9

b). 2, 0, 3, 1, 2, 4, 2, 5, 4, 0, 1, and 4
Answer: The modes are 2 and 4.

c). 8, 5, 6, 7, and 4
Answer: The mode does not exist

4. The Weighted Mean


The weighted mean of the n numbers x1 , x2 , … , x n with the respective weights
w1 , w2 , … , wn is

n
∑ ( xi wi )
i =1
weighted mean= n
∑ wi
i=1

Example. The table below shows John’s summer course grades. Use the weighted mean
formula to find John’s GPA for the fall semester. Round off the result to two decimal places
(nearest hundredths).

Course Grade Units


English 1.5 4
History 2.0 3
Chemistry 2.5 4
Algebra 1.0 3

Solution

4
∑ ( xi wi ) (1 . 5×4 )+ ( 2. 0×3 ) + ( 2. 5×4 )+ ( 1. 0×3 )
i =1
weighted mean= 4
=
4+3+ 4+3
∑ wi
i=1

6+ 6+10+3 25
= = =1 .79
14 14 two decimal places

Measures of Variation / Dispersion


The three basic measures of variation are range, variance, and standard deviation.

I. Range. The range of a set of data is the difference between the largest and smallest number
in the set.

Range = Largest - Smallest

II. Population Variance


Given the finite population x1 , x2 , … , xN , the population variance is

N
∑ ( x i − μ )2
σ 2= i =1
N “sigma squared”

III. Sample Variance


Given a random sample x1 , x2 , … , xn , the sample variance is

(∑ )
n n 2
n∑ xi2− xi
i=1 i =1
s2 =
n ( n−1 )

IV. Standard Deviation. The standard deviation is the positive square root of the variance.

σ =√ σ 2 population standard deviation

s= √ s 2 sample standard deviation

Example 1. The following scores were given by 6 judges for a gymnast’s performance in the vault
of an international meet : 7, 5, 9, 7, 8, and 6. Find the range, variance, and the standard deviation of
this population.

Solution

N=6
Range = 9 – 5 = 4

7+5+ 9+7+ 8+6 42


μ= = =7 . 0
6 6
6
∑ ( x i −7 )2 ( 7−7 )2 + ( 5−7 )2 + ( 9−7 )2 + ( 7−7 )2 + ( 8−7 )2 + ( 6−7 )2
2 i =1
σ = =
6 6
0+4 +4 +0+1+1
6
10
=
6
=1.6667 four decimal places

σ =√ 1.6667=1.29 two decimal places

Example 2. A comparison of coffee prices at 4 randomly selected grocery stores in San Diego
showed increases from the previous month of 12, 15, 17, and 20 cents for a 200-gram jar. Find the
range, variance, and the standard deviation of this random sample of price increases.

Solution

n=4
Range = 20 – 12 = 8 cents

(∑ )
n n 2
n∑ xi2− xi
i=1 i =1
s2 =
n ( n−1 )

4
∑ x i =12+15+17+20=64
i=1

4
∑ x 2i =122 +15 2 +172+ 202=144+225+ 289+400=1 ,058
i=1

2 4 ( 1 , 058 )− ( 64 )2 4 , 232−4096 136


s= = = =11.3333
4 ( 4−1 ) 12 12 four decimal places

s= √11.3333=3 .37 cents two decimal places

Example 3. Find the range, variance, and standard deviation of the given sample below.
4kg, 6kg, 7kg, 9kg, 11kg

Solution
n= 5
Range = 11 – 4 = 7 kg

(∑ )
n n 2
n∑ xi2− xi
i=1 i =1
s2 =
n ( n−1 )
5
∑ x i =4 +6+7+ 9+11=37
i=1
5
∑ x 2i =4 2 +6 2 +7 2 +92 +112 =16+36+ 49+81+121=303
i=1
2 5 ( 303 )−( 37 )2 1515−1369 146
s= = = =7 .3
5 ( 5−1 ) 20 20
s = √ 7.3=2.70 kg

Activity No. 10

Name: _________________________________________ Course & Year: _____________ Score: ______


Instructor:_______________________________________ Class Schedule: _________________________

Direction: Do as instructed. Show all solutions.

1. Find the mean, median, mode, range, variance and standard deviation of the given population.
21, 15, 18, 18

2. Find the mean, median, mode, range, variance and standard deviation of the given sample.
12, 9, 11, 10, 13, 14

3. Compute the GPA (weighted mean) in nearest hundredths.

Subject Grade Units


Math 1 1.5 3
History 1.0 3
Chemistry 2.5 4
English 1.75 3
Filipino 1.5 3
Measures of Relative Position

1. Z – Scores

The z-score for a given data value x is the number of standard deviations that x is above or
below the mean of the data. The following formulas show how to calculate the z-score for a
data value x in a population and in a sample.

x−μ
z x=
σ for population

x− x̄
z x=
s for sample

Example

Mario has taken two tests in his history class. He scored 72 on the first test, for which
the mean of all scores was 65 and the standard deviation was 8. He received a 60 on the
second test, for which the mean of all scores was 45 and the standard deviation was 12. In
comparison to the other students, did Mario do better on the first test or the second test?

Solution
Find the z – score for each test.

1st Test 2nd test

x = 72 x = 60
µ = 65 µ = 45
σ=8 σ = 12

72−65 60−45
z 72= =0 . 88 z 60 = =1 .25
8 12
Mario scored 0.88 standard deviation above the mean on the first test and 1.25 standard
deviations above the mean on the second test. These z-scores indicate that, in comparison to
his classmates, Mario scored better on the second test than he did on the first test.

2. Percentiles

Percentiles are values that divide a set of observations into 100 equal parts. These
values, denoted by P1, P2, … , P99 , are such that 1% of the data falls below P1 , 2% of the data
falls below P2 , … , and 99% falls below P99 .

3. Quartiles
Quartiles are values that divide a set of observations into 4 equal parts. These values
denoted by Q1 , Q2 , and Q3 , are such that 25% of the data falls below Q1 , 50% falls below Q2
, and 75% falls below Q3 .

Example. The following table lists the calories per 100 ml of 25 popular sodas. Find the P50 ,
P84 and Q1 for the data.

43 26 41 62 39
37 53 36 36 45
42 73 58 32 48
40 48 42 50 40
53 45 39 49 56

Solution

n = 25
Arrange first the data values in an increasing order.
1st 7th 12th 13th
26, 32, 36, 36, 37, 39, 39, 40, 40, 41, 42, 42, 43, 45, 45, 48, 48, 49, 50, 53,
21st 22nd 25th
53, 56, 58, 62, 73

i.) No. of data values below P50 = 50% of 25 = .5 x 25 = 12.5 round up


P50 = 13th data value = 43

ii.) No. of data values below P84 = .84 x 25 = 21


21 st+22 nd 53+56
P84 = = =
2 2 54.5

iii.) No. of data values below Q1 = .25 x 25 = 6.25 round up


Q1= 7th data value = 39

Exercise. Find P45 , P72 , Q1, and Q3 for the data below.

5, 6, 7, …, 40

References
Triola, Mario F. (1992). Elementary Statistics 5th ed. Addison-Wesley
Walpole, R. E. (1982). Introduction to statistics. New York: Macmillan.

Activity No. 11

Name: _________________________________________ Course & Year: _____________ Score: ______


Instructor:_______________________________________ Class Schedule: _________________________

Direction: Do as instructed. Show all solutions.

1. Find P14 , P90 , and Q2 for the following data.

3, 6, 9, 12, ... , 87, 90


2. Find P45 , Q1 , and Q3 for the following data.

11, 12, 13, ... , 40

3. Find P80 and Q2 for the given data.

3, 7, 5, 6, 9, 4, 11, 15, 12, 8, 16

Lesson 5

Normal Distribution

Objectives: At the end of the lesson, the student is expected to:


1. Explain the properties of a normal distribution.
2. Calculate areas under the standard normal curve.
3. Apply z – scores to normal distribution.

One of the most important probability distribution in the entire field of statistics is the
normal distribution. Its graph, called the normal curve, is the bell-shaped curve of figure 1
that describes so many sets of data that occur in nature, industry, and research.

Figure 1

A continuous random variable X having the bell-shaped distribution of figure 1 is called a


normal random variable.

Properties of a Normal Distribution

1. The mean, median, and mode are equal.


2. The normal curve is bell-shaped and is symmetric about the mean.
3. The total area under the curve is equal to one.
4. The normal curve approaches, but never touches the x-axis.
5. Between μ – σ and μ + σ the graph is concave down and elsewhere the graph is concave
up. The points at which the graph changes concavity are called inflection points.

Empirical Rule for a Normal Distribution

In a normal distribution, approximately


■ 68% of the data lie within 1 standard deviation of the mean.
■ 95% of the data lie within 2 standard deviations of the mean.
■ 99.7% of the data lie within 3 standard deviations of the mean.

The Standard Normal Distribution

The standard normal distribution is the normal distribution that has a mean of 0 and a
standard deviation of 1.

Table of Areas Under the Standard Normal Curve


This table shows the area between zero (the mean of the standard normal variable) and z. For
example, if z=1.61, look at the row titled 1.6 and then move over to the column titled .01 to get the
result .4463.

Z .00 .01 .02 .03 .04 .05 .06 .07 .08 .09
0. .012 .027
.0000 .0040 .0080 .0150 .0199 .0239 .0319 .0359
0 0 9
0. .051 .067
.0398 .0438 .0478 .0557 .0596 .0636 .0714 .0754
1 7 5
0. .091 .106
.0793 .0832 .0871 .0948 .0987 .1026 .1103 .1141
2 0 4
0. .129 .144
.1179 .1217 .1253 .1331 .1368 .1406 .1480 .1517
3 3 3
0. .166 .180
.1554 .1591 .1628 .1700 .1736 .1772 .1844 .1879
4 4 8
0. .201 .215
.1915 .1950 .1985 .2054 .2088 .2123 .2190 .2224
5 9 7
0. .235 .248
.2257 .2291 .2324 .2389 .2422 .2454 .2518 .2549
6 7 6
0. .267 .279
.2580 .2612 .2642 .2704 .2734 .2764 .2823 .2852
7 3 4
0. .296 .307
.2881 .2910 .2939 .2996 .3023 .3051 .3106 .3133
8 7 8
0. .328 .334
.3159 .3186 .3212 .3264 .3289 .3315 .3365 .3389
9 8 0
1. .348 .355
.3413 .3438 .3461 .3508 .3531 .3554 .3559 .3621
0 5 7
1. .370 .379
.3642 .3665 .3686 .3729 .3749 .3770 .3810 .3830
1 8 0
1. .390 .398
.3849 .3869 .3888 .3925 .3944 .3962 .3997 .4015
2 7 0
1. .408 .414
.4032 .4049 .4066 .4099 .4115 .4131 .4162 .4177
3 2 7
1. .423 .429
.4192 .4207 .4222 .4251 .4265 .4279 .4306 .4319
4 6 2
1. .437 .441
.4332 .4345 .4357 .4382 .4394 .4406 .4429 .4441
5 0 8
1. .448 .452
.4452 .4463 .4474 .4495 .4505 .4515 .4535 .4545
6 4 5
1. .458 .461
.4554 .4564 .4573 .4591 .4599 .4608 .4625 .4633
7 2 6
1. .466 .469
.4641 .4649 .4656 .4671 .4678 .4686 .4699 .4706
8 4 3
1. .473 .475
.4713 .4719 .4726 .4738 .4744 .4750 .4761 .4767
9 2 6
2. .478 .480
.4772 .4778 .4783 .4793 .4798 .4803 .4812 .4817
0 8 8
2. .483 .485
.4821 .4826 .4830 .4838 .4842 .4846 .4854 .4857
1 4 0
2. .487 .488
.4861 .4864 .4868 .4875 .4878 .4881 .4887 .4890
2 1 4
2. .490 .491
.4893 .4896 .4898 .4904 .4906 .4909 .4913 .4916
3 1 1
2. .492 .493
.4918 .4920 .4922 .4927 .4929 .4931 .4934 .4936
4 5 2
2. .494 .494
.4938 .4940 .4941 .4945 .4946 .4948 .4951 .4952
5 3 9
2. .495 .496
.4953 .4955 .4956 .4959 .4960 .4961 .4963 .4964
6 7 2
2. .496 .497
.4965 .4966 .4967 .4969 .4970 .4971 .4973 .4974
7 8 2
2. .497 .497
.4974 .4975 .4976 .4977 .4978 .4979 .4980 .4981
8 7 9
2. .498 .498
.4981 .4982 .4982 .4984 .4984 .4985 .4986 .4986
9 3 5
3. .498 .498
.4987 .4987 .4987 .4988 .4989 .4989 .4990 .4990
0 8 9
3. .499 .499
.4990 .4991 .4991 .4992 .4992 .4992 .4993 .4993
1 1 2
3. .499 .499
.4993 .4993 .4994 .4994 .4994 .4994 .4995 .4995
2 4 5
3. .499 .499
.4995 .4995 .4995 .4996 .4996 .4996 .4996 .4997
3 6 6
3. .499 .499
.4997 .4997 .4997 .4997 .4997 .4997 .4997 .4998
4 7 7
3. .499 .499
.4998 .4998 .4999 .4999 .4999 .4999 .4999 .4999
6 9 9
3. .5000
9

What is the area from z = 0 to z = 2.06 ?


What is the area from z = 0 to z = 3.15 ?
What is the area from z =0 to z = 3.06 ?
What is the area from z = 0 to z = 3.54?
What is the area from z = 0 to z = 0.07 ?

Example 1.
Find the area of the standard normal distribution between z = - 1.27 and z = 0.

Solution
Since a normal curve is symmetric, the area between z = - 1.27 and z = 0 is just equal to the
area between z = 0 and z = 1.27. From the table, the area is 0.3980.

Example 2.
Find the area of the standard normal distribution to the right of z = 2.08.
Solution
Area to the right of z = 2.08
= 0.5 – (Area from z=0 to z = 2.08)
= 0.5 – 0.4812
= 0.0188

Example 3.
Find the area of the standard normal distribution between z = - 2.14 and z = 1.59.
Solution
Area = (Area bet. z=0 and z = 2.14) + (Area bet. z =0 and z = 1.59)
= 0.4838 + 0.4441
= 0.9279

Example 4.
Find the area of the standard normal distribution between z = 1.07 and z = 2.95.
Solution

Area = (area bet. z =0 and z =2.95) – (area bet. z = 0 and z = 1.07)


=0.4984 – 0.3557
= 0.1427

Example 5.
Find the area of the standard normal distribution to the right of z = -0.35.
Solution

Area = (area bet. z = 0 and z = 0.35) + (area to the right of z = 0)


= 0.1368 + 0.5
= 0.6368

Applications of the Normal Distribution

Example.
A coffee machine dispenses coffee into 11-ounce cups. Tests show that the actual
amount of coffee dispensed is normally distributed, with a mean of 8.4 oz and a standard
deviation of 0.1 oz.
a. What percent of cups will receive less than 8.2 oz of coffee?
b. What percent of cups will receive between 8.3 oz and 8.7 oz of coffee?

Solution
x = amount of coffee dispensed (normal variable)
μ = 8.4 oz
σ = 0.1 oz

a) x = 8.2 oz
x−μ 8. 2−8. 4
z 8. 2 = = =−2 .00
σ 0. 1 two decimal places
Area to the left of (x = 8.2 oz) = Area to the left of (z = -2.00)
= 0.5 – 0.4772
= 0.0228
Answer: 2.28%

b) x = 8.3 x = 8.7
x−μ 8. 3−8 . 4
z 8. 3 = = =−1 . 00
σ 0 .1

x−μ 8 .7−8 . 4
z 8. 7 = = =3 . 00
σ 0 .1

Area between x = 8.3 and x = 8.7


= Area between z = -1.00 and z = 3.00
= 0.3413 + 0.4987
= 0.84
Answer: 84%

Exercise. A study of the careers of professional football players shows that the lengths of
their careers are normally distributed with a mean of 6.8 years and a standard deviation of 1.3
years.
a. What percent of professional football players have a career of more than 6.4 years?
b. If a professional football player is chosen at random, what is the probability that the player
will have a career of between 6.4 and 6.7 years?

Activity No. 12
Name: _________________________________________ Course & Year: _____________ Score: ______
Instructor:_______________________________________ Class Schedule: _________________________

Direction. Do as instructed. Show all solutions.

1. Find the area of the standard normal distribution to the right of z = -1.24.
2. Find the area of the standard normal distribution of the left of z = -2.17.
3. Find the area of the standard normal distribution to the left of z = 1.67.
4. Find the area of the standard normal distribution between z = -1.18 and z = 3.10.
5. A delivery company found that the weights of their parcels where normally distributed with a
mean of 30 oz and a standard deviation of 7.2 oz.
a. What percent of their parcels weighed less than 32 oz?
b. What percent of their parcels weighed between 28 oz and 34 oz ?

References
Triola, Mario F. (1992). Elementary Statistics 5th ed. Addison-Wesley
Walpole, R. E. (1982). Introduction to statistics. New York: Macmillan.
51

Lesson 6

SIMPLE LINEAR REGRESSION and CORRELATION

Objectives: At the end of the lesson, the student is expected to:


1. Find the equation of the Least Squares Regression Line (LSRL).
2. Predict how much a dependent variable changes based on adjustments to an
independent variable.
3. Compute the value of r and interpret the result.

Bivariate Data

A data set with two variables contains what is called bivariate data. This lesson
discusses ways to describe the relationship between two variables. For example, you may
wish to describe the relationship between the heights and weights of people to determine
the extent to which taller people weigh more.

Simple Linear Regression

When performing research studies, scientists often wish to know whether two
variables are related. If the variables are related, a scientist may then wish to find an
equation that can be used to model the relationship.
In simple linear regression, we predict scores on one variable from the scores on a
second variable. The variable we are predicting is called the criterion variable and is
referred to as Y. The variable we are basing our predictions on is called the predictor
variable and is referred to as X.
The example data in Table 1 are plotted in Figure 2. You can see that there is a
relationship between X and Y. If you were going to predict Y from X, the higher the
value of X, the higher your prediction of Y.

X Y
2 4
3 6
5 6
7 9
9 11

Table 1
52

12

10

6
Y
4

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
X

Figure 2. Scatter Plot

Linear regression consists of finding the best-fitting line through the points. The
best-fitting line is called the line of best fit or the least-squares regression line.

12

10 f(x) = 0.939024390243903 x + 2.31707317073171

6 Series2
Linear (Series2)
4

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
53

The Formulas for the Least-Squares Regression Line

y=ax+ b
n ∑ xy−( ∑ x )( ∑ y )
a= 2
n ∑ x2 −( ∑ x )

b= ȳ−a x̄

Example 1. Find the equation of the LSRL for the data on Table 1. Use the equation of
the LSRL to the predict the value of y when x = 12.

x y xy x2
2 4 8 4
3 6 18 9
5 6 30 25
7 9 63 49
9 11 99 81
Total 26 36 218 168

n=5
∑x = 26
∑y = 36
∑xy = 218
∑x2 = 168

x̄=
∑ x =26 =5. 2
n 5

ȳ=
∑ y =36 =7 . 2
n 5

n ∑ xy−( ∑ x )( ∑ y )
a= 2
n ∑ x2 −( ∑ x )

5(218)−(26 )(36 ) 1090−936 154


a= 2
= = =0 . 9390243902
5(168)−( 26 ) 840−676 164

b= ȳ−a x̄
b = 7.2 – (0.9390243902)(5.2) = 2.317073171
y=ax+ b
54

y = 0.939x + 2.317 Equation of LSRL

When x = 12,

y = 0.939(12) + 2.317 = 13.585


y = 14

Example 2. Given the bivariate data:

x 1 2 3 5 6
y 7 5 3 2 1

a. Find the equation of the LSRL.


b. Predict the value of y when x = 7.

x y xy x2
1 7 7 1
2 5 10 4
3 3 9 9
5 2 10 25
6 1 6 36
Total 17 18 42 75

n=5

∑ x= 17
∑ y= 18
∑ xy= 42
∑ x 2= 75
17
x̄= =3 . 4
5

18
ȳ= =3 . 6
5

n ∑ xy−( ∑ x )( ∑ y ) 5 ( 42 )−( 17 )( 18 ) 210−306 −96


a= 2
= = =
n ∑ x −( ∑ x )
2 5 ( 75 )− (17 )2 375−289 86

a = -1.1162790698
55

b = 3.6 – (-1.1162790698)(3.4)

= 3.6 + 3.7953488373

= 7.3953488373

y = - 1.116 x + 7.395 LSRL

When x = 7

y = -1.116(7) + 7.395 = -0.417 = 0


56

Linear Correlation Coefficient (Pearson’s Correlation Coefficient)

To determine the strength of a linear relationship between two variables, statisticians use
a statistic called the linear correlation coefficient, which is denoted by the variable r .

n ( ∑ xy ) −( ∑ x )( ∑ y )
r=
√ 2

n ( ∑ x 2 )−( ∑ x ) . n ( ∑ y 2 ) −( ∑ y )
2

−1≤r≤1
The value of r ranges from -1 to 1. If r is positive , the relationship between the variables
has a positive correlation. In this case, if one variable increases, the other variable also tends to
increase. If r is negative, the relationship between the variables has a negative correlation. In this
case, if one variable increases, the other variable tends to decrease. Below are the interpretations
for the values of r.

r=1 → perfect positive correlation


0<|r|<0.3 → weak correlation
0 .3 ≤|r|< 0.7 → moderate correlation
0 .7 ≤|r|<¿ 1 → strong correlation
r=0 → no correlation
r = -1 → perfect negative correlation

Note: The Pearson correlation only measures linear relationships and does not imply causation.

Example 1. Given the bivariate data:

x 1 2 3 5 6
y 7 5 3 2 1

Compute the value of r and interpret the result.

x y xy x2 y2
1 7 7 1 49
2 5 10 4 25
3 3 9 9 9
5 2 10 25 4
6 1 6 36 1
Total 17 18 42 75 88

n ( ∑ xy ) −( ∑ x )( ∑ y )
r=
√ 2

n ( ∑ x 2 )−( ∑ x ) . n ( ∑ y 2 ) −( ∑ y )
2
57

5 ( 42 )− (17 ) (18 ) −96 −96


r= = =
√ 5 ( 75 )−( 17 ) . √5 ( 88 ) −( 18 )
2 2
√ 86 √116 √ 9976
r = -0.9611540778

There is a strong negative correlation.

Example 2. Given the bivariate data:

x 2 4 6 8 10 7
y 6 1 15 3 14 7

x y xy x2 y2
2 6 12 4 36
4 1 4 16 1
6 15 90 36 225
8 3 24 64 9
10 14 140 100 196
7 7 49 49 49
Total 37 46 319 269 516

n=6

6 ( 319 ) −( 37 ) ( 46 ) 212 212


r= = =
√ 6 ( 269 ) −( 37 )2 . √6 (516 )−( 46 )2 √ 245 √ 980 √240 , 100

r = 0.4326530612
There is a moderate positive correlation.

.
58

Activity No. 13

Name: ________________________________________ Course & Year: _____________ Score: ______


Instructor:______________________________________Class Schedule: _________________________

Direction: Do as instructed. Show all solutions.

Given the bivariate data:

X 2 4 4 5 6 7 8
Y 4 3 5 6 5 4 4

a) Construct a scatter plot


b) Find the equation of the LSRL
c) Predict y when x= 10.
59

Activity No. 14

Name: ________________________________________ Course & Year: _____________ Score: ______


Instructor:______________________________________Class Schedule: _________________________

Direction: Do as instructed. Show all solutions.

Given the bivariate data:

X 1 2 3 4 5 6 8 7
Y 3 3 5 6 4 7 7 8

Compute the value of r and interpret the result.


60

Lesson 7. Mathematics of Finance

Objectives: At the end of the lesson, the student is expected to:


1. Compute simple interest.
2. Compute compound interest.
3. Explain the difference between simple interest and compound interest.

Simple Interest

When an investor lends money to a borrower, the borrower must repay not only the
original amount borrowed but also an additional sum known as interest. From the investor's
perspective, interest represents the income generated from the invested capital. From the
borrower's standpoint, interest is the cost paid for using the borrowed money. The original sum
of money lent or invested is referred to as the principal. The total amount to be repaid, which
includes both the principal and the interest, is called the amount.

Formulas

I = Prt
A=P+I
A = P(1 + rt)

where
I = simple interest
P = principal
r = rate
t = time expressed in years
A = amount

If the time is given in months or days, convert this to year using the following formulas:

t = number of months / 12

t = number of days / 360

t = number of days / 365

Note: Unless specified, 360 days is used in all simple interest computations.

1. If ₱3,000 was borrowed at 6% simple interest, how much will be the interest for 2 years?

Solution
61

Given :
P = ₱ 3,000
r = 6 % = 0.06
t = 2 years
I=?

I = Prt = (3,000) (0.06) (2) = ₱ 360

2. Accumulate (Find A) ₱12,000 for 30 months at 8% simple interest.

Solution

Given:
P = ₱ 12,000
30
t= years=2 .5 years
12

r = 8% = 0.08
A=?

Solution

A = P(1 + rt) = 12,000 [1 + (0.08)(2.5)] = ₱ 14,400

3. If ₱ 400 is the interest at 10 % after 1 year, how much was borrowed?

Given:
I = ₱ 400
r = 0.1
t = 1 yr
P=?

I 400 400
P= = = =4000
rt 0. 1(1) 0. 1

P = ₱ 4,000

4. Mr. Cruz borrowed ₱ 10,000 for 3 months and paid ₱ 237.50 interest. What was the annual
rate of interest?

Soln.

Given: P = ₱ 10,000
t = 3 mos. = 3/12 yr. = 0.25 yr
I = ₱ 237.50
r=?

I 237 . 5
r= = =0 . 095=9. 5 %
Pt 10 , 000 (0. 25 )
62

5. Find the interest and amount on ₱ 25,000 at 10.5% for 60 days.

Given:

P = ₱ 25,000

r = 10.5% = 0.105

t = 60 days = 60/360 yr. = 1/6 yr.

I=?

A=?

I = Prt = 25,000(0.105)(1/6) = 437.5 = ₱ 437.50

A = P + I = ₱ 25,000 + ₱ 437.50 = ₱ 25,437.50

Compound Interest

Building on the previous discussion, we learned that an individual can borrow money for
a period of time and repay it with interest at the end of that period. This straightforward method
works well for short-term loans. However, for long-term financial commitments, interest is
typically computed using compound interest.

Compound interest means that if the interest is not paid but allowed to accumulate, it is
added to the principal at the end of each interest period. This new total becomes the principal for
the next period. This compounding process can occur on different schedules: monthly (every
month), quarterly (every 3 months), semi-annually (every 6 months), or annually (once per year),
depending on the agreement.

The increase in the principal over the loan term is known as compound interest, and the
total amount at the end of the period (the original principal plus the accumulated compound
interest) is referred to as the compound amount.

Example 1.

Find the compound amount of ₱10,000 compounded quarterly for a year at 12%. (Note
that 12% interest rate for a year, compounded quarterly, means 3% interest rate for each quarter,
12 %
=3 %
4 .)

12% -- nominal rate of interest per year


63

3% -- rate of interest per conversion period

Solution
₱10,000 = original principal
+ 300 = interest at the end of 3 months (10,000 x .03)
-----------
10,300 = new principal at the end of 3 months
+ 309 = interest at the end of 6 months (10,300 x 0.03)
-----------
10,609 = new principal at the end of 6 months
+ 318.27 = interest at the end of 9 months (10,609 x 0.03)
-------------
10,927.27 = new principal at the end of 9 months
+ 327.82 = interest at the end of 1 year (10,927.27 x 0.03)
--------------
₱11,255.09 = Final amount at the end of one year

Compound interest = ₱11,255.09 - ₱10,000 = ₱1,255.09

Formulas

( )
mt
j
A=P 1+
m

A=P ( 1+i )n

I = A– P

A
P=
( )
mt
j
1+
m

where

P → Original principal
A → Compound amount to which P will accumulate
I → compound interest
t → time or term of investment which is expressed in years
m → number of conversion periods per year
n → number of conversion periods for the whole term (n = mt)
j → nominal rate of interest per year
j
i=
i → rate of interest per conversion period ( m )

Let us solve example 1 using a formula.


64

Given: P = ₱ 10,000
m=4
t = 1 yr
n = mt =4(1) = 4
j = 12%
i = j/m = 12% / 4 = 0.12 / 4 = .03
A=?

A=P ( 1+i )n =10 , 000 ( 1+.03 )4 =10 , 000 ( 1. 03 )4 =11, 255 .0881

A = ₱11,255.09

Example 2
Accumulate ₱ 20,000 for 10 years at 6% compounded quarterly.

Solution
P = ₱ 20,000
t = 10 yrs
m=4
n = 4(10) = 40
j = 6%
i = 6% / 4 = 0.06/4 = 0.015
A=?
A = 20,000(1+0.015)40 = 20,000(1.015)40 = ₱36,280.37

Example 3

To what sum of money will ₱10,000 accumulate in 5 years and 3 months at 6%


compounded monthly?

Soln.
Given:
A =?
P = ₱10,000
t = 5yrs + 3 mos. = 5 yrs + 3/12 yr = 5.25 yrs
m = 12
n = mt = 12(5.25)= 63
j = 6%
i = j/m = 6% /12 = 0.06/12 = 0.005

A=P ( 1+i )n

= 10,000 (1 + 0.005)63 = 10,000(1.005)63 = ₱13,691.84

I = 13,691.84 – 10,000 = ₱3,691.84


65

Activity No. 15

Name: ________________________________________ Course & Year: _____________ Score: ______


Instructor:______________________________________Class Schedule: _________________________

Direction. Do as instructed. Show all solutions.

1. How much was borrowed if a simple interest rate of 2.10% was offered payable in 4
months with interest of Php35.00?

2. What is the simple interest on a Php500 loan at 2.5% interest to be paid at the end of 6
months?

3. The loan of Php1,350 is to repaid in 1 year at 4.5% simple interest. How much is added
to the loan?

4. How long will Php60,000 accumulate to Php62,430 if the simple interest rate agreed is
1.50%?

5. What is the amount of a loan of Php64,000 earning an interest of Php12,733?

6. Mia Benson invested her summer earnings of Php 3,000 in a savings account which pays
2.5% interest. How much will this amount to in 6 months?
66

Activity No. 16

Name: ________________________________________ Course & Year: _____________ Score: ______


Instructor:______________________________________Class Schedule: _________________________

1. A ₱1,000,000- trust fund was set up and to be used by an 8- year old nephew when he
goes to college. In 8 years, how much will the fund be if the investment rate is 7.5%
compounded quarterly?

2. Find the amount at the end of 5 years if ₱17,535 is invested at 2.45% compounded
quarterly.

3. If money is worth 6% compounded bi-monthly, find the present value (principal value) of
₱125,700 for 2 years.

4. If the rate is at 1.25% effective, how long will ₱5,000 become ₱5,500?

5. If an amount of $5,000 is deposited into a savings account at an annual interest rate of


5%, compounded monthly, what is the value of the investment after 10 years?
67

Lesson 9

Apportionment and Voting

Objectives: At the end of the lesson, the student is expected to:


1. Use the methods of apportionment in solving problems.
2. Explain the fairness in apportionment and apportionment paradoxes.
3. Use the different methods of voting to determine a winner.

Apportionment–a method of dividing a whole into various parts.

Apportionment has its roots in the US Constitution. It was in 1790 that the first attempt
of electing the members of the US House of Representatives will be done by
apportionment.Various methods have been used to decide how many voters will be represented
by each member of the House and two competing plans were put forward, that of Alexander
Hamilton and Thomas Jefferson.

The Hamilton Plan

Suppose Region YY, has a population of 30,000 and composed of 5 provinces and the local
governments, as stated in the constitution, wants to select 25 representatives for the whole
region.

Region YY
Provinces Population
AA 5,712
BB 3,050
CC 4,678
DD 9,415
EE 7,145
Total 30,000

In using the Hamilton Plan first determine the standard divisor.

Standard divisor –gives the number of citizens represented by each representative.

total population
standard divisor= apportion ¿
number of people ¿

30,000
¿ =1,200.
25

The 1,200 represents the number of citizens represented by each representative.

Next compute for the standard quota. The standard quota is the whole number part of the
quotient of the population divided by the standard divisor.
68

Provinces Population Quotient Standard quota Number of


Representatives
AA 5,712 5712/1200 = 4.76 4 5
BB 3,050 3050/1200 = 2.54 2 2
CC 4,678 4678/1200 = 3.90 3 4
DD 9,415 9415/1200 = 7.85 7 8
EE 7,145 7145/1200 =5.95 5 6
Total 30,000 21 25

The total in the standard quota column is only 21 instead of the required 25 representative. If
this is the case, we have to add 1 representative to the quotient with the largest decimal part. The
process is repeated until the required number of representatives is reached.

The Jefferson Plan

You may have noticed that under the Hamilton Plan, we were short by four representatives from
the required total. The Jefferson Plan aims to address this issue by using a modified standard
divisor. To proceed, we will need to determine an appropriate standard divisor through a process
of trial and error.

Provinces Population Quotient Number of


Representatives
AA 5,712 5712/1100 = 5.19 5
BB 3,050 3050/1100 = 2.77 2
CC 4,678 4678/1100 = 4.25 4
DD 9,415 9415/1100 = 8.56 8
EE 7,145 7145/1100 =6.49 6
Total 30,000 25

The table below shows the results using both plans.

Provinces Population Hamilton Plan Jefferson Plan


AA 5,712 5 5
BB 3,050 2 2
CC 4,678 4 4
DD 9,415 8 8
EE 7,145 6 6
Total 30,000 25 25

Apportionment is not limited to allocating representatives in a legislative body; it also has many
practical applications in everyday settings. For example, it can be used to assign police officers
to precincts based on the number of reported crimes, allocate nurses according to the number of
patients in a hospital, or schedule mathematics classes based on student demand.

Example. Suppose the 12 elected members of the Board Members of Misamis Occidental are
selected according to the population of the three cities and three towns in the province as shown
below:
69

Misamis Occidental:

Cities/Town Population
Bonifacio 34,558
Calamba 23,227
Clarin 39,356
Oroquieta City 72,301
Ozamiz City 140,334
Tangub City 68,389
Total 378,165

a. Use the Hamilton method to determine the number of board members each city should
have.
b. Use the Jefferson method to determine the number of board members each city should
have.

Solution:

a. First determine the total population:


34,558 + 23,227 + 39,356 + 72,301+140,334 + 68,389 = 378,165
Calculate the standard quota.

378,165
Standard divisor = =31,513.75
12

Use the standard divisor to find the standard quota for each city/town:

Cities/Town Population Quotient Standard Number


quota of Board
Members
Bonifacio 34,558 34,558 1 1
=¿ 1.097
31,513.75
Calamba 23,227 23,227 0 1
=¿0.737
31,513.75
Clarin 39,356 39,356 1 1
=¿ 1.249
31,513.75
Oroquieta City 72,301 72,301 2 2
=¿ 2.29
31,513.75
Ozamiz City 140,334 140,334 4 5
=¿ 4.453
31,513.75
Tangub City 68,389 68,389 2 2
=¿ 2.170
31,513.75
Total 10 12
70

The sum of the standard quota is only 10 so we need to add two more members. The city
with the largest decimal remainders is Ozamiz City and the town with the largest decimal
remainders is Calamba so these town and city will get one/additional board member. Thus, the
composition of the Board members using Hamilton method is:Bonifacio: 1, Calamba: 1, Clarin:
1, Oroquieta City: 2, Ozamiz City: 5, Tangub City: 2.

b. To use the Jefferson Method, we must find a modified standard divisor that is less
than the calculated standard divisor that we have calculated. This is done by trial and
error. If we are to choose 23,000 as our modified standard divisor, then we will have
the following results:

Cities/Town Population Quotient Number


of Board
Members
Bonifacio 34,558 34,558 1
=¿ 1.503
23,000
Calamba 23,227 23,227 1
=¿ 1.009
23,000
Clarin 39,356 39,356 1
=¿ 1.711
23,000
Oroquieta City 72,301 72,301 3
=¿ 3.143
23,000
Ozamiz City 140,334 140,334 6
=¿ 6.101
23.000
Tangub City 68,389 68,389 2
=¿ 2.973
23,000
Total 14

The yield results too many board members, so we need to increase the standard divisor. Suppose
we use 23,500 as our standard divisor, then the result is shown below:

Cities/Town Population Quotient Number


of Board
Members
Bonifacio 34,558 34,558 1
=¿ 1.471
23,500
Calamba 23,227 23,227 0
=¿0.988
23,500
Clarin 39,356 39,356 1
=¿ 1.675
23,500
Oroquieta City 72,301 72,301 3
=¿ 3.077
23,500
Ozamiz City 140,334 140,334 5
=¿5.972
23.500
Tangub City 68,389 68,389 2
=¿ 2.973
23,500
Total 12

Thus, the composition of board members is: Bonifacio: 1, Calamba: 0, Clarin: 1, Oroquieta city:
3, Ozamiz City: 5, Tangub city: 3.

Suppose the local government of Misamis Occidental decided to add 2 board members even if
the population is the same. The total board members now are 14.
71

378,165
Standard divisor = =27,011.79
14

Cities/Town Population Quotient Standard Number


Quota of Board
Members
Bonifacio 34,558 34,558 1 1
=¿
27,011.79
1.279
Calamba 23,227 23,227 0 1
=¿
27,011.79
0.859
Clarin 39,356 39,356 1 1
=¿
27,011.79
1.457
Oroquieta City 72,301 72,301 2 3
=¿
27,011.79
2.677
Ozamiz City 140,334 140,334 5 5
=¿
27,011.79
5.195
Tangub City 68,389 68,389 2 3
=¿
27,011.79
2.532

The table below summarizes 12 board members and 14 board members:

Cities/Town Population Quotient No. of Number


Board of Board
Members Members
(12) (14)
Bonifacio 34,558 34,558 1 1
=¿
27,011.79
1.279
Calamba 23,227 23,227 0 1
=¿
27,011.79
0.859
Clarin 39,356 39,356 1 1
=¿
27,011.79
1.457
Oroquieta City 72,301 72,301 3 3
=¿
27,011.79
2.677
Ozamiz City 140,334 140,334 5 5
=¿
27,011.79
5.195
Tangub City 68,389 68,389 2 3
=¿
27,011.79
2.532

Paradoxes in Apportionment
72

Alabama Paradox

If one or more board member was added, when one place lost a board member even
though the populations did not change. This a negative effect in fairness. Apportionment method
should not exhibit this paradox.

Population Paradox

This is when the population of one state is increasing faster and yet they are still to lose a
representative.

New States Paradox

This paradox was explained in 1907 when Oklahoma was added to the Union. The size of
the House was increased by five representatives in order to accommodate the population of
Oklahoma. As a result, New York lost a seat while Maine gained one seat in the house.

Fairness in Apportionment

As we have observed, the choice of apportionment method affects the number of


representatives a province will have. Mathematicians and others have tried to work out a fair
method of apportionment. One criterion of fairness for an apportionment plan is that it should
satisfy the quota rule.

Quota Rule
The number of representatives apportioned to a state is the standard quota or one more
than the standard quota.

In the computation of representative for Tangub City, we can see that the standard quota
is 2 but we assigned 3 board members, this violates the quota rule.

Average Constituency

Average constituency is the population of a state divided by the number of


representatives from the state and then rounded to the nearest whole number.

population of a state
Average constituency = tℎe state ¿
number of representatives ¿

Consider the population of the town of Clarin and Tudela, Misamis Occidental.

Town Population Representatives Average constituency


Clarin 39,356 8 4,919.50
Tudela 28,599 6 4,766.50

39,356
Average constituency = =¿4,919.50
8

28,599
Average constituency = =¿4,766.50
6
73

In both towns the average constituency are approximately equal, thus we can say that the two
towns are equally represented.

Huntington-Hill Apportionment Method

In the US, the members of the House of Representatives are apportioned every 10 years
based on the apportioment principle called the method of nequal proportions or the Huntington-
Hill method since 1940. This is implemented by calculating the Huntington-Hill number.

Huntington-Hill number = ¿ ¿ where PA is the population of state A


a is the number of representatives of state A

Huntington-Hill Apportionment Principle

“When there is a choice of adding one representative to one of several states, the
representative should be added to the state with the greatest Huntington-Hill number.”

Example: The table below shows the number of lifeguards that are assigned to three different
beaches and the number of rescues made by lifeguards at those beaches.

Beach No. of lifeguards No. of rescues


Dela Paz Beach 35 1,200
Sunrise Beach 55 1,480
Canonoy Beach 25 900

Solution:

Calculation Huntington-Hill No.

Dela Paz Beach: Sunrise Beach: Canonoy Beach:


2 2 2
1,227 1,480 900
=1,195 =711 =1,246
35(35+1) 55(55+1) 25(25+1)

Canonoy beach has the greatest Huntington-Hill number, hence according to the Huntington-Hill
apportionment principle, the new lifeguard should be assigned to Canonoy beach.

Voting

The right to vote is a revered privilege to those who live in a democratic country. But
sometimes the best candidate did not get elected. This usually happen when the plurality voting
systems is use.

Plurality Voting Systems

“Each voter votes for one candidate, and the candidate with the most votes wins. But the
winning candidate does not have to have a majority of the votes.”
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Example: Suppose 50 students were asked to rank their preferences of five kinds of candies.
Rank 1 is for their favorite, and rank 5 for their least favorite.

Preference schedule lists the number of people who gave a particular ranking. For example, the
colored column, it means there were 8 voters who ranked the candies this way.

Preference Schedule

Candies Rank
Max 5 4 4 4 2 4
Snow bear 1 5 5 5 5 5
Lipps 2 3 2 1 3 3
Halls 4 1 1 3 4 2
Kendimint 3 2 3 2 1 1
Number of voter’s: 17 11 9 8 3 2

First-place votes
Max 0
Snowbear 17
Lipps 8
Halls 11+9 = 20
Kendimint 3+2 = 5
Since Halls got 20 first-place votes, this candy would win the plurality taste test.

Borda Count Method of Voting

“If there are n candidates or issues in an election, each voter ranks the candidates or
issues by giving n points to the voter’s first choice, n – 1 points to the voter’s second choice and
so on, with the voter’s least favorite choice receiving 1 point. The candidate or issue that
receives the most total points is the winner.”

It was in 1770 that Jean C. Borda introduced this method of voting.


75

Example: The members of a club are going to elect a president from four nominees using Borda
count method. If the 100 members of the club mark their ballots as shown in the table below,
who will be elected president?

Candidates Rankings
George 2 2 2 2 3 2
Jemard 1 4 4 3 2 1
Alsejon 3 3 1 4 1 4
Jeff 4 1 3 1 4 3
Number of voters: 30 24 18 12 10 6

Solution:
By using the Borda count, each first-place vote receives 4 points, each second-place vote
receives 3 points and so on…
George: Jemard:
0x4=0 36 x 4 = 144
90 x 3 = 270 10 x 3 = 30
10 x 2 = 20 12 x 2 = 24
290 42 x 1 = 42
240
Alsejon: Jeff
28 x 4 = 112 36 x 4 = 144
0x3 =0 0 x3=0
54 x 2 = 108 24 x 2 = 48
18 x 1 = 18 40 x 1 = 40
238 232

Based on the Borda count, George is elected president.


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Activity No. 17

Name: ________________________________________ Course & Year: _____________ Score: ______


Instructor:______________________________________Class Schedule: _________________________

Direction: Do as instructed. Show all solutions.

Problem: A total of 25 teacher aides are to be apportioned among seven classes at a new elementary
school. The enrolment in the seven classes is shown in the following table:

Class No. of students


Kindergarten 38
Garde 1 39
Grade 2 35
Grade 3 27
Grade 4 21
Grade 5 31
Grade 6 33

a. Determine the standard divisor.


b. Use Hamilton method to determine the number of teacher aides to be apportioned to each class.
c. Use Jefferson method to determine the number of teacher aides to be apportioned to each class.
Is this apportionment in violation of the quota rule?
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Activity No. 18

Name: ________________________________________ Course & Year: _____________ Score: ______


Instructor:______________________________________Class Schedule: _________________________

Direction: Do as instructed. Show all solutions.

Problem: Sixteen people were asked to rank three breakfast cereals in order of preference. Their
responses are tabulated below:

Corn flakes 3 1 1 2 3 3 2 2 1 3 1 3 1 2 1 2
Raisin Bran 1 3 2 3 1 2 1 1 2 1 2 2 3 1 3 3
Mini Wheats 2 2 3 1 2 1 3 3 3 2 3 1 2 3 2 1

Using plurality method of voting, which cereal is the group’s preference?


78

Activity No. 19

Name: ________________________________________ Course & Year: _____________ Score: ______


Instructor:______________________________________Class Schedule: _________________________

Direction: Do as instructed. Show all solutions.

Problem: A senior high school class held an election for class president. Instead of voting for
one candidate, the students were asked to rank all four candidates in order of preference. The
results are shown below:

Rankings
Charles 2 3 1 3 4 2
Liezel 4 1 3 4 1 3
Patrick 1 2 2 2 3 4
Kim 3 4 4 1 2 1

Using the Borda count method, which student should be class president?
79

Lesson 10

Logic

Objectives: At the end of the lesson, the student is expected to:

1. Determine the truth values of propositions.


2. Identify and analyze arguments.

Logic is the study of reasoning and argumentation. It examines the principles and
methods used to distinguish between valid and invalid inferences, providing a framework for
constructing sound arguments and uncovering truth.

Logic finds applications across a wide range of disciplines:

 Mathematics: It is foundational in establishing rigorous mathematical proofs and


constructing formal systems.
 Computer Science: It underpins the design of algorithms, the development of artificial
intelligence, and the creation of expert systems.
 Law: It is crucial in analyzing legal arguments, making logical deductions, and forming
coherent legal judgments.

By understanding and applying the principles of logic, one can enhance critical thinking
skills and improve the clarity and persuasiveness of arguments in any field.

Statement or Proposition

A statement or proposition is a declarative sentence that is either true or false, but not
both. It forms the basic building block of logical reasoning and can be used to construct more
complex logical expressions.

Here are examples of propositions:


80

 A bicycle has wheels.

 Earth is the third planet from the sun.

 All birds can fly.

The sentences above are propositions, where the first two are true and the third one is
false. Sentences that do not possess a truth value or may have more than one truth value are not
considered propositions. Examples of such sentences include:

 Where have you been?

 Please pass the salt.

 Ouch!

Sentences in the form of commands, questions, and exclamations are not considered
propositions because they cannot be classified as true or false.

A propositional variable is a symbol, often denoted by lowercase letters such as p, q, r,


and s, used to represent a proposition. Here are some examples:

p: Saturn is a planet.
q: 2 + 3 = 5

Simple Propositions and Compound Propositions

In propositional logic, there are two main types of propositions: simple propositions and
compound propositions. Simple propositions are statements which cannot be broken down into
smaller components. In contrast, compound propositions are formed by combining two or more
simple propositions.

Examples:

Simple Propositions Compound Propositions


p: Black is a color. t : John is a boxer and Tim is a wrestler.
q: A dog is a mammal. u: Mars is a planet or an asteroid.
r: 7 - 1 = 6 v: If 5 is an odd number, then 5 + 1 is even.

Logical Connectives or Logical Operators

Logical connectives or logical operators are symbols or words used to combine together
propositions or statements in a way that forms a new proposition whose truth value can be
determined from the original propositions.

A. Conjunction

For any two propositions, p and q, their conjunction is represented by p ˄ q, which


means “p and q”. The conjunction p ˄ q is true only when both p and q are true; otherwise, it is
false.
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The truth table of p ˄ q is as follows:

p q p˄q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F

Examples: Determine the truth value of each of the following compound propositions.

a) 4 is an integer and 3 + 6 = 9.
Answer
Since “4 is an integer” and “3 + 6 = 9” are both true statements, then the
conjunction of the propositions is true.

b) Manila is the capital of the Philippines and 7 is an even integer.


Answer
“Manila is the capital of the Philippines” is true, but the statement “7 is an even
integer” is false. Thus, the conjunction of the propositions is false.

B. Disjunction

For any two propositions, p and q, their disjunction is represented by p ˅ q, which means
“p or q”. The disjunction p ˅ q is true when either p or q is true; otherwise, it is false. The truth
table of p ˅ q is as follows:

p q p˅q
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F

Examples: Determine the truth value of each of the following compound propositions.

a) 5 is even or 9 - 2 = 7.
b) 8 is divisible by 3 or 9 is divisible by 2.

C. Negation

The negation of the proposition p is denoted by ¬ p, which means “It is not the case that
p” or simply “not p”. The truth value of ¬ p is the opposite of the truth value of p. The truth
table of ¬ p is as follows:

p ¬p
T F
F T
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Exercises. Write the negation of the following propositions.


1. p: Twenty is divisible by four.
2. q: Mike has a car.

D. Conditional Statement

A conditional statement, denoted as p → q, is an "if...then" statement wherein p


represents the hypothesis (antecedent) and q signifies the conclusion (consequent). The
conditional is considered true in all cases except when a true hypothesis results in a false
conclusion. The truth table of p→q is shown below.

p q p→q
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T

p → q read as “If p, then q”


“p implies q”

Example: Identify the hypothesis and the conclusion of each conditional statement below.

1. If a number is odd, then it is not divisible by 2.

Hypothesis: A number is odd.


Conclusion: It is not divisible by 2.

2. Ryan will stay healthy if he exercises regularly.

Hypothesis: Ryan exercises regularly.


Conclusion: He will stay healthy.

E. Biconditional Statement

For any two propositions p and q, the statement “ p if and only q” is called a biconditional and it
is denoted by p ↔ q. This statement is also referred to as a bi-implication. The biconditional
p↔ q has the same truth value as (p → q) ˄ (q →p). It is true when p and q have the same truth
value, and false otherwise.

p q p↔q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T

Examples
83

1.) p: A polygon is a pentagon. (F)


q: A polygon has exactly 5 sides. (F)
p ↔ q: A polygon is a pentagon if and only if it has exactly 5 sides. (T)

2.) p: Twenty is even. (T)


q: Twenty is divisible by two. (T)
p ↔ q:Twenty is even if and only if it is divisible by two. (T)

Tautology

A tautology is a compound proposition that is always true.

Example 1. Show that p ˅ ¬p is a tautology.

p ¬p p ˅ ¬p
T F T
F T T

Example 2. Show that (p →q) ˅ (q → p) is a tautology.

p q p→q q→p (p →q) ˅ (q → p)


T T T T T
T F F T T
F T T F T
F F T T T

Contradiction

A contradiction is a compound proposition that is always false.

Example 1. Show that p ˄ ¬ p is a contradiction.

p ¬p p ˄ ¬p
T F F
F T F

Example 2. Show that (p ˄¬q) ˄ (¬p˅q) is a contradiction.

p q ¬p ¬q p˄¬q ¬p˅q (p ˄¬q) ˄ (¬p˅q)


T T
T F
F T
F F
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Contingency

A contingency is a compound proposition that is neither a tautology nor a contradiction.

Example 1. p ↔ q is a contingency.

p q p↔q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T

Example 2. Show that ¬p ˄ (p → q) is a contingency.

p q
T T
T F
F T
F F
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Activity No. 20

Name: ________________________________________ Course & Year: _____________ Score: ______


Instructor:______________________________________Class Schedule: _________________________

Direction: Construct a truth table for each of the following compound propositions and
determine whether it is a tautology, contradiction, or contingency.

1.) (p ˄ ¬p) ˄ q

2.) (p ˅ ¬q) → (p ˄ q)

3.) (p → ¬p) → q

4.) (p →q) ˅ r
86

Arguments

An argument is a set of propositions in which one proposition, called the conclusion, is


claimed to logically follow from the others, known as the premises. It involves asserting that the
conclusion is supported by the premises according to the principles of logic and valid rules of
inference.

Rules of Inference

Rules of inference are logical principles used to derive conclusions from premises in a valid
way. They are the foundational tools for constructing logical arguments and proofs, especially in
mathematics and formal logic.

1. Modus Ponens or Law of Detachment


Premise 1: p → q
Premise 2: p
‫؞‬q

Example 1.
p: I love math.
q: I will pass Math 1.

Premise 1: If I love math, then I will pass Math 1.


Premise 2: I love math.
Conclusion: Therefore, I will pass Math 1.

2. Modus Tollens (Denying the Consequent)


Premise 1: p → q
Premise 2: ¬ q
‫¬؞‬p

Example 2.
p: I love math.
87

q: I study algebra.

Premise 1: If I love math, then I study algebra.


Premise 2: I don’t study algebra.
Conclusion: Therefore, I don’t love math.

3. Law of Syllogism (Transitivity of Implication)


Premise 1: p → q
Premise 2: q → r
‫؞‬p→r

Example 3.
p: It is a parrot.
q: It has wings.
r: It can fly.

Premise 1: If it is a parrot, then it has wings.


Premise 2: If it has wings, then it can fly.
Conclusion: Therefore, if it is a parrot, then it can fly.

Example 4. Establish the validity of the following argument:

If 4 is a rational number, then 7 is an odd number.


If 7 is an odd number, then 4 is an even number.
Therefore, if 4 is a rational number, then 4 is an even number.

Solution

Let p, q, and r be the following statements:

p: 4 is a rational number.
q: 7 is an odd number.
r: 4 is an even number.

Hence, the argument can be expressed as follows:

If 4 is a rational number, then 7 is an odd number. p→q


If 7 is an odd number, then 4 is an even number. q→r
Therefore, if 4 is a rational number, then 4 is an even number. ‫؞‬p→r

Thus, the argument is valid. (By Law of Syllogism)


88

Activity No. 21

Name: ________________________________________ Course & Year: _____________ Score: ______


Instructor:______________________________________Class Schedule: _________________________

Direction: Create three valid arguments using the rules of inference based on the given
propositions.

1. p: x is divisible by 10.
q: x is divisible by 2.
r: x is even.

2. p: I study hard.
q: I pass all my subjects.
r: I graduate on time.
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Modular Arithmetic

Modular Arithmetic is an abstraction of a method of counting that we often use.

a mod n = r read as “ a modulo n is equal to r”

mod – modulo operator


n – modulus

Note: 0 ≤ r < n

Examples

5 mod 3 = 2
8 mod 4 = 0
18 mod 5 = 3
97 mod 13 = ?
- 9 mod 6 = ?

Q1: If it is now Thursday, what day will it be 1,000 days from now?

Q2: If it is now November, what month will it be 100 months from now?

Congruence Modulo n

Two integers a and b are said to be congruent modulo n, where n is a natural number, if n
divides a - b . The statement a≡ b modulo n is called a congruence.
90

37 ≡ 12 mod 5 since 37 - 12 = 25 and 25 is divisible by 5.


15 ≡ 3 mod 2 since 15 - 3 = 12 and 12 is divisible by 2.
21≡ 1 mod 4 since 21 - 1 =20 and 20 is divisible by 4.

Evaluate each of the following.

1. (23 + 32) mod 9


2. (68 - 51) mod 7
3. (82 x 73) mod 5
4. (43 - 76) mod 6

Applications of Modular Arithmetic

Modular Arithmetic has numerous applications in mathematics and computer science. It


is often used in assigning an extra digit to identification numbers for the purpose of detecting
forgery or errors.
Check digits are an integral part of error-detecting codes. Check digits are numbers
appended to an identification number that allow the accuracy of information stored to be checked
by an algorithm. Error-detecting schemes and check digits can be found in the following, among
others:

International Standard Book Numbers (ISBN)


Driver’s License Numbers
Universal Product Codes (UPC)
Personal Checks
Library Cards
Shipping Labels

International Standard Book Number (ISBN)

The International Standard Book Number (ISBN), a 13-digit number, created to help
ensure that orders for books are filled accurately and that books are catalogued correctly. The
first three digits of an ISBN are 978, The next digit indicates the country in which the publisher
is incorporated, the next two to seven digits indicate the publisher, the next group of digits
indicates the title of the book, and the last digit (the 13th one) is called a check digit.

Formula for the ISBN - 13 Check Digit

Suppose x1 x2 ... x13 is an ISBN, the ISBN check digit is determined by the following algorithm:

x13 ≡ 10 - (x1+3x2 + x3 + 3x4 + ...+ x11 + 3x12 )mod 10

If x13 = 10, then the check digit is 0.


91

Example 1. Verify whether the ISBN 978-0-395-28517-4 is valid.

Solution

Check digit = 4

x13 ≡ 10 - [9+3(7)+8+3(0)+3+3(9)+5+3(2)+8+3(5)+1+3(7)] mod 10


≡ 10 - 124 mod 10
= 10 - 4
=6

Since x13 ≠ check digit, the ISBN is not valid.

Example 2. Verify whether the ISBN 978 - 971 - 821 - 997 - 3 is valid.

Solution

Check digit = 3

x13 ≡ 10 - [9+3(7)+8+3(9)+7+3(1)+8+3(2)+1+3(9)+9+3(7)] mod10


≡ 10 - [9 + 21+ 8 + 27+7+3 +8 +6 +1 +27 + 9 + 21] mod 10
≡ 10 - 147mod10
= 10 - 7
=3
Since x13 = check digit, the ISBN is valid.
92

Activity No. 22

Name: ________________________________________ Course & Year: _____________ Score: ______


Instructor:______________________________________Class Schedule: _________________________

I. Determine whether the given number is a valid ISBN.


1. 978 - 1- 55690 - 182 - 9
2. 978 - 1 - 445 - 43695 - 0

II. Determine the correct check digit for each ISBN-13.


1. 978 - 0 - 74875 - 692- ?
2. 978 - 1- 42647 - 024 - ?
93

REFERENCES

Alejan et al. (2018). Mathematics in the Modern World. Malabon City: Mutya Publishing House, Inc.

Aufmann et al. (2013). Mathematical Excursions 3rd ed. Belmont: Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning

Burns, Carol JVF. One Mathematical Cat, Please! A First Course in Algebra

http://www.onemathematicalcat.org/pdf _files/LANG1.pdf

https://www.dpmms.cam.ac.uk/~wtg10/grammar.pdf

Jamison, R.E. (2000). Learning the language of mathematics. Language and Learning
across the Disciplines, 4(1), 45-54

Oberste-Vorth et al. (2012). Bridge to Abstract Mathematics. The Mathematical Association of America

Triola, Mario F. (1992). Elementary Statistics 5th ed. Addison-Wesley

Walpole, R. E. (1982). Introduction to statistics. New York: Macmillan.

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