Math 1 Lecture Notes
Math 1 Lecture Notes
Mathematics is the study of patterns, structures, quantities, and logical relationships. It serves
as a universal language, utilizing numbers, symbols, and formulas to describe and analyze both
abstract concepts and real-world phenomena. Its diverse branches—arithmetic, algebra, geometry,
calculus, and statistics—form the foundation of countless fields, including science, engineering, and
economics (Devlin, 1994).
Mathematics is everywhere, woven into nature, technology, art, and everyday life. It
manifests in the symmetry of a butterfly’s wings, the spirals of galaxies, the algorithms powering
internet searches, and the architecture of buildings. Even our schedules, budgets, and daily decisions
rely on mathematical reasoning. Far from being confined to textbooks and classrooms, mathematics
is an essential element of the universe itself (Stewart, 2008).
Patterns
A pattern is a set of numbers or objects where all members are related by a specific rule.
Pattern recognition can help us make predictions. Here are some intriguing examples:
Crime Prediction: Predictive policing algorithms use statistical models to analyze historical
crime data and predict where crimes are likely to occur in the future.
Weather Forecasting: There are mathematical models that recognize patterns in temperature, air
pressure, and humidity.
Financial Analysis: Stock market analysts use patterns in data to predict price trends.
Science and Engineering: Chemical reactions, growth rates, and mechanical systems are
predicted based on observed patterns.
Sequences
A sequence is a chain of numbers (or objects) that follow a particular pattern. The individual
elements in a sequence are called terms. Here are a few examples. Determine their patterns and
predict the next term.
4, 7, 10, 13, 16,19, 22, __
2, 3, 5, 8, 12, 17, 23, __
1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, __
1, 8, 27, 64, 125, 216, 343, __
Difference Table
Some sequences have patterns that are not immediately obvious. One useful technique for
identifying the next terms in such sequences is to construct a difference table.
Example. Construct a difference table to predict the next term of the following sequence:
1, 7, 17, 31, 49, 71, __
Solution
1st difference 6 10 14 18 22 26
2nd difference 4 4 4 4 4
Answer: 97
Exercise. Construct a difference table to predict the next term of the following sequence:
-2, 1, 3, 9, 24, 53, ____
Mathematics in Nature
How you ever wondered why honeycomb cells are hexagonal in shape and a soap bubble forms a
sphere? Are such things just coincidence? Or is there something deeper at play? Here are some
patterns that you can spot in nature.
Fractals
A fractal is a detailed pattern that looks similar at any scale and repeats itself over time. A fractal’s
pattern gets more complex as you observe it at larger scales. Examples of fractals in nature are
snowflakes, trees branching, lightning, and ferns.
Spirals
A spiral is a curved pattern that focuses on a center point and a series of circular shapes that
revolve around it. Examples of spirals are pine cones, pineapples, and hurricanes. A spiral shape
causes plants to condense themselves and not take up much space, causing it to be stronger and more
durable against the elements.
Voronoi Patterns
Voronoi patterns appear quite frequently in nature, often in the form of tessellations where
space is divided into distinct regions. These natural occurrences are fascinating because they show
how efficient and optimized certain processes can be. Here are some examples of Voronoi patterns in
nature:
1. Honeycombs: The hexagonal cells in a beehive are a type of Voronoi pattern. Bees create
these patterns to maximize space and structural efficiency.
2. Plant Cells: The arrangement of cells in plant tissues often follows a Voronoi pattern. This can be
observed in the epidermal cells of leaves.
3. Animal Skins and Shells: The markings on the skins of animals, like the spots on a giraffe or the
patches on a cow, often follow Voronoi patterns. Similarly, the structure of some mollusk shells
follows these patterns.
4. Blood Vessels and Leaf Veins: The branching pattern of blood vessels and the venation pattern of
leaves can also be modeled using Voronoi diagrams, as they optimize the distribution of nutrients and
fluids.
5. Crystals and Minerals: The formation of crystals and some types of mineral deposits exhibit
Voronoi patterns. For example, the way basalt columns form in places like the Giant's Causeway in
Northern Ireland.
6. Foam Bubbles: When foam bubbles cluster together, the thin walls between the bubbles form
Voronoi patterns, optimizing the space and minimizing the surface tension.
These patterns demonstrate the efficient and organized ways in which nature structures itself,
often resulting in beautiful and functional designs. Studying these patterns can provide insights into
the principles of efficiency and optimization that can be applied in various scientific and engineering
fields.
Fibonacci Sequence
The first two Fibonacci numbers are 0 and 1. The next number is found by adding up the two
numbers before it. Hence, the Fibonacci numbers are as follows:
The sequence of numbers above is the famous Fibonacci sequence. It was first described by
mathematicians in India about 1300 years ago, and introduced to the west in 1202 by Leonardo
Pisano (a.k.a. Fibonacci). He was also responsible for introducing the Hindu-Arabic numerals to
Europe.
The Fibonacci numbers occur frequently in nature. Here are some examples:
Direction. Write a 200–250 word essay explaining your understanding of the statement: “Mathematics
is everywhere.”
Rubrics:
Excellent Very good Good Approaching Needs
21 – 25 points 16 – 20 points 13 – 15 pts standards improvement.
8 – 12 pts 1 – 7 pts
Complete, accurate, Comprehensive Answers are not Answers are No clear answers
comprehensive and accurate comprehensive incomplete and to the given
answers, key points answers, some and complete. partial. Key questions. No
are clearly stated, key points are Key points are points are not key points are
explained, and stated and stated but not clear. mentioned.
supported by explained. explained or Questions not
examples/situations. supported. adequately
answered.
Direction: Capture at least 5 pictures that depict patterns in the natural world (like the patterns of the petals of
a flower, the pattern of the skin of animals or any natural objects around you) and briefly discuss the
significant role of mathematics in the pictures. (25 points)
1. Make sure that the submitted pictures are your own and not taken from books or the internet.
2. Make a collage of your pictures and place it in a short bond paper or just place the pictures
individually in a short bond paper.
3. Write your discussion on the second page with at least 5 sentences.
Activity No. 3
Determine the next three terms of each of the sequences below. Show your solution. (20 points)
1. 2, 7, −3, 2, −8, −3, −13, −8, −18, _____, _____, _____
2. 1, 5, 12, 22, 35, _____, _____, _____
3. 9, 4, 3, 12, 37, 84, _____, _____, _____
4. 17, 15, 25, 53, 105, 187, ____, ____, ____
Lesson 2
Mathematics is a language, like any language it has its own symbols, syntax and rules. It is
also an exact science, so we have to express our mathematical thoughts and write mathematical
statements with high degree of precision. A small mistake may lead to a complete distortion of the
intended meaning (Oberste-Vorth et. al., 2012).
Dr. Carol Burns mentioned three characteristics of the mathematical language. The
characteristics of the language are the following.
English Mathematics
English Mathematics
SENTENCE SENTENCE
Ex. Ex.
The capital of Malaysia is Kuala Lumpur. 3+4=7
The capital of Philippines is Cebu. 3+4=8
Mathematical Sentence
Sets
A set is a collection of objects which are called elements of the set. If an object y belongs to a
particular set S, then we write y ϵ S.
y ϵ S is read as “ y is an element of S”
Examples
A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
B = { a, e, i, o, u}
C = { 2, 4, 6, …}
Examples
A = {x / x is a natural number less than 7}
B = { x / x is a vowel in the English alphabet}
C = { x / x is a positive even number}
Exercise. Let D be the set of even integers between 1 and 9. Describe D using a) the roster method;
and b) the set-builder notation.
Basic Number Sets
0=0/1
1 = 1/1
2 = 2/1
-1 = -1/1
Ex. π = 3.14159...
√2
1 + √2
2 + √2
0.275
0.1333…
0.232323…
1.414213562…
5.67089
If A and B are sets, then A is called a subset of B, written A ⊆ B , if and only if, every
element of A is also an element of B.
Examples
B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}
A = {2, 4, 5, 6}
A⊆B
A⊆ A
B⊆ B
Notations: {}, Ø
Examples
The set of letters between b and c
The set of integers between 4 and 5
1. Universal Quantifier
Symbol Meaning
∀ “For all” or “For every”
Examples
Symbol Meaning
∃ “There exists” or “For some”
Examples
1.) x – 1 Ans.
2.) x – 1 = 3 Ans.
3.) 1 + 2 + x Ans.
4.) x ÷ 3 Ans.
5.) x ÷ 4 = 2 Ans.
6.) 1 + 2 + x = x + 1 + 2 Ans.
7.) ¼ Ans.
9.) y – 3 = y + 2 – 5 Ans.
10.) x + 5 = x – 7 Ans.
Activity No. 5
I. Describe each of the following sets using a) the roster method, and b) the set-builder notation.
1. E = {x, y}
2. F = {1, 2, 3}
Activity No. 6
Direction: Translate each of the following into a mathematical expression/sentence. Use as few
variables as possible.
REFERENCES:
Aufmann et al. (2013). Mathematical Excursions 3rd ed. Belmont: Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning
Aufmann et al. (2018). Mathematics in the Modern World Philippine ed. Manila: Rex Book Store, Inc.
Burns, Carol JVF. One Mathematical Cat, Please! A First Course in Algebra
Jamison, R.E. (2000). Learning the language of mathematics. Language and Learning
across the Disciplines, 4(1), 45-54
Oberste-Vorth et al. (2012). Bridge to Abstract Mathematics. The Mathematical Association of America
http://www.onemathematicalcat.org/pdf _files/LANG1.pdf
https://www.dpmms.cam.ac.uk/~wtg10/grammar.pdf
Lesson 3
Mathematics is not just only about numbers, it is also about problem solving and reasoning. Logic
and reasoning are needed skills that are useful tools in decision making.
Inductive Reasoning
Inductive reasoning is the process of reaching a general conclusion by examining specific examples.
When you examine a list of numbers and predict the next value in the list according to some pattern
you have observed, you are using inductive reasoning. The conclusion formed by using inductive
reasoning is a conjecture, since it may or may not be correct.
Answer:
Deductive Reasoning
3. A number is divisible by 3 if the sum of its digits is divisible by 3. Consider 669. The sum of 6, 6,
and 9 is 21. Therefore, 669 is divisible by 3.
Exercise
a. During the past 7 years, a tree has produced fruits every other year. Last year the tree did not
produce fruits, so this year the tree will produce fruits.
b. All home improvements cost more than the estimate. The contractor estimated that my home
improvement will cost $60,000. Thus my home improvement will cost more than $60,000.
Activity No. 7
4. The sum of two odd integers is even. Hence, the sum of 3 and 7 is 4. ___________
even.
5. For the first five activities, Zachary is the first one to complete 5. ___________
the activity. He concludes that he will be the first one to finish
in all activities.
Activity No. 8
1. To be eligible for a student driver’s license, a person must be at least 16 years old. Rowena
will be 16 years old in three days.
CONCLUSION: _________________________________________________________
2. Employees are given a designated “wash day” every Wednesday to allow them to wash their
office clothes. Today is Wednesday.
CONCLUSION: _________________________________________________________
CONCLUSION: ________________________________________________________
CONCLUSION: ________________________________________________________
CONCLUSION: ________________________________________________________
POLYA’S 4-STEPS IN PROBLEM SOLVING
George Pólya (December 13, 1887 – September 7, 1985) was a Hungarian mathematician
who significantly influenced problem-solving in mathematics education. Known as the "Father of
Modern Problem Solving," he developed the renowned 4-Step Process for solving problems.
2. DEVISE A PLAN.(Plan)
Work carefully.
Keep an accurate and neat record of all your attempts.
Realize that some of your initial plans will not work and that you may
have to devise another plan or modify your existing plan.
Ensure that the solution is consistent with the facts of the problem.
Interpret the solution in the context of the problem.
Ask yourself whether there are generalizations of the solution that could
apply to other problems.
Label your final correct answer.
EXAMPLE 1. Each of four neighbors, Jeah, Zachary, Earl, and KC, has a
different occupation (teacher, manager, banker, or staff). From the following
clues, determine the occupation of each neighbor.
1. Zachary gets home from work after the manager but before the staff.
2. Earl, who is the last to get home from work, is not the teacher.
3. The staff and Earl leave for work at the same time.
4. The manager lives next door to KC.
Solution:
STEP 1: UNDERSTAND THE PROBLEM
Given:
1. Zachary gets home from work after the manager but before the staff.
2. Earl, who is the last to get home from work, is not the teacher.
3. The staff and Earl leave for work at the same time.
4. The manager lives next door to KC.
Required: Determine the occupation of each neighbor.
B.From clue 2, Earl, who is the last to get home from work, is not the
teacher. Mark X 2 in the teacher’s column of Earl’s row.
If Earl is the last to get home from work and from clue 1, we know that the
manager is not the last to get home from work, then , we mark X 2 in manager’s
column of Earl’s row because Earl is not the manager.
C. From clue 3, the staff and Earl leave for work at the same time. We mark
X 3 in the staff’s column of Earl’s row.
Place a in banker’s column of Earl’s row since there are already X’s
in the three occupations in Earl ’s row.
Since Earl is the banker then none of the other three people can be the
banker. Hence, write X 3 in the banker’s column of Jeah, Zachary and KC’s
row.
Since the three occupations are marked with X in Zachary’s row, then,
Zachary must be the teacher. Hence, place a in teacher’s column of
Zachary’s row.
D. From clue 4, the manager lives next door to KC. Write X 4 in the manager’s column of KC’s
row.
Since there are three X’s in the manager’s column, then Jeah must be the manager.
Write a in manager’s column of Jeah’s row.
EXAMPLE 2 : A volleyball team won three out of their last four games. In how many different
orders could they have three wins and one loss in four games?
Solution:
Given:
There are many different orders.
The team may have won three straight games and lost the last one
(WWWL).
Or maybe they lost the first game and won the last three (LWWW). Of
course there are other possibilities, such as WLWW.
Each entry in our list must contain three Ws and one L. A strategy will be used in order to make sure
each order is considered, with no duplications. One such strategy is to write a W on the first three
wins then L on the last. Then, make a pattern on the position of L until L will be moved on the first.
This strategy produces the four different orders shown below.
2. WWLW
3. WLWW
CONCLUSION: There are four different orders in which a volleyball team can win
exactly three out of four games.
EXAMPLE 3: A police station has 30 vehicles of motorcycles and cars. The total number of
wheels is 100. Find the number of motorcycles and cars the station has.
Solution:
STEP 1: UNDERSTAND THE PROBLEM
Given:
Required: Determine the number of motorcycles and cars the station has.
Since cars have 4 wheels and motorcycles have 2 wheels, and there are 100 total
wheels, then 4wheels( C=cars) + 2 wheels (M = motorcycles) = 100 wheels.
C + M = 30
4C + 2M = 100
STEP 3: CARRY OUT THE PLAN.
Since there are two equations with two variables involved, the process of
ELIMINATION BY ADDITION/SUBTRACTION will be performed.
a. C + M = 30
4C+2M= 100
2C = 40
2 2
C = 20
Since C denotes the number of cars , so, there are 20 cars.
since C + M = 30
20 + M = 30
M = 30 – 20
M = 10 so, there are 10 motorcycles in the station
CONCLUSION: There are 20 cars with 4 wheels and 10 motorcycles with 2 wheels in
the station. The total number of wheels is 100 wheels.
EXAMPLE 4: Determine the units digit(one’s digit) in 4 200.
Solution:
Given:
The expression is expressed in the form of 4 n where n is a positive integer.
Units digit of a number is the digit in the one's place of the number, that is,
it is the rightmost digit of the number. For example, the units digit of 546 is 6,
the units digit of 42 is 2.
Observing the list of results of 4 n , if n is replaced with an ODD integer, the unit digit is 4,
while if n is an EVEN integer, the unit digit is 6.
Hence, since the exponent of 4 200is an even integer then its unit digit is a 6.
EXAMPLE 5: Julia has a certain amount of money in her bank account on Monday morning.
During the day she wrote a check for Php550.50, made an ATM withdrawal of
Php606 and deposited a check for Php761. At the end of the day, she saw that her balance was
Php977.25. How much money did she have in the bank at the beginning of the day?
Solution:
Given:
Php550.50 check
ATM Withdrawal Php606
Check deposit Php 761
Required : Amount of money that Julia had in the bank at the beginning of the
day.
Start with 977.25. Subtract 761, add 606, and then add 550.50.
Let M be the money of Anne she had in the bank at the beginning of the day.
M = 977.25 +395.50
M = 1,372.75
CONCLUSION: Julia had Php1,372.75 in the bank at the beginning of the day.
Activity No. 9
Direction: Use Polya’s 4 step problem solving strategy and procedures to solve the
following problems.
1
1.What is the 44th decimal digit in the decimal representation of 11 ?
1
2. Mrs. Dizon withdrew of her savings early in July and later deposited a total of Php 1,500 on
4
four separate days. If her bank statement showed a balance of Php3,500 after four deposits, what
was the balance immediately before her withdrawal?
3. Manny rode his bicycle 6 km east, 4 km west , and then 5 km east. How far is he from his
starting point?
4. Each of the Little League teams in a small rural community is sponsored by a different local
business. The names of the teams are the Dodgers, the Pirates, the Tigers, and the Giants. The
businesses that sponsor the teams are the bank, the supermarket, the service station, and the
drugstore. From the following clues, determine which business sponsors each team.
a. The Tigers and the team sponsored by the service station have winning records this
season.
b. The Pirates and the team sponsored by the bank are coached by parents of the players,
whereas the Giants and the team sponsored by the drugstore are coached by the director of
the community center.
c. Jake is the pitcher for the team sponsored by the supermarket and coached by his
father.
d. The game between the Tigers and the team sponsored by the drugstore was rained out
yesterday.
5. Shelly has saved some money for a vacation. Shelly spends half of her vacation money on an
airline ticket; she then spends $50 for sunglasses, $22 for a taxi, and one-third of her remaining
money for a room with a view. After her sister repays her a loan of $150, Shelly finds that she
has $326. How much vacation money did Shelly have at the start of her vacation?
6. In how many different ways can a basketball team win exactly four out of their last six games?
REFERENCES: (a)Aufmann et al. (2013). Mathematical Excursions 3 rd ed. Belmont:
Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning Aufmann et al. (2018). Mathematics in the
Modern World Philippine ed. Manila: Rex Book Store, Inc.
Lesson 4
DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS
2. Inferential Statistics is the branch that interprets and draws conclusions from the data.
Statisticians often collect data from small portions of a large group in order to
determine information about the group. The entire group under consideration is known as the
population, and any subset of the population is called a sample.
Population
All graduating students of Misamis University during S.Y. 2020-2021
All registered voters in Ozamiz City
All sales made by a restaurant last month
Weights of all college students of MU
Sample
A random sample of 50 graduating students of Misamis University during S.Y. 2020-2021
A random sample of 100 registered voters in Ozamiz city
A random sample of 80 sales made by a restaurant last month
Weights of a random sample of 200 college students of MU
Summation Notation
n
∑ x i =x 1 + x 2 +. ..+ x n
i=1 read as “summation of x sub i where i is from 1 to n.”
4
∑ x 2i =x 21 + x 22 + x 23 + x24
i=1
3
∑ ( x i−μ ) 2=( x1 −μ ) 2 + ( x 2 −μ )2 + ( x 3−μ )2
i=1
n
∑ xi
i=1
Mean = n
μ → population mean . Greek letter “ mu”
x̄ → sample mean “x bar”
Rounding Rule for the Mean: The mean should be rounded to one more decimal place than
occurs in the raw data.
Example 1. Six friends in a biology class of 20 students received test scores of 92, 84, 65, 76,
88, and 90. Find the mean of these sample test scores.
Solution
n=6
Solution
N=5
3+5+ 6+4 +6 24
μ= = =4 . 8
5 5
Example 3. The weights of a random sample of 4 college students are 116.2, 130.4, 140.5,
and 135.6 lbs. Find the mean weight of these students.
Solution
n=4
116. 2+130 . 4+140. 5+135 . 6 522. 7
x̄= = =130. 675=130 .68
4 4 lbs two decimal places
2. The Median
~
μ ----- population median read as “mu curl”
~
x ---- sample median read as “x curl”
Example 1. On 5 term tests in statistics a student has made grades of 82, 93, 86, 92, and 79.
Find the median for this population of grades.
Solution
~
The middle value is 86; hence μ=86 .
Example 2. The nicotine contents for a random sample of 6 cigarettes of a certain brand are
found to be 2.3, 2.7, 2.5, 2.9, 3.1, and 1.9 milligrams. Find the median.
Solution
~ 2. 5+2 .7
x= =2. 6
2 mg
3. The Mode
The mode of a set of observations is that value which occurs most often or with the
greatest frequency. The mode does not always exist. This is certainly true when all
observations occur with the same frequency. For some sets of data there may be several
values occurring with the greatest frequency in which case we have more than one mode.
Examples
Find the mode or modes for each of the following sets of data.
b). 2, 0, 3, 1, 2, 4, 2, 5, 4, 0, 1, and 4
Answer: The modes are 2 and 4.
c). 8, 5, 6, 7, and 4
Answer: The mode does not exist
n
∑ ( xi wi )
i =1
weighted mean= n
∑ wi
i=1
Example. The table below shows John’s summer course grades. Use the weighted mean
formula to find John’s GPA for the fall semester. Round off the result to two decimal places
(nearest hundredths).
Solution
4
∑ ( xi wi ) (1 . 5×4 )+ ( 2. 0×3 ) + ( 2. 5×4 )+ ( 1. 0×3 )
i =1
weighted mean= 4
=
4+3+ 4+3
∑ wi
i=1
6+ 6+10+3 25
= = =1 .79
14 14 two decimal places
I. Range. The range of a set of data is the difference between the largest and smallest number
in the set.
N
∑ ( x i − μ )2
σ 2= i =1
N “sigma squared”
(∑ )
n n 2
n∑ xi2− xi
i=1 i =1
s2 =
n ( n−1 )
IV. Standard Deviation. The standard deviation is the positive square root of the variance.
Example 1. The following scores were given by 6 judges for a gymnast’s performance in the vault
of an international meet : 7, 5, 9, 7, 8, and 6. Find the range, variance, and the standard deviation of
this population.
Solution
N=6
Range = 9 – 5 = 4
Example 2. A comparison of coffee prices at 4 randomly selected grocery stores in San Diego
showed increases from the previous month of 12, 15, 17, and 20 cents for a 200-gram jar. Find the
range, variance, and the standard deviation of this random sample of price increases.
Solution
n=4
Range = 20 – 12 = 8 cents
(∑ )
n n 2
n∑ xi2− xi
i=1 i =1
s2 =
n ( n−1 )
4
∑ x i =12+15+17+20=64
i=1
4
∑ x 2i =122 +15 2 +172+ 202=144+225+ 289+400=1 ,058
i=1
Example 3. Find the range, variance, and standard deviation of the given sample below.
4kg, 6kg, 7kg, 9kg, 11kg
Solution
n= 5
Range = 11 – 4 = 7 kg
(∑ )
n n 2
n∑ xi2− xi
i=1 i =1
s2 =
n ( n−1 )
5
∑ x i =4 +6+7+ 9+11=37
i=1
5
∑ x 2i =4 2 +6 2 +7 2 +92 +112 =16+36+ 49+81+121=303
i=1
2 5 ( 303 )−( 37 )2 1515−1369 146
s= = = =7 .3
5 ( 5−1 ) 20 20
s = √ 7.3=2.70 kg
Activity No. 10
1. Find the mean, median, mode, range, variance and standard deviation of the given population.
21, 15, 18, 18
2. Find the mean, median, mode, range, variance and standard deviation of the given sample.
12, 9, 11, 10, 13, 14
1. Z – Scores
The z-score for a given data value x is the number of standard deviations that x is above or
below the mean of the data. The following formulas show how to calculate the z-score for a
data value x in a population and in a sample.
x−μ
z x=
σ for population
x− x̄
z x=
s for sample
Example
Mario has taken two tests in his history class. He scored 72 on the first test, for which
the mean of all scores was 65 and the standard deviation was 8. He received a 60 on the
second test, for which the mean of all scores was 45 and the standard deviation was 12. In
comparison to the other students, did Mario do better on the first test or the second test?
Solution
Find the z – score for each test.
x = 72 x = 60
µ = 65 µ = 45
σ=8 σ = 12
72−65 60−45
z 72= =0 . 88 z 60 = =1 .25
8 12
Mario scored 0.88 standard deviation above the mean on the first test and 1.25 standard
deviations above the mean on the second test. These z-scores indicate that, in comparison to
his classmates, Mario scored better on the second test than he did on the first test.
2. Percentiles
Percentiles are values that divide a set of observations into 100 equal parts. These
values, denoted by P1, P2, … , P99 , are such that 1% of the data falls below P1 , 2% of the data
falls below P2 , … , and 99% falls below P99 .
3. Quartiles
Quartiles are values that divide a set of observations into 4 equal parts. These values
denoted by Q1 , Q2 , and Q3 , are such that 25% of the data falls below Q1 , 50% falls below Q2
, and 75% falls below Q3 .
Example. The following table lists the calories per 100 ml of 25 popular sodas. Find the P50 ,
P84 and Q1 for the data.
43 26 41 62 39
37 53 36 36 45
42 73 58 32 48
40 48 42 50 40
53 45 39 49 56
Solution
n = 25
Arrange first the data values in an increasing order.
1st 7th 12th 13th
26, 32, 36, 36, 37, 39, 39, 40, 40, 41, 42, 42, 43, 45, 45, 48, 48, 49, 50, 53,
21st 22nd 25th
53, 56, 58, 62, 73
Exercise. Find P45 , P72 , Q1, and Q3 for the data below.
5, 6, 7, …, 40
References
Triola, Mario F. (1992). Elementary Statistics 5th ed. Addison-Wesley
Walpole, R. E. (1982). Introduction to statistics. New York: Macmillan.
Activity No. 11
Lesson 5
Normal Distribution
One of the most important probability distribution in the entire field of statistics is the
normal distribution. Its graph, called the normal curve, is the bell-shaped curve of figure 1
that describes so many sets of data that occur in nature, industry, and research.
Figure 1
The standard normal distribution is the normal distribution that has a mean of 0 and a
standard deviation of 1.
Z .00 .01 .02 .03 .04 .05 .06 .07 .08 .09
0. .012 .027
.0000 .0040 .0080 .0150 .0199 .0239 .0319 .0359
0 0 9
0. .051 .067
.0398 .0438 .0478 .0557 .0596 .0636 .0714 .0754
1 7 5
0. .091 .106
.0793 .0832 .0871 .0948 .0987 .1026 .1103 .1141
2 0 4
0. .129 .144
.1179 .1217 .1253 .1331 .1368 .1406 .1480 .1517
3 3 3
0. .166 .180
.1554 .1591 .1628 .1700 .1736 .1772 .1844 .1879
4 4 8
0. .201 .215
.1915 .1950 .1985 .2054 .2088 .2123 .2190 .2224
5 9 7
0. .235 .248
.2257 .2291 .2324 .2389 .2422 .2454 .2518 .2549
6 7 6
0. .267 .279
.2580 .2612 .2642 .2704 .2734 .2764 .2823 .2852
7 3 4
0. .296 .307
.2881 .2910 .2939 .2996 .3023 .3051 .3106 .3133
8 7 8
0. .328 .334
.3159 .3186 .3212 .3264 .3289 .3315 .3365 .3389
9 8 0
1. .348 .355
.3413 .3438 .3461 .3508 .3531 .3554 .3559 .3621
0 5 7
1. .370 .379
.3642 .3665 .3686 .3729 .3749 .3770 .3810 .3830
1 8 0
1. .390 .398
.3849 .3869 .3888 .3925 .3944 .3962 .3997 .4015
2 7 0
1. .408 .414
.4032 .4049 .4066 .4099 .4115 .4131 .4162 .4177
3 2 7
1. .423 .429
.4192 .4207 .4222 .4251 .4265 .4279 .4306 .4319
4 6 2
1. .437 .441
.4332 .4345 .4357 .4382 .4394 .4406 .4429 .4441
5 0 8
1. .448 .452
.4452 .4463 .4474 .4495 .4505 .4515 .4535 .4545
6 4 5
1. .458 .461
.4554 .4564 .4573 .4591 .4599 .4608 .4625 .4633
7 2 6
1. .466 .469
.4641 .4649 .4656 .4671 .4678 .4686 .4699 .4706
8 4 3
1. .473 .475
.4713 .4719 .4726 .4738 .4744 .4750 .4761 .4767
9 2 6
2. .478 .480
.4772 .4778 .4783 .4793 .4798 .4803 .4812 .4817
0 8 8
2. .483 .485
.4821 .4826 .4830 .4838 .4842 .4846 .4854 .4857
1 4 0
2. .487 .488
.4861 .4864 .4868 .4875 .4878 .4881 .4887 .4890
2 1 4
2. .490 .491
.4893 .4896 .4898 .4904 .4906 .4909 .4913 .4916
3 1 1
2. .492 .493
.4918 .4920 .4922 .4927 .4929 .4931 .4934 .4936
4 5 2
2. .494 .494
.4938 .4940 .4941 .4945 .4946 .4948 .4951 .4952
5 3 9
2. .495 .496
.4953 .4955 .4956 .4959 .4960 .4961 .4963 .4964
6 7 2
2. .496 .497
.4965 .4966 .4967 .4969 .4970 .4971 .4973 .4974
7 8 2
2. .497 .497
.4974 .4975 .4976 .4977 .4978 .4979 .4980 .4981
8 7 9
2. .498 .498
.4981 .4982 .4982 .4984 .4984 .4985 .4986 .4986
9 3 5
3. .498 .498
.4987 .4987 .4987 .4988 .4989 .4989 .4990 .4990
0 8 9
3. .499 .499
.4990 .4991 .4991 .4992 .4992 .4992 .4993 .4993
1 1 2
3. .499 .499
.4993 .4993 .4994 .4994 .4994 .4994 .4995 .4995
2 4 5
3. .499 .499
.4995 .4995 .4995 .4996 .4996 .4996 .4996 .4997
3 6 6
3. .499 .499
.4997 .4997 .4997 .4997 .4997 .4997 .4997 .4998
4 7 7
3. .499 .499
.4998 .4998 .4999 .4999 .4999 .4999 .4999 .4999
6 9 9
3. .5000
9
Example 1.
Find the area of the standard normal distribution between z = - 1.27 and z = 0.
Solution
Since a normal curve is symmetric, the area between z = - 1.27 and z = 0 is just equal to the
area between z = 0 and z = 1.27. From the table, the area is 0.3980.
Example 2.
Find the area of the standard normal distribution to the right of z = 2.08.
Solution
Area to the right of z = 2.08
= 0.5 – (Area from z=0 to z = 2.08)
= 0.5 – 0.4812
= 0.0188
Example 3.
Find the area of the standard normal distribution between z = - 2.14 and z = 1.59.
Solution
Area = (Area bet. z=0 and z = 2.14) + (Area bet. z =0 and z = 1.59)
= 0.4838 + 0.4441
= 0.9279
Example 4.
Find the area of the standard normal distribution between z = 1.07 and z = 2.95.
Solution
Example 5.
Find the area of the standard normal distribution to the right of z = -0.35.
Solution
Example.
A coffee machine dispenses coffee into 11-ounce cups. Tests show that the actual
amount of coffee dispensed is normally distributed, with a mean of 8.4 oz and a standard
deviation of 0.1 oz.
a. What percent of cups will receive less than 8.2 oz of coffee?
b. What percent of cups will receive between 8.3 oz and 8.7 oz of coffee?
Solution
x = amount of coffee dispensed (normal variable)
μ = 8.4 oz
σ = 0.1 oz
a) x = 8.2 oz
x−μ 8. 2−8. 4
z 8. 2 = = =−2 .00
σ 0. 1 two decimal places
Area to the left of (x = 8.2 oz) = Area to the left of (z = -2.00)
= 0.5 – 0.4772
= 0.0228
Answer: 2.28%
b) x = 8.3 x = 8.7
x−μ 8. 3−8 . 4
z 8. 3 = = =−1 . 00
σ 0 .1
x−μ 8 .7−8 . 4
z 8. 7 = = =3 . 00
σ 0 .1
Exercise. A study of the careers of professional football players shows that the lengths of
their careers are normally distributed with a mean of 6.8 years and a standard deviation of 1.3
years.
a. What percent of professional football players have a career of more than 6.4 years?
b. If a professional football player is chosen at random, what is the probability that the player
will have a career of between 6.4 and 6.7 years?
Activity No. 12
Name: _________________________________________ Course & Year: _____________ Score: ______
Instructor:_______________________________________ Class Schedule: _________________________
1. Find the area of the standard normal distribution to the right of z = -1.24.
2. Find the area of the standard normal distribution of the left of z = -2.17.
3. Find the area of the standard normal distribution to the left of z = 1.67.
4. Find the area of the standard normal distribution between z = -1.18 and z = 3.10.
5. A delivery company found that the weights of their parcels where normally distributed with a
mean of 30 oz and a standard deviation of 7.2 oz.
a. What percent of their parcels weighed less than 32 oz?
b. What percent of their parcels weighed between 28 oz and 34 oz ?
References
Triola, Mario F. (1992). Elementary Statistics 5th ed. Addison-Wesley
Walpole, R. E. (1982). Introduction to statistics. New York: Macmillan.
51
Lesson 6
Bivariate Data
A data set with two variables contains what is called bivariate data. This lesson
discusses ways to describe the relationship between two variables. For example, you may
wish to describe the relationship between the heights and weights of people to determine
the extent to which taller people weigh more.
When performing research studies, scientists often wish to know whether two
variables are related. If the variables are related, a scientist may then wish to find an
equation that can be used to model the relationship.
In simple linear regression, we predict scores on one variable from the scores on a
second variable. The variable we are predicting is called the criterion variable and is
referred to as Y. The variable we are basing our predictions on is called the predictor
variable and is referred to as X.
The example data in Table 1 are plotted in Figure 2. You can see that there is a
relationship between X and Y. If you were going to predict Y from X, the higher the
value of X, the higher your prediction of Y.
X Y
2 4
3 6
5 6
7 9
9 11
Table 1
52
12
10
6
Y
4
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
X
Linear regression consists of finding the best-fitting line through the points. The
best-fitting line is called the line of best fit or the least-squares regression line.
12
6 Series2
Linear (Series2)
4
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
53
y=ax+ b
n ∑ xy−( ∑ x )( ∑ y )
a= 2
n ∑ x2 −( ∑ x )
b= ȳ−a x̄
Example 1. Find the equation of the LSRL for the data on Table 1. Use the equation of
the LSRL to the predict the value of y when x = 12.
x y xy x2
2 4 8 4
3 6 18 9
5 6 30 25
7 9 63 49
9 11 99 81
Total 26 36 218 168
n=5
∑x = 26
∑y = 36
∑xy = 218
∑x2 = 168
x̄=
∑ x =26 =5. 2
n 5
ȳ=
∑ y =36 =7 . 2
n 5
n ∑ xy−( ∑ x )( ∑ y )
a= 2
n ∑ x2 −( ∑ x )
b= ȳ−a x̄
b = 7.2 – (0.9390243902)(5.2) = 2.317073171
y=ax+ b
54
When x = 12,
x 1 2 3 5 6
y 7 5 3 2 1
x y xy x2
1 7 7 1
2 5 10 4
3 3 9 9
5 2 10 25
6 1 6 36
Total 17 18 42 75
n=5
∑ x= 17
∑ y= 18
∑ xy= 42
∑ x 2= 75
17
x̄= =3 . 4
5
18
ȳ= =3 . 6
5
a = -1.1162790698
55
b = 3.6 – (-1.1162790698)(3.4)
= 3.6 + 3.7953488373
= 7.3953488373
When x = 7
To determine the strength of a linear relationship between two variables, statisticians use
a statistic called the linear correlation coefficient, which is denoted by the variable r .
n ( ∑ xy ) −( ∑ x )( ∑ y )
r=
√ 2
√
n ( ∑ x 2 )−( ∑ x ) . n ( ∑ y 2 ) −( ∑ y )
2
−1≤r≤1
The value of r ranges from -1 to 1. If r is positive , the relationship between the variables
has a positive correlation. In this case, if one variable increases, the other variable also tends to
increase. If r is negative, the relationship between the variables has a negative correlation. In this
case, if one variable increases, the other variable tends to decrease. Below are the interpretations
for the values of r.
Note: The Pearson correlation only measures linear relationships and does not imply causation.
x 1 2 3 5 6
y 7 5 3 2 1
x y xy x2 y2
1 7 7 1 49
2 5 10 4 25
3 3 9 9 9
5 2 10 25 4
6 1 6 36 1
Total 17 18 42 75 88
n ( ∑ xy ) −( ∑ x )( ∑ y )
r=
√ 2
√
n ( ∑ x 2 )−( ∑ x ) . n ( ∑ y 2 ) −( ∑ y )
2
57
x 2 4 6 8 10 7
y 6 1 15 3 14 7
x y xy x2 y2
2 6 12 4 36
4 1 4 16 1
6 15 90 36 225
8 3 24 64 9
10 14 140 100 196
7 7 49 49 49
Total 37 46 319 269 516
n=6
r = 0.4326530612
There is a moderate positive correlation.
.
58
Activity No. 13
X 2 4 4 5 6 7 8
Y 4 3 5 6 5 4 4
Activity No. 14
X 1 2 3 4 5 6 8 7
Y 3 3 5 6 4 7 7 8
Simple Interest
When an investor lends money to a borrower, the borrower must repay not only the
original amount borrowed but also an additional sum known as interest. From the investor's
perspective, interest represents the income generated from the invested capital. From the
borrower's standpoint, interest is the cost paid for using the borrowed money. The original sum
of money lent or invested is referred to as the principal. The total amount to be repaid, which
includes both the principal and the interest, is called the amount.
Formulas
I = Prt
A=P+I
A = P(1 + rt)
where
I = simple interest
P = principal
r = rate
t = time expressed in years
A = amount
If the time is given in months or days, convert this to year using the following formulas:
t = number of months / 12
Note: Unless specified, 360 days is used in all simple interest computations.
1. If ₱3,000 was borrowed at 6% simple interest, how much will be the interest for 2 years?
Solution
61
Given :
P = ₱ 3,000
r = 6 % = 0.06
t = 2 years
I=?
Solution
Given:
P = ₱ 12,000
30
t= years=2 .5 years
12
r = 8% = 0.08
A=?
Solution
Given:
I = ₱ 400
r = 0.1
t = 1 yr
P=?
I 400 400
P= = = =4000
rt 0. 1(1) 0. 1
P = ₱ 4,000
4. Mr. Cruz borrowed ₱ 10,000 for 3 months and paid ₱ 237.50 interest. What was the annual
rate of interest?
Soln.
Given: P = ₱ 10,000
t = 3 mos. = 3/12 yr. = 0.25 yr
I = ₱ 237.50
r=?
I 237 . 5
r= = =0 . 095=9. 5 %
Pt 10 , 000 (0. 25 )
62
Given:
P = ₱ 25,000
r = 10.5% = 0.105
I=?
A=?
Compound Interest
Building on the previous discussion, we learned that an individual can borrow money for
a period of time and repay it with interest at the end of that period. This straightforward method
works well for short-term loans. However, for long-term financial commitments, interest is
typically computed using compound interest.
Compound interest means that if the interest is not paid but allowed to accumulate, it is
added to the principal at the end of each interest period. This new total becomes the principal for
the next period. This compounding process can occur on different schedules: monthly (every
month), quarterly (every 3 months), semi-annually (every 6 months), or annually (once per year),
depending on the agreement.
The increase in the principal over the loan term is known as compound interest, and the
total amount at the end of the period (the original principal plus the accumulated compound
interest) is referred to as the compound amount.
Example 1.
Find the compound amount of ₱10,000 compounded quarterly for a year at 12%. (Note
that 12% interest rate for a year, compounded quarterly, means 3% interest rate for each quarter,
12 %
=3 %
4 .)
Solution
₱10,000 = original principal
+ 300 = interest at the end of 3 months (10,000 x .03)
-----------
10,300 = new principal at the end of 3 months
+ 309 = interest at the end of 6 months (10,300 x 0.03)
-----------
10,609 = new principal at the end of 6 months
+ 318.27 = interest at the end of 9 months (10,609 x 0.03)
-------------
10,927.27 = new principal at the end of 9 months
+ 327.82 = interest at the end of 1 year (10,927.27 x 0.03)
--------------
₱11,255.09 = Final amount at the end of one year
Formulas
( )
mt
j
A=P 1+
m
A=P ( 1+i )n
I = A– P
A
P=
( )
mt
j
1+
m
where
P → Original principal
A → Compound amount to which P will accumulate
I → compound interest
t → time or term of investment which is expressed in years
m → number of conversion periods per year
n → number of conversion periods for the whole term (n = mt)
j → nominal rate of interest per year
j
i=
i → rate of interest per conversion period ( m )
Given: P = ₱ 10,000
m=4
t = 1 yr
n = mt =4(1) = 4
j = 12%
i = j/m = 12% / 4 = 0.12 / 4 = .03
A=?
A=P ( 1+i )n =10 , 000 ( 1+.03 )4 =10 , 000 ( 1. 03 )4 =11, 255 .0881
A = ₱11,255.09
Example 2
Accumulate ₱ 20,000 for 10 years at 6% compounded quarterly.
Solution
P = ₱ 20,000
t = 10 yrs
m=4
n = 4(10) = 40
j = 6%
i = 6% / 4 = 0.06/4 = 0.015
A=?
A = 20,000(1+0.015)40 = 20,000(1.015)40 = ₱36,280.37
Example 3
Soln.
Given:
A =?
P = ₱10,000
t = 5yrs + 3 mos. = 5 yrs + 3/12 yr = 5.25 yrs
m = 12
n = mt = 12(5.25)= 63
j = 6%
i = j/m = 6% /12 = 0.06/12 = 0.005
A=P ( 1+i )n
Activity No. 15
1. How much was borrowed if a simple interest rate of 2.10% was offered payable in 4
months with interest of Php35.00?
2. What is the simple interest on a Php500 loan at 2.5% interest to be paid at the end of 6
months?
3. The loan of Php1,350 is to repaid in 1 year at 4.5% simple interest. How much is added
to the loan?
4. How long will Php60,000 accumulate to Php62,430 if the simple interest rate agreed is
1.50%?
6. Mia Benson invested her summer earnings of Php 3,000 in a savings account which pays
2.5% interest. How much will this amount to in 6 months?
66
Activity No. 16
1. A ₱1,000,000- trust fund was set up and to be used by an 8- year old nephew when he
goes to college. In 8 years, how much will the fund be if the investment rate is 7.5%
compounded quarterly?
2. Find the amount at the end of 5 years if ₱17,535 is invested at 2.45% compounded
quarterly.
3. If money is worth 6% compounded bi-monthly, find the present value (principal value) of
₱125,700 for 2 years.
4. If the rate is at 1.25% effective, how long will ₱5,000 become ₱5,500?
Lesson 9
Apportionment has its roots in the US Constitution. It was in 1790 that the first attempt
of electing the members of the US House of Representatives will be done by
apportionment.Various methods have been used to decide how many voters will be represented
by each member of the House and two competing plans were put forward, that of Alexander
Hamilton and Thomas Jefferson.
Suppose Region YY, has a population of 30,000 and composed of 5 provinces and the local
governments, as stated in the constitution, wants to select 25 representatives for the whole
region.
Region YY
Provinces Population
AA 5,712
BB 3,050
CC 4,678
DD 9,415
EE 7,145
Total 30,000
total population
standard divisor= apportion ¿
number of people ¿
30,000
¿ =1,200.
25
Next compute for the standard quota. The standard quota is the whole number part of the
quotient of the population divided by the standard divisor.
68
The total in the standard quota column is only 21 instead of the required 25 representative. If
this is the case, we have to add 1 representative to the quotient with the largest decimal part. The
process is repeated until the required number of representatives is reached.
You may have noticed that under the Hamilton Plan, we were short by four representatives from
the required total. The Jefferson Plan aims to address this issue by using a modified standard
divisor. To proceed, we will need to determine an appropriate standard divisor through a process
of trial and error.
Apportionment is not limited to allocating representatives in a legislative body; it also has many
practical applications in everyday settings. For example, it can be used to assign police officers
to precincts based on the number of reported crimes, allocate nurses according to the number of
patients in a hospital, or schedule mathematics classes based on student demand.
Example. Suppose the 12 elected members of the Board Members of Misamis Occidental are
selected according to the population of the three cities and three towns in the province as shown
below:
69
Misamis Occidental:
Cities/Town Population
Bonifacio 34,558
Calamba 23,227
Clarin 39,356
Oroquieta City 72,301
Ozamiz City 140,334
Tangub City 68,389
Total 378,165
a. Use the Hamilton method to determine the number of board members each city should
have.
b. Use the Jefferson method to determine the number of board members each city should
have.
Solution:
378,165
Standard divisor = =31,513.75
12
Use the standard divisor to find the standard quota for each city/town:
The sum of the standard quota is only 10 so we need to add two more members. The city
with the largest decimal remainders is Ozamiz City and the town with the largest decimal
remainders is Calamba so these town and city will get one/additional board member. Thus, the
composition of the Board members using Hamilton method is:Bonifacio: 1, Calamba: 1, Clarin:
1, Oroquieta City: 2, Ozamiz City: 5, Tangub City: 2.
b. To use the Jefferson Method, we must find a modified standard divisor that is less
than the calculated standard divisor that we have calculated. This is done by trial and
error. If we are to choose 23,000 as our modified standard divisor, then we will have
the following results:
The yield results too many board members, so we need to increase the standard divisor. Suppose
we use 23,500 as our standard divisor, then the result is shown below:
Thus, the composition of board members is: Bonifacio: 1, Calamba: 0, Clarin: 1, Oroquieta city:
3, Ozamiz City: 5, Tangub city: 3.
Suppose the local government of Misamis Occidental decided to add 2 board members even if
the population is the same. The total board members now are 14.
71
378,165
Standard divisor = =27,011.79
14
Paradoxes in Apportionment
72
Alabama Paradox
If one or more board member was added, when one place lost a board member even
though the populations did not change. This a negative effect in fairness. Apportionment method
should not exhibit this paradox.
Population Paradox
This is when the population of one state is increasing faster and yet they are still to lose a
representative.
This paradox was explained in 1907 when Oklahoma was added to the Union. The size of
the House was increased by five representatives in order to accommodate the population of
Oklahoma. As a result, New York lost a seat while Maine gained one seat in the house.
Fairness in Apportionment
Quota Rule
The number of representatives apportioned to a state is the standard quota or one more
than the standard quota.
In the computation of representative for Tangub City, we can see that the standard quota
is 2 but we assigned 3 board members, this violates the quota rule.
Average Constituency
population of a state
Average constituency = tℎe state ¿
number of representatives ¿
Consider the population of the town of Clarin and Tudela, Misamis Occidental.
39,356
Average constituency = =¿4,919.50
8
28,599
Average constituency = =¿4,766.50
6
73
In both towns the average constituency are approximately equal, thus we can say that the two
towns are equally represented.
In the US, the members of the House of Representatives are apportioned every 10 years
based on the apportioment principle called the method of nequal proportions or the Huntington-
Hill method since 1940. This is implemented by calculating the Huntington-Hill number.
“When there is a choice of adding one representative to one of several states, the
representative should be added to the state with the greatest Huntington-Hill number.”
Example: The table below shows the number of lifeguards that are assigned to three different
beaches and the number of rescues made by lifeguards at those beaches.
Solution:
Canonoy beach has the greatest Huntington-Hill number, hence according to the Huntington-Hill
apportionment principle, the new lifeguard should be assigned to Canonoy beach.
Voting
The right to vote is a revered privilege to those who live in a democratic country. But
sometimes the best candidate did not get elected. This usually happen when the plurality voting
systems is use.
“Each voter votes for one candidate, and the candidate with the most votes wins. But the
winning candidate does not have to have a majority of the votes.”
74
Example: Suppose 50 students were asked to rank their preferences of five kinds of candies.
Rank 1 is for their favorite, and rank 5 for their least favorite.
Preference schedule lists the number of people who gave a particular ranking. For example, the
colored column, it means there were 8 voters who ranked the candies this way.
Preference Schedule
Candies Rank
Max 5 4 4 4 2 4
Snow bear 1 5 5 5 5 5
Lipps 2 3 2 1 3 3
Halls 4 1 1 3 4 2
Kendimint 3 2 3 2 1 1
Number of voter’s: 17 11 9 8 3 2
First-place votes
Max 0
Snowbear 17
Lipps 8
Halls 11+9 = 20
Kendimint 3+2 = 5
Since Halls got 20 first-place votes, this candy would win the plurality taste test.
“If there are n candidates or issues in an election, each voter ranks the candidates or
issues by giving n points to the voter’s first choice, n – 1 points to the voter’s second choice and
so on, with the voter’s least favorite choice receiving 1 point. The candidate or issue that
receives the most total points is the winner.”
Example: The members of a club are going to elect a president from four nominees using Borda
count method. If the 100 members of the club mark their ballots as shown in the table below,
who will be elected president?
Candidates Rankings
George 2 2 2 2 3 2
Jemard 1 4 4 3 2 1
Alsejon 3 3 1 4 1 4
Jeff 4 1 3 1 4 3
Number of voters: 30 24 18 12 10 6
Solution:
By using the Borda count, each first-place vote receives 4 points, each second-place vote
receives 3 points and so on…
George: Jemard:
0x4=0 36 x 4 = 144
90 x 3 = 270 10 x 3 = 30
10 x 2 = 20 12 x 2 = 24
290 42 x 1 = 42
240
Alsejon: Jeff
28 x 4 = 112 36 x 4 = 144
0x3 =0 0 x3=0
54 x 2 = 108 24 x 2 = 48
18 x 1 = 18 40 x 1 = 40
238 232
Activity No. 17
Problem: A total of 25 teacher aides are to be apportioned among seven classes at a new elementary
school. The enrolment in the seven classes is shown in the following table:
Activity No. 18
Problem: Sixteen people were asked to rank three breakfast cereals in order of preference. Their
responses are tabulated below:
Corn flakes 3 1 1 2 3 3 2 2 1 3 1 3 1 2 1 2
Raisin Bran 1 3 2 3 1 2 1 1 2 1 2 2 3 1 3 3
Mini Wheats 2 2 3 1 2 1 3 3 3 2 3 1 2 3 2 1
Activity No. 19
Problem: A senior high school class held an election for class president. Instead of voting for
one candidate, the students were asked to rank all four candidates in order of preference. The
results are shown below:
Rankings
Charles 2 3 1 3 4 2
Liezel 4 1 3 4 1 3
Patrick 1 2 2 2 3 4
Kim 3 4 4 1 2 1
Using the Borda count method, which student should be class president?
79
Lesson 10
Logic
Logic is the study of reasoning and argumentation. It examines the principles and
methods used to distinguish between valid and invalid inferences, providing a framework for
constructing sound arguments and uncovering truth.
By understanding and applying the principles of logic, one can enhance critical thinking
skills and improve the clarity and persuasiveness of arguments in any field.
Statement or Proposition
A statement or proposition is a declarative sentence that is either true or false, but not
both. It forms the basic building block of logical reasoning and can be used to construct more
complex logical expressions.
The sentences above are propositions, where the first two are true and the third one is
false. Sentences that do not possess a truth value or may have more than one truth value are not
considered propositions. Examples of such sentences include:
Ouch!
Sentences in the form of commands, questions, and exclamations are not considered
propositions because they cannot be classified as true or false.
p: Saturn is a planet.
q: 2 + 3 = 5
In propositional logic, there are two main types of propositions: simple propositions and
compound propositions. Simple propositions are statements which cannot be broken down into
smaller components. In contrast, compound propositions are formed by combining two or more
simple propositions.
Examples:
Logical connectives or logical operators are symbols or words used to combine together
propositions or statements in a way that forms a new proposition whose truth value can be
determined from the original propositions.
A. Conjunction
p q p˄q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F
Examples: Determine the truth value of each of the following compound propositions.
a) 4 is an integer and 3 + 6 = 9.
Answer
Since “4 is an integer” and “3 + 6 = 9” are both true statements, then the
conjunction of the propositions is true.
B. Disjunction
For any two propositions, p and q, their disjunction is represented by p ˅ q, which means
“p or q”. The disjunction p ˅ q is true when either p or q is true; otherwise, it is false. The truth
table of p ˅ q is as follows:
p q p˅q
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F
Examples: Determine the truth value of each of the following compound propositions.
a) 5 is even or 9 - 2 = 7.
b) 8 is divisible by 3 or 9 is divisible by 2.
C. Negation
The negation of the proposition p is denoted by ¬ p, which means “It is not the case that
p” or simply “not p”. The truth value of ¬ p is the opposite of the truth value of p. The truth
table of ¬ p is as follows:
p ¬p
T F
F T
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D. Conditional Statement
p q p→q
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T
Example: Identify the hypothesis and the conclusion of each conditional statement below.
E. Biconditional Statement
For any two propositions p and q, the statement “ p if and only q” is called a biconditional and it
is denoted by p ↔ q. This statement is also referred to as a bi-implication. The biconditional
p↔ q has the same truth value as (p → q) ˄ (q →p). It is true when p and q have the same truth
value, and false otherwise.
p q p↔q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T
Examples
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Tautology
p ¬p p ˅ ¬p
T F T
F T T
Contradiction
p ¬p p ˄ ¬p
T F F
F T F
Contingency
Example 1. p ↔ q is a contingency.
p q p↔q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T
p q
T T
T F
F T
F F
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Activity No. 20
Direction: Construct a truth table for each of the following compound propositions and
determine whether it is a tautology, contradiction, or contingency.
1.) (p ˄ ¬p) ˄ q
2.) (p ˅ ¬q) → (p ˄ q)
3.) (p → ¬p) → q
4.) (p →q) ˅ r
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Arguments
Rules of Inference
Rules of inference are logical principles used to derive conclusions from premises in a valid
way. They are the foundational tools for constructing logical arguments and proofs, especially in
mathematics and formal logic.
Example 1.
p: I love math.
q: I will pass Math 1.
Example 2.
p: I love math.
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q: I study algebra.
Example 3.
p: It is a parrot.
q: It has wings.
r: It can fly.
Solution
p: 4 is a rational number.
q: 7 is an odd number.
r: 4 is an even number.
Activity No. 21
Direction: Create three valid arguments using the rules of inference based on the given
propositions.
1. p: x is divisible by 10.
q: x is divisible by 2.
r: x is even.
2. p: I study hard.
q: I pass all my subjects.
r: I graduate on time.
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Modular Arithmetic
Note: 0 ≤ r < n
Examples
5 mod 3 = 2
8 mod 4 = 0
18 mod 5 = 3
97 mod 13 = ?
- 9 mod 6 = ?
Q1: If it is now Thursday, what day will it be 1,000 days from now?
Q2: If it is now November, what month will it be 100 months from now?
Congruence Modulo n
Two integers a and b are said to be congruent modulo n, where n is a natural number, if n
divides a - b . The statement a≡ b modulo n is called a congruence.
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The International Standard Book Number (ISBN), a 13-digit number, created to help
ensure that orders for books are filled accurately and that books are catalogued correctly. The
first three digits of an ISBN are 978, The next digit indicates the country in which the publisher
is incorporated, the next two to seven digits indicate the publisher, the next group of digits
indicates the title of the book, and the last digit (the 13th one) is called a check digit.
Suppose x1 x2 ... x13 is an ISBN, the ISBN check digit is determined by the following algorithm:
Solution
Check digit = 4
Example 2. Verify whether the ISBN 978 - 971 - 821 - 997 - 3 is valid.
Solution
Check digit = 3
Activity No. 22
REFERENCES
Alejan et al. (2018). Mathematics in the Modern World. Malabon City: Mutya Publishing House, Inc.
Aufmann et al. (2013). Mathematical Excursions 3rd ed. Belmont: Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning
Burns, Carol JVF. One Mathematical Cat, Please! A First Course in Algebra
http://www.onemathematicalcat.org/pdf _files/LANG1.pdf
https://www.dpmms.cam.ac.uk/~wtg10/grammar.pdf
Jamison, R.E. (2000). Learning the language of mathematics. Language and Learning
across the Disciplines, 4(1), 45-54
Oberste-Vorth et al. (2012). Bridge to Abstract Mathematics. The Mathematical Association of America