TERMINOLOGY

1.TYPES OF TRAFFIC FLOW FACILITIES

Traffic Flow Theory:
 Traffic flow theory involves the development of mathematical relationships among the primary elements of a traffic stream:
flow, density, and speed. These relationships help the traffic engineer in planning, designing, and evaluating the effectiveness
of implementing traffic engineering measures on a highway system.
 Traffic flow theory is used in design to determine adequate lane lengths for storing left-turn vehicles on separate left-turn
lanes, the average delay at intersections and freeway ramp merging areas, and changes in the level of freeway performance
due to the installation of improved vehicular control devices on ramps.
 Another important application of traffic flow theory is simulation where mathematical algorithms are used to study the
complex interrelationships that exist among the elements of a traffic stream or network and to estimate the effect of changes
in traffic flow on factors such as crashes, travel time, air pollution, and gasoline consumption.

Traffic Flow:
 Traffic flow is the study of interactions between travelers (including pedestrian, cyclists, drivers, and their vehicles) and
infrastructure (including highways, signage, and traffic control devices), with the aim of understanding and developing an
optimal transport network with efficient movement of traffic and minimal traffic congestion problems.

Types of Traffic Flow Facilities:

 Traffic flow can be divided into two primary types. Understanding what type of flow is occurring in each situation will help
you decide which analysis methods descriptions are the most relevant.

Uninterrupted Flow Facility

 Describes a type of facility, it is not a description of the quality of flow on a given facility or segment. Specifically,
uninterrupted flow exists on any facility where there are no causes of interruption external to the traffic stream. Thus, a
freeway is an uninterrupted flow facility, even when it is operating under breakdown conditions: in such cases, the causes of
the interruption to flow are interactions among vehicles that are internal to the traffic stream.
 It is defined and regulated by vehicle-vehicle interactions and vehicles-roadway interactions.

Types of uninterrupted flow facility:

 Freeways – are defined as those facilities that afford uninterrupted flow of traffic, there is full access control. Control Access
refers to the public access rights from properties along the freeway; access to freeway facilities is allowed only through
selected public roads, typically on-and-off ramps.

Components of Freeways
Merge/Diverge Segment Weaving Segment
 Multi-lane highway – It is the main road, which connects two or more destinations. This highway has at least more than one
lane for the separate use of traffic flow in both the directions. It also has limited access to merging vehicles, has periodical
pauses to streamline traffic at signalized intersections with interval not closer than 3.0 km
 Two-lane highway – Two-lane highways refer to roadways consisting of two lanes in the cross section, one for each
direction of travel.

Interrupted Flow
It is a flow that occurs at a long section of road where vehicles are required to stop by any cause outside the traffic stream such as
traffic signs, traffic signal lights. These facilities are those that incorporate fixed external interruptions into their design and operation.
Such as:
 Urban street facilities Urban street segments
 Signalized control intersections. Roundabouts
 Interchange ramp terminals
 Off-street pedestrian and bicycle facilities.

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN FLOW, SPEED AND DENSITY

 Time – Space Diagram
Serves as a useful device for defining the elements of traffic flow. A graph that describes the relationship between
the location of vehicles in a traffic stream and the time as the vehicles progress along the highway.

Primary Elements of Traffic Flow

 Flow (q)
The equivalent hourly rate at which vehicles pass a point on a highway during a time period less than 1 hour.
Where:
n = the number of vehicles passing a point in the roadway in T sec
q = the equivalent hourly flow
Density (k)
Sometimes referred to as concentration. The number of vehicles traveling over a unit length of highway at an instant in time. The unit
length is usually 1 mile (mi) thereby making vehicles per mile (veh/mi) the unit of density.

Where:
t̅ = the average time for unit distance.
Speed (u)
The distance traveled by a vehicle during a unit of time. It can be expressed in miles per hour (mi/h), kilometers per hour (km/h), or
feet per second (ft /sec).

Two types of mean speeds:

 Time mean speed
 Space mean speed
 Time Mean Speed (ūt)
The arithmetic mean of the speeds of vehicles passing a point on a highway during an interval of time.

Where:
n = number of vehicles passing a point on the highway ui = speed of the ith vehicle (ft /sec)
Space mean speed (ūs)
The harmonic mean of the speeds of vehicles passing a point on a highway during an interval of time. It is obtained by dividing the
total distance traveled by two or more vehicles on a section of highway by the total time required by these vehicles to travel that
distance. This is the speed that is involved in flow-density relationships.
Where:
ūs = space mean speed (ft /sec) n = number of vehicles
ti = the time it takes the ith vehicle to travel across a section of highway (sec) ūi = speed of the ith vehicle (ft /sec)
L = length of section of highway (ft)
Time Headway (h)
The difference between the time the front of a vehicle arrives at a point on the highway and the time the front of the next vehicle
arrives at that same point. Usually expressed in seconds.

Space Headways (d)

The distance between the front of a vehicle and the front of the following vehicle. Usually expressed in feet.
Fundamental Diagram of Traffic Flow
 The relationship between the density (veh/mi) and the corresponding flow of traffic on a highway. The following theory has
been postulated with respect to the shape of the curve depicting this relationship:
 When the density on the highway is 0, the flow is also 0 because there are no vehicles on the highway.
 As the density increases, the flow also increases.
 However, when the density reaches its maximum, generally referred to as the jam density (kj), the flow must be 0 because
vehicles will tend to line up end to end.
 It follows that as density increases from 0, the flow will also initially increase from 0 to a maximum value. Further
 continuous increase in density will then result in continuous reduction of the flow, which will eventually be 0 when the
density is equal to the jam density.

CAPACITY AND LEVEL OF SERVICE

Capacity
 The Maximum number of vehicles which has a reasonable expectation of passing over a given section of a lane or a roadway
in one direction during a given time period under prevailing roadway and traffic conditions.
 Prevailing roadway, traffic, and control conditions define capacity; these conditions should be reasonably uniform for any
section of the facility analyzed. Any change in the prevailing conditions changes the capacity of the facility.

Three Types pf Capacity

 Basic Capacity
 Possible Capacity
 Practical Capacity\
 Level of Service
 Quality of service requires quantitative measures to characterize operational conditions within a traffic stream.

 Level of service (LOS) is a quality measure describing operational conditions within a traffic stream, generally in terms of
such service measures as speed and travel time, freedom to maneuver, traffic interruptions, and comfort and convenience.

Six LOS are defined for each type of facility that has analysis procedures available. Letters designate each level, from A to F, with
LOS A representing the best operating conditions and LOS F the worst.
Each level of service represents a range of operating conditions and the driver's perception of those conditions. Safety is not included
in the measures that establish service levels.

Level of Service A
 Describes free-flow operations. Free-flow speeds prevail. Vehicles are almost completely unimpeded in their ability to
maneuver within the traffic stream. The effects of incidents or point breakdowns are easily absorbed at this level.
Level of Service B
 Represents reasonably free flow, and free-flow speeds are maintained. The ability to maneuver within the traffic stream is
only slightly restricted, and the general level of physical and psychological comfort provided to drivers is still high. The
effects of minor incidents and point breakdowns are still easily absorbed.
Level of Service C
 Provides for flow with speeds at or near the FFS of the freeway. Freedom to maneuver within the traffic stream is noticeably
restricted, and lane changes require more care and vigilance on the part of the driver.
Level of Service D
 is the level at which speeds begin to decline slightly with increasing flows and density begins to increase somewhat more
quickly. Freedom to maneuver within the traffic stream is more noticeably limited, and the driver experiences reduced
physical and psychological comfort levels.
Level of Service E
 Operations at this level are volatile, because there are virtually no usable gaps in the traffic stream. Vehicles are closely
spaced, leaving little room to maneuver within the traffic stream at higher speeds. Any disruption of the traffic stream, such
as vehicles entering from a ramp or a vehicle changing lanes, can establish a disruption wave that propagates throughout the
upstream traffic flow.
Level of Service F
 Describes breakdowns in vehicular flow. Such conditions generally exist within queues (front) forming behind breakdown
points. Breakdowns occur for a number of reasons:

 Traffic incidents can cause a temporary reduction in the capacity of a short segment, so that the number of vehicles arriving
at the point is greater than the number of vehicles that can move through it.
 Points of recurring congestion, such as merge or weaving segments and lane drops, experience very high demand in which
the number of vehicles arriving is greater than the number of vehicles discharged.
 In forecasting situations, the projected peak-hour (or other) flow rate can exceed the estimated capacity of the location.

Determining Free-Flow Speed

Free-flow speed (FFS) is the speed of traffic as the traffic density approaches zero. In practice, FFS is governed by roadway design
characteristics (horizontal and vertical curves, lane and shoulder widths, and median design), the frequency of access points, the
complexity of the driving environment (possible distractions from roadway signs and the like), and posted speed limits.
Determining Analysis Flow Rate
One of the fundamental inputs to a traffic analysis is the actual traffic volume on the roadway, in vehicles per hour, which is given the
symbol V.
Calculating Service Measure(s) and Determining LOS
Once the previous steps have been completed, all that remains is to calculate the value of the service measure and then determine the
LOS from the service measure value.
Basic Freeway Segments
A basic freeway segment is defined as a section of a divided roadway having two or more lanes in each direction, full access control,
and traffic that is unaffected by merging or diverging movements near ramps.
It is important to note that capacity analysis for divided roadways focuses on the traffic flow in one direction only.
Base Conditions and Capacity
The base conditions for a basic freeway segment are defined as [Transportation Research Board 2010]
12-ft minimum lane widths
6-ft minimum right-shoulder clearance between the edge of the travel lane and objects (utility poles, retaining walls, etc.) that
influence driver behavior
2-ft minimum median lateral clearance
Only passenger cars in the traffic stream
Five or more lanes in each travel direction (urban areas only)
2-mi or greater interchange spacing
Level terrain (no grades greater than 2%)
A driver population of mostly familiar roadway users
Service Measure
The service measure for basic freeway segments is density. A low traffic stream density gives individual vehicles the ability to change
lanes and speeds with relative ease, while a high density makes it very difficult for individual vehicles to maneuver within the traffic
stream.

Determine Free-Flow Speed

For basic freeway segments, FFS is the mean speed of passenger cars operating in flow rates up to 1300 passenger cars per hour per

lane (pc/h/ln). If FFS is to be estimated rather than measured, the following equation can be used.

Lane Width Adjustment

 When lane widths are narrower than the base 12 ft, the adjustment factor fLW is used to reflect the impact on free-flow
speed. Such an adjustment is needed because narrow lanes cause traffic to slow as a result of reduced psychological comfort
and limits on driver maneuvering and accident avoidance options.
Lateral Clearance Adjustment
 Lateral Clearance Adjustment When obstructions are closer than 6 ft (at the roadside) from the traveled pavement, the
adjustment factor fLC is used to reflect the impact on FFS. Again, these conditions lead to reduced psychological comfort for
the driver and consequently reduced speeds. An obstruction is a right-side object that can either be continuous (such as a
retaining wall or barrier) or periodic (such as light posts or utility poles).
4. HYDRODYNAMIC AND KINEMATIC MODELS OF TRAFFIC

Two Classes of Models

 Macroscopic – Which is concerned with average behavior, such as traffic density, average speed, and module area. This
mathematical model describes the links between several aspects of traffic flow, including density, flow, mean speed of a
traffic stream, etc.
 Microscopic – Considers the interaction of individual vehicles. A computer modeling system that simulates how individual
cars and their drivers behave over a network of roads. This model monitors the movements of each individual vehicle every
second or less.
5. METHODS FOR CLASSIFICATION OF QUEUES BASED ON THE CHARACTERISTIC

ARRIVAL DISTRIBUTION
 The arrivals can be described as either a deterministic distribution or a random distribution. Light-to-medium traffic is
usually described by a Poisson distribution, and this is generally used in queuing theories related to traffic flow.
SERVICE METHOD
 These include first come–first served where units are served in order of their arrivals, and last in-first served, where the
 service is reversed to the order of arrival. The service method can also be based on priority, where arrivals are directed to
specific queues of appropriate priority levels—for example, giving priority to buses. Queues are then serviced in order of
their priority level.

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE QUEUE LENGTHS

 The maximum length of the queue, that is, the maximum number of units in the queue, is specified, in which case the queue
is a finite or truncated queue, or else there may be no restriction on the length of the queue. Finite queues are sometimes
necessary when the waiting area is limited.
SERVICE DISTRIBUTION
 The Poisson and negative exponential distributions have been used as the random distributions.
NUMBER OF CHANNELS
 The number of channels usually corresponds to the number of waiting lines and is therefore used to classify queues, for
example, as a single channel or multi-channel queue.
OVERSATURATED AND UNDERSATURATED QUEUES
 Oversaturated queues are those in which the arrival rate is greater than the service rate, and undersaturated queues are those
in which the arrival rate is less than the service rate.
 The length of an undersaturated queue may vary but will reach a steady state with the arrival of units. The length of an
oversaturated queue, however, will never reach a steady state but will continue to increase with the arrival of units.

VOLUME STUDIES
 Traffic volume studies are conducted to collect data on the number of vehicles and/or pedestrians that pass a point on a
highway facility during a specified time period. Depending on how the data will be used, this time period can range from 15
minutes to a full year. The information gathered may also be divided into subcategories, which may include pedestrian age,
vehicle classification, occupancy rates, and directional movement. Traffic volume studies are usually conducted when certain
volume characteristics are needed, some of which follow:

Annual Average Daily Traffic (AADT) is the average of 24-hour counts collected every day of the year. AADTs are used in several
traffic and transportation analyses for:
 Estimation of highway user revenues.
 Establishment of traffic volume trends.
 Evaluation of the economic feasibility of highway projects.
 Development of freeway and major arterial street systems.
 Development of improvement and maintenance programs.

Average Daily Traffic (ADT) is the average of 24-hour counts collected over a number of days greater than one but less than a
year. ADTs may be used for:
 Planning of highway activities.
 Measurement of current demand.
 Evaluation of existing traffic flow.
Peak Hour Volume (PHV) is the maximum number of vehicles that pass a point on a highway during a period of 60 consecutive
minutes. PHVs are used for:
Functional classification of highways.
 Design of the geometric characteristics of a highway, for example, number of lanes, intersection signalization, or
channelization.
Capacity analysis.
Development of programs related to traffic operations, for example, one-way street systems or traffic routing.

Peak Hour Factor (PHF) is defined as the ratio of peak hour volume divided by maximum rate of flow.
METHODS OF CONDUCTING VOLUME COUNTS

MANUAL METHOD
 The most common method of collecting traffic volume data is the manual method of traffic volume count, which involves a
group of people recording number of vehicles passing, on a predetermined location, using tally marks in inventories. This
method of data collection can be expensive in terms of manpower, but it is nonetheless necessary in most cases where
vehicles are to be classified with several movements recorded separately, such as at intersections also in case where
automatic methods cannot be used due to lack of infrastructure, necessary authorization etc.
Direct Method – Data is counted by using tally manual counter.
ELECTRONIC COUNTING BOARD – are battery-operated, handheld devices used in collecting traffic count data. The data can
be downloaded to a computer, which saves time.
MECHANICAL COUNTING BOARD – Mechanical count boards consist of counters mounted on a board that record each
direction of travel. Common counts include pedestrian, bicycle, vehicle classification, and traffic volume counts.
Indirect Method – Data is collected using video camera. Video is captured for a long time and data is collected later by rewinding.

The main disadvantages of the manual count method are that

(1) it is labor intensive and therefore can be expensive,
(2) it is subject to the limitations of human factors, and
(3) it cannot be used for long periods of counting.

AUTOMATIC METHOD
 Automatic counters can be classified into two general categories: those that require the laying of detectors (surface or
subsurface), and those that do not require the laying of detectors. Automatic counters that require the laying of surface
detectors (such as pneumatic road tubes) or subsurface detectors (non-invasive, such as magnetic or electric contact devices)
on the road, detect the passing vehicle and transmit the information to a recorder, which is connected to the detector at the
side of the road.
PSEUMATIC ROAD TUBE CONTER –
 send a burst of air pressure along a rubber tube when a vehicle’s tires pass over the tube. The pressure pulse closes an air
switch, producing an electrical signal that is transmitted to a counter or analysis software.

An Example of a Sensor Setup of a Surface Detector Using Pneumatic Road Tubes

INDUCTIVE LOOP TRAFFIC SENSORS
 Inductive loop detector consists of embedded turned wire. It includes an oscillator, and a cable, which allows signals to pass
from the loop to the traffic counting device. Inductive loops are cheap, almost maintenance-free and are currently the most
widely used equipment for vehicle counting and detection.

Apollo Counter/Classifier
 which is particularly suitable for cities and counties. It is capable of obtaining per-vehicle or volume data. The data collected
can be downloaded to the Centurion-CC software for Windows and a variety of reports obtained.

3M Canoga C900 Series Vehicle Detectors

 These use an inductive loop to identify the presence of individual vehicles and determine speed, length, occupancy, and
obtain vehicle counts. They are designed to use either standard inductive loops or 3M’s Non-Invasive Microloop Model 702
Probes.

TYPES OF VOLUME COUNTS

Cordon Counts –
 When information is required on vehicle accumulation within an area such as the central business district (CBD) of a city,
particularly during a specific time, a cordon count is undertaken. The area for which the data are required is cordoned off by
an imaginary closed loop; the area enclosed within this loop is defined as the cordon area.
Screen Line Counts
 the study area is divided into large sections by running imaginary lines, known as screen lines, across it. In some cases,
natural and manmade barriers, such as rivers or railway tracks, are used as screen lines. Traffic counts are then taken at each
point where a road crosses the screen line. It is usual for the screen lines to be designed or chosen such that they are not
crossed more than once by the same street.
Intersection Counts
 are taken to determine vehicle classifications, through movements, and turning movements at intersections. These data are
used mainly in determining phase lengths and cycle times for signalized intersections, in the design of channelization at
intersections, and in the general design of improvements to intersections.
Pedestrian Volume Counts
 are made at locations such as subway stations, midblocks, and crosswalks. The counts are usually taken at these locations
when the evaluation of existing or proposed pedestrian facilities is to be undertaken. Such facilities may include pedestrian
overpasses or underpasses.
Continuous Counts
 These counts are taken continuously using mechanical or electronic counters. Stations at which continuous counts are taken
are known as permanent count stations. In selecting permanent count stations, the highways within the study area must first
be properly classified.
Control Counts
 These counts are taken at stations known as control-count stations, which are strategically located so that representative
samples of traffic volume can be taken on each type of highway or street in an area-wide traffic counting program. The data
obtained from control counts are used to determine seasonal and monthly variations of traffic characteristics so that
expansion factors can be determined. These expansion factors are used to determine year-round average values from short
counts.
Coverage Counts
  These counts are used to estimate ADT, using expansion factors developed from control counts. The study area is usually
divided into zones that have similar traffic characteristics. At least one coverage count station is in each zone.

TRAFFIC VOLUME DATA PRESENTATION

The data collected from traffic volume counts may be presented in one of several ways, depending on the type of count conducted and
the primary use of the data. Descriptions of some of the conventional data presentation techniques follow.

TRAFFIC FLOW MAPS

 These maps show traffic volumes on individual routes. The volume of traffic on each route is represented by the width of a
band, which is drawn in proportion to the traffic volume it represents, providing a graphic representation of the different
volumes that facilitates easy visualization of the relative volumes of traffic on different routes.
INTERSECTION SUMMARY SHEETS
 These sheets are graphic representations of the volume and directions of all traffic movements through the intersection. These
volumes can be either ADTs or PHVs, depending on the use of the data.
TIME-BASED DISTRIBUTION CHARTS
 These charts show the hourly, daily, monthly, or annual variations in traffic volume in an area or on a particular highway.
Each volume is usually given as a percentage of the average volume.
SUMMARY TABLES
 These tables give a summary of traffic volume data such as PHV, Vehicle Classification (VC), and ADT in tabular form.
TRAFFIC VOLUME CHARACTERISTICS
 A continuous count of traffic at a section of a road will show that traffic volume varies from hour to hour, from day to day,
and from month to month. However, the regular observation of traffic volumes over the years has identified certain
characteristics showing that although traffic volume at a section of a road varies from time to time, this variation is repetitive
and rhythmic. These characteristics of traffic volumes are usually taken into consideration when traffic counts are being
planned so that volumes collected at a particular time or place can be related to volumes collected at other times and places.
Knowledge of these characteristics also can be used to estimate the accuracy of traffic counts.

SPOT SPEED STUDIES

Speed characteristics determined from a spot speed study may be used to:
 Establish parameters for traffic operation and control, such as speed zones, speed limits (85th-percentile speed is commonly
used as the speed limit on a road), and passing restrictions.
 Evaluate the effectiveness of traffic control devices, such as variable message signs at work zones.
 Monitor the effect of speed enforcement programs, such as the use of drone radar and the use of differential speed limits for
passenger cars and trucks.
 Evaluate and or determine the adequacy of highway geometric characteristics, such as radii of horizontal curves and lengths
of vertical curves.
 Evaluate the effect of speed on highway safety through the analysis of crash data for different speed characteristics.
 Determine speed trends.
 Determine whether complaints about speeding are valid

Locations for Spot Speed Studies

The following locations generally are used for the different applications listed:
 Locations that represent different traffic conditions on a highway or highways are used for basic data collection.
 Mid-blocks of urban highways and straight, level sections of rural highways are sites for speed trend analyses.
 Any location may be used for the solution of a specific traffic engineering problem.

Time of Day and Duration of Spot Speed Studies

 In general, when the purpose of the study is to establish posted speed limits, to observe speed trends, or to collect basic data,
it is recommended that the study be conducted when traffic is free- flowing, usually during off-peak hours. However, when a
speed study is conducted in response to citizen complaints, it is useful if the time period selected for the study reflects the
nature of the complaints. The duration of the study should be such that the minimum number of vehicle speeds required for
statistical analysis is recorded. Typically, the duration is at least 1 hour and the sample size is at least 30 vehicles.

Methods for Conducting Spot Speed Studies

 The methods used for conducting spot speed studies can generally be divided into two main categories: manual and
automatic. Automatic devices can be grouped into three main categories:
those that use road detectors, (2) those that are radar-based, and (3) those that use the principles of electronics.
Road Detectors
 Road detectors can be classified into two general categories: pneumatic road tubes and induction loops. These devices can be
used to collect data on speeds at the same time as volume data are being collected. When road detectors are used to measure
speed, they should be laid such that the probability of a passing vehicle closing the connection of the meter during a speed
measurement is reduced to a minimum. This is achieved by separating the road detectors by a distance of 3 to 15 ft.

The advantage of the detector meters is that human errors are considerably reduced. The disadvantages are that (1) these devices tend
to be rather expensive and
(2) when pneumatic tubes are used, they are rather conspicuous and may, therefore, affect driver behavior, resulting in a distortion of
the speed distribution.

Pneumatic road tubes

 are laid across the lane in which data are to be collected. When a moving vehicle passes over the tube, an air impulse is
transmitted through the tube to the counter. When used for speed measurements, two tubes are placed across the lane, usually
about 6 ft apart. An impulse is recorded when the front wheels of a moving vehicle pass over the first tube; shortly afterward
a second impulse is recorded when the front wheels pass over the second tube. The time elapsed between the two impulses
and the distance between the tubes are used to compute the speed of the vehicle.

An inductive loop
 is a rectangular wire loop buried under the roadway surface. It usually serves as the detector of a resonant circuit. It operates
on the principle that a disturbance in the electrical field is created when a motor vehicle passes across it. This causes a change
in potential that is amplified, resulting in an impulse being sent to the counter

Radar-Based Traffic Sensors

Radar
 based traffic sensors work on the principle that when a signal is transmitted onto a moving vehicle, the change in frequency
between the transmitted signal and the reflected signal is proportional to the speed of the moving vehicle. The difference
between the frequency of the transmitted signal and that of the reflected signal is measured by the equipment and then
converted to speed in mi/h. In setting up the equipment, care must be taken to reduce the angle between the direction of the
moving vehicle and the line joining the center of the transmitter and the vehicle. The value of the speed recorded depends on
that angle. If the angle is not zero, an error related to the cosine of that angle is introduced, resulting in a lower speed than
that which would have been recorded if the angle had been zero. However, this error is not very large, because the cosines of
small angles are not much less than one.

The advantage of this method is that because pneumatic tubes are not used, if the equipment can be located at an inconspicuous
position, the influence on driver behavior is considerably reduced.

Electronic-Principle Detectors
 In this method, the presence of vehicles is detected through electronic means, and information on these vehicles is obtained,
from which traffic characteristics, such as speed, volume, queues, and headways are computed. The great advantage of this
method over the use of road detectors is that it is not necessary to physically install loops or any other type of detector on the
road. A technology using electronics is video image processing, sometimes referred to as a machine-vision system. This
system consists of an electronic camera overlooking a large section of the roadway and a microprocessor. The electronic
camera receives the images from the road; the microprocessor determines the vehicle’s presence or passage. This information
is then used to determine the traffic characteristics in real time. One such system is the autoscope.
It has a significant advantage over loops in that it can detect traffic in many locations within the camera’s field of view. The locations
to be monitored are selected by the user through interactive graphics which normally takes only a few minutes. This flexibility is
achieved by placing electronic detector lines along or across the roadway lanes on the monitor showing the traffic. The detector lines
are therefore, not fixed on the roadway because they are not physically located on the roadway but are placed on the monitor. A
detection signal, which is similar to that produced by loops, is generated whenever a vehicle crosses the detector lines, indicating the
presence or passage of the vehicle. The autoscope is therefore, a wireless detector with a single camera that can replace many loops,
thereby providing a wide-area detection system. The device therefore can be installed without disrupting traffic operations, as often
occurs with loop installation, and the detection configuration can be changed either manually or by using a software routine that
provides a function of the traffic conditions. The device is also capable of extracting traffic parameters, such as volume and queue l
Types of Shock Waves

Frontal Stationary Shock Waves

 formed when the capacity suddenly reduces to zero at an approach or set of lanes having the red
indication at a signalized intersection or when a highway is completely closed because of a
serious incident.
Backward Forming Shock Waves

 formed when the capacity is reduced below the demand flow rate resulting in the formation of a
queue upstream of the bottleneck.
Backward Recovery Shock Waves

 formed when the demand flow rate becomes less than the capacity of the bottleneck or the
restriction causing reduction at the bottleneck is removed. For example, when the signals at an
approach or set of lanes on a signalized intersection change from red to green, the traffic flow
restriction is removed, and traffic on that approach or set of lanes is free to move across the
intersection, causing a backward recovery shock waves.
Rear Stationary and Forward Recovery Shock Waves

 formed when demand flow rate upstream of a bottleneck is first higher than the capacityof the
bottleneck and then the demand flow rate reduces to the capacity of the bottleneck.