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Machine learning
Machine learning (ML) is a field of study in artificial intelligence concerned with the development
and study of statistical algorithms that can learn from data and generalize to unseen data and thus
perform tasks without explicit instructions.[1] Recently, artificial neural networks have been able to
surpass many previous approaches in performance.[2]

ML finds application in many fields, including natural language processing, computer vision, speech
recognition, email filtering, agriculture, and medicine.[3][4] When applied to business problems, it is
known under the name predictive analytics. Although not all machine learning is statistically based,
computational statistics is an important source of the field's methods.

The mathematical foundations of ML are provided by mathematical optimization (mathematical

programming) methods. Data mining is a related (parallel) field of study, focusing on exploratory data
analysis (EDA) through unsupervised learning.[6][7]

From a theoretical viewpoint, probably approximately correct (PAC) learning provides a framework
for describing machine learning.

History
The term machine learning was coined in 1959 by Arthur Samuel, an IBM employee and pioneer in
the field of computer gaming and artificial intelligence.[8][9] The synonym self-teaching computers
was also used in this time period.[10][11]

Although the earliest machine learning model was introduced in the 1950s when Arthur Samuel
invented a program that calculated the winning chance in checkers for each side, the history of
machine learning roots back to decades of human desire and effort to study human cognitive
processes.[12] In 1949, Canadian psychologist Donald Hebb published the book The Organization of
Behavior, in which he introduced a theoretical neural structure formed by certain interactions among
nerve cells.[13] Hebb's model of neurons interacting with one another set a groundwork for how AIs
and machine learning algorithms work under nodes, or artificial neurons used by computers to
communicate data.[12] Other researchers who have studied human cognitive systems contributed to
the modern machine learning technologies as well, including logician Walter Pitts and Warren
McCulloch, who proposed the early mathematical models of neural networks to come up with
algorithms that mirror human thought processes.[12]

By the early 1960s an experimental "learning machine" with punched tape memory, called Cybertron,
had been developed by Raytheon Company to analyze sonar signals, electrocardiograms, and speech
patterns using rudimentary reinforcement learning. It was repetitively "trained" by a human
operator/teacher to recognize patterns and equipped with a "goof" button to cause it to reevaluate
incorrect decisions.[14] A representative book on research into machine learning during the 1960s was
Nilsson's book on Learning Machines, dealing mostly with machine learning for pattern
classification.[15] Interest related to pattern recognition continued into the 1970s, as described by
Duda and Hart in 1973.[16] In 1981 a report was given on using teaching strategies so that an artificial
neural network learns to recognize 40 characters (26 letters, 10 digits, and 4 special symbols) from a
computer terminal.[17]

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Tom M. Mitchell provided a widely quoted, more formal definition of the algorithms studied in the
machine learning field: "A computer program is said to learn from experience E with respect to some
class of tasks T and performance measure P if its performance at tasks in T, as measured by P,
improves with experience E."[18] This definition of the tasks in which machine learning is concerned
offers a fundamentally operational definition rather than defining the field in cognitive terms. This
follows Alan Turing's proposal in his paper "Computing Machinery and Intelligence", in which the
question "Can machines think?" is replaced with the question "Can machines do what we (as thinking
entities) can do?".[19]

Modern-day machine learning has two objectives. One is to classify data based on models which have
been developed; the other purpose is to make predictions for future outcomes based on these models.
A hypothetical algorithm specific to classifying data may use computer vision of moles coupled with
supervised learning in order to train it to classify the cancerous moles. A machine learning algorithm
for stock trading may inform the trader of future potential predictions.[20]

Relationships to other fields

Artificial intelligence
As a scientific endeavor, machine learning grew out of the quest
for artificial intelligence (AI). In the early days of AI as an
academic discipline, some researchers were interested in having
machines learn from data. They attempted to approach the
problem with various symbolic methods, as well as what were then
termed "neural networks"; these were mostly perceptrons and
other models that were later found to be reinventions of the
generalized linear models of statistics.[22] Probabilistic reasoning
was also employed, especially in automated medical
diagnosis.[23]: 488

However, an increasing emphasis on the logical, knowledge-based Machine learning as subfield of

approach caused a rift between AI and machine learning. AI[21]
Probabilistic systems were plagued by theoretical and practical
problems of data acquisition and representation.[23]: 488 By 1980,
expert systems had come to dominate AI, and statistics was out of favor.[24] Work on
symbolic/knowledge-based learning did continue within AI, leading to inductive logic
programming(ILP), but the more statistical line of research was now outside the field of AI proper, in
pattern recognition and information retrieval.[23]: 708–710, 755 Neural networks research had been
abandoned by AI and computer science around the same time. This line, too, was continued outside
the AI/CS field, as "connectionism", by researchers from other disciplines including Hopfield,
Rumelhart, and Hinton. Their main success came in the mid-1980s with the reinvention of
backpropagation.[23]: 25

Machine learning (ML), reorganized and recognized as its own field, started to flourish in the 1990s.
The field changed its goal from achieving artificial intelligence to tackling solvable problems of a
practical nature. It shifted focus away from the symbolic approaches it had inherited from AI, and
toward methods and models borrowed from statistics, fuzzy logic, and probability theory.[24]

Data compression

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There is a close connection between machine learning and compression. A system that predicts the
posterior probabilities of a sequence given its entire history can be used for optimal data compression
(by using arithmetic coding on the output distribution). Conversely, an optimal compressor can be
used for prediction (by finding the symbol that compresses best, given the previous history). This
equivalence has been used as a justification for using data compression as a benchmark for "general
intelligence".[25][26][27]

An alternative view can show compression algorithms implicitly map strings into implicit feature
space vectors, and compression-based similarity measures compute similarity within these feature
spaces. For each compressor C(.) we define an associated vector space ℵ, such that C(.) maps an input
string x, corresponding to the vector norm ||~x||. An exhaustive examination of the feature spaces
underlying all compression algorithms is precluded by space; instead, feature vectors chooses to
examine three representative lossless compression methods, LZW, LZ77, and PPM.[28]

According to AIXI theory, a connection more directly explained in Hutter Prize, the best possible
compression of x is the smallest possible software that generates x. For example, in that model, a zip
file's compressed size includes both the zip file and the unzipping software, since you can not unzip it
without both, but there may be an even smaller combined form.

Examples of AI-powered audio/video compression software include NVIDIA Maxine, AIVC.[29]

Examples of software that can perform AI-powered image compression include OpenCV, TensorFlow,
MATLAB's Image Processing Toolbox (IPT) and High-Fidelity Generative Image Compression.[30]

In unsupervised machine learning, k-means clustering can be utilized to compress data by grouping
similar data points into clusters. This technique simplifies handling extensive datasets that lack
predefined labels and finds widespread use in fields such as image compression.[31]

Data compression aims to reduce the size of data files, enhancing storage efficiency and speeding up
data transmission. K-means clustering, an unsupervised machine learning algorithm, is employed to
partition a dataset into a specified number of clusters, k, each represented by the centroid of its
points. This process condenses extensive datasets into a more compact set of representative points.
Particularly beneficial in image and signal processing, k-means clustering aids in data reduction by
replacing groups of data points with their centroids, thereby preserving the core information of the
original data while significantly decreasing the required storage space.[32]

Large language models (LLMs) are also capable of lossless data compression, as demonstrated by
DeepMind's research with the Chinchilla 70B model. Developed by DeepMind, Chinchilla 70B
effectively compressed data, outperforming conventional methods such as Portable Network Graphics
(PNG) for images and Free Lossless Audio Codec (FLAC) for audio. It achieved compression of image
and audio data to 43.4% and 16.4% of their original sizes, respectively.[33]

Data mining
Machine learning and data mining often employ the same methods and overlap significantly, but
while machine learning focuses on prediction, based on known properties learned from the training
data, data mining focuses on the discovery of (previously) unknown properties in the data (this is the
analysis step of knowledge discovery in databases). Data mining uses many machine learning
methods, but with different goals; on the other hand, machine learning also employs data mining
methods as "unsupervised learning" or as a preprocessing step to improve learner accuracy. Much of
the confusion between these two research communities (which do often have separate conferences
and separate journals, ECML PKDD being a major exception) comes from the basic assumptions they
work with: in machine learning, performance is usually evaluated with respect to the ability to

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reproduce known knowledge, while in knowledge discovery and data mining (KDD) the key task is the
discovery of previously unknown knowledge. Evaluated with respect to known knowledge, an
uninformed (unsupervised) method will easily be outperformed by other supervised methods, while in
a typical KDD task, supervised methods cannot be used due to the unavailability of training data.

Machine learning also has intimate ties to optimization: Many learning problems are formulated as
minimization of some loss function on a training set of examples. Loss functions express the
discrepancy between the predictions of the model being trained and the actual problem instances (for
example, in classification, one wants to assign a label to instances, and models are trained to correctly
predict the preassigned labels of a set of examples).[34]

Generalization
The difference between optimization and machine learning arises from the goal of generalization:
While optimization algorithms can minimize the loss on a training set, machine learning is concerned
with minimizing the loss on unseen samples. Characterizing the generalization of various learning
algorithms is an active topic of current research, especially for deep learning algorithms.

Statistics
Machine learning and statistics are closely related fields in terms of methods, but distinct in their
principal goal: statistics draws population inferences from a sample, while machine learning finds
generalizable predictive patterns.[35] According to Michael I. Jordan, the ideas of machine learning,
from methodological principles to theoretical tools, have had a long pre-history in statistics.[36] He
also suggested the term data science as a placeholder to call the overall field.[36]

Conventional statistical analyses require the a priori selection of a model most suitable for the study
data set. In addition, only significant or theoretically relevant variables based on previous experience
are included for analysis. In contrast, machine learning is not built on a pre-structured model; rather,
the data shape the model by detecting underlying patterns. The more variables (input) used to train
the model, the more accurate the ultimate model will be.[37]

Leo Breiman distinguished two statistical modeling paradigms: data model and algorithmic
model,[38] wherein "algorithmic model" means more or less the machine learning algorithms like
Random Forest.

Some statisticians have adopted methods from machine learning, leading to a combined field that
they call statistical learning.[39]

Statistical physics
Analytical and computational techniques derived from deep-rooted physics of disordered systems can
be extended to large-scale problems, including machine learning, e.g., to analyze the weight space of
deep neural networks.[40] Statistical physics is thus finding applications in the area of medical
diagnostics.[41]

Theory
A core objective of a learner is to generalize from its experience.[5][42] Generalization in this context is
the ability of a learning machine to perform accurately on new, unseen examples/tasks after having
experienced a learning data set. The training examples come from some generally unknown

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probability distribution (considered representative of the space of occurrences) and the learner has to
build a general model about this space that enables it to produce sufficiently accurate predictions in
new cases.

The computational analysis of machine learning algorithms and their performance is a branch of
theoretical computer science known as computational learning theory via the Probably Approximately
Correct Learning (PAC) model. Because training sets are finite and the future is uncertain, learning
theory usually does not yield guarantees of the performance of algorithms. Instead, probabilistic
bounds on the performance are quite common. The bias–variance decomposition is one way to
quantify generalization error.

For the best performance in the context of generalization, the complexity of the hypothesis should
match the complexity of the function underlying the data. If the hypothesis is less complex than the
function, then the model has under fitted the data. If the complexity of the model is increased in
response, then the training error decreases. But if the hypothesis is too complex, then the model is
subject to overfitting and generalization will be poorer.[43]

In addition to performance bounds, learning theorists study the time complexity and feasibility of
learning. In computational learning theory, a computation is considered feasible if it can be done in
polynomial time. There are two kinds of time complexity results: Positive results show that a certain
class of functions can be learned in polynomial time. Negative results show that certain classes cannot
be learned in polynomial time.

Approaches
Machine learning approaches are traditionally divided into three broad categories, which correspond
to learning paradigms, depending on the nature of the "signal" or "feedback" available to the learning
system:

Supervised learning: The computer is presented with example inputs and their desired outputs,
given by a "teacher", and the goal is to learn a general rule that maps inputs to outputs.
Unsupervised learning: No labels are given to the learning algorithm, leaving it on its own to find
structure in its input. Unsupervised learning can be a goal in itself (discovering hidden patterns in
data) or a means towards an end (feature learning).
Reinforcement learning: A computer program interacts with a dynamic environment in which it
must perform a certain goal (such as driving a vehicle or playing a game against an opponent). As
it navigates its problem space, the program is provided feedback that's analogous to rewards,
which it tries to maximize.[5]
Although each algorithm has advantages and limitations, no single algorithm works for all
problems.[44][45][46]

Supervised learning
Supervised learning algorithms build a mathematical model of a set of data that contains both the
inputs and the desired outputs.[47] The data, known as training data, consists of a set of training
examples. Each training example has one or more inputs and the desired output, also known as a
supervisory signal. In the mathematical model, each training example is represented by an array or
vector, sometimes called a feature vector, and the training data is represented by a matrix. Through
iterative optimization of an objective function, supervised learning algorithms learn a function that
can be used to predict the output associated with new inputs.[48] An optimal function allows the

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algorithm to correctly determine the output for inputs that were

not a part of the training data. An algorithm that improves the
accuracy of its outputs or predictions over time is said to have
learned to perform that task.[18]

Types of supervised-learning algorithms include active learning,

classification and regression.[49] Classification algorithms are used
when the outputs are restricted to a limited set of values, and
regression algorithms are used when the outputs may have any
numerical value within a range. As an example, for a classification
algorithm that filters emails, the input would be an incoming
email, and the output would be the name of the folder in which to
file the email. Examples of regression would be predicting the A support-vector machine is a
height of a person, or the future temperature. [50] supervised learning model that
divides the data into regions
Similarity learning is an area of supervised machine learning separated by a linear boundary.
Here, the linear boundary divides
closely related to regression and classification, but the goal is to
the black circles from the white.
learn from examples using a similarity function that measures
how similar or related two objects are. It has applications in
ranking, recommendation systems, visual identity tracking, face verification, and speaker verification.

Unsupervised learning
Unsupervised learning algorithms find structures in data that has not been labeled, classified or
categorized. Instead of responding to feedback, unsupervised learning algorithms identify
commonalities in the data and react based on the presence or absence of such commonalities in each
new piece of data. Central applications of unsupervised machine learning include clustering,
dimensionality reduction,[7] and density estimation.[51] Unsupervised learning algorithms also
streamlined the process of identifying large indel based haplotypes of a gene of interest from pan-
genome.[52]

Clustering via Large Indel Permuted Slopes, CLIPS,[53] turns the alignment image into a
learning regression problem. The varied slope (b) estimates between each pair of DNA
segments enables to identify segments sharing the same set of indels.

Cluster analysis is the assignment of a set of observations into subsets (called clusters) so that
observations within the same cluster are similar according to one or more predesignated criteria,
while observations drawn from different clusters are dissimilar. Different clustering techniques make
different assumptions on the structure of the data, often defined by some similarity metric and
evaluated, for example, by internal compactness, or the similarity between members of the same
cluster, and separation, the difference between clusters. Other methods are based on estimated
density and graph connectivity.

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A special type of unsupervised learning called, self-supervised learning involves training a model by
generating the supervisory signal from the data itself.[54][55]

Semi-supervised learning
Semi-supervised learning falls between unsupervised learning (without any labeled training data) and
supervised learning (with completely labeled training data). Some of the training examples are
missing training labels, yet many machine-learning researchers have found that unlabeled data, when
used in conjunction with a small amount of labeled data, can produce a considerable improvement in
learning accuracy.

In weakly supervised learning, the training labels are noisy, limited, or imprecise; however, these
labels are often cheaper to obtain, resulting in larger effective training sets.[56]

Reinforcement learning
Reinforcement learning is an area of machine learning concerned with how software agents ought to
take actions in an environment so as to maximize some notion of cumulative reward. Due to its
generality, the field is studied in many other disciplines, such as game theory, control theory,
operations research, information theory, simulation-based optimization, multi-agent systems, swarm
intelligence, statistics and genetic algorithms. In reinforcement learning, the environment is typically
represented as a Markov decision process (MDP). Many reinforcements learning algorithms use
dynamic programming techniques.[57] Reinforcement learning algorithms do not assume knowledge
of an exact mathematical model of the MDP and are used when exact models are infeasible.
Reinforcement learning algorithms are used in autonomous vehicles or in learning to play a game
against a human opponent.

Dimensionality reduction
Dimensionality reduction is a process of reducing the number of random variables under
consideration by obtaining a set of principal variables.[58] In other words, it is a process of reducing
the dimension of the feature set, also called the "number of features". Most of the dimensionality
reduction techniques can be considered as either feature elimination or extraction. One of the popular
methods of dimensionality reduction is principal component analysis (PCA). PCA involves changing
higher-dimensional data (e.g., 3D) to a smaller space (e.g., 2D). The manifold hypothesis proposes
that high-dimensional data sets lie along low-dimensional manifolds, and many dimensionality
reduction techniques make this assumption, leading to the area of manifold learning and manifold
regularization.

Other types
Other approaches have been developed which do not fit neatly into this three-fold categorization, and
sometimes more than one is used by the same machine learning system. For example, topic modeling,
meta-learning.[59]

Self-learning
Self-learning, as a machine learning paradigm was introduced in 1982 along with a neural network
capable of self-learning, named crossbar adaptive array (CAA).[60] It is learning with no external
rewards and no external teacher advice. The CAA self-learning algorithm computes, in a crossbar
fashion, both decisions about actions and emotions (feelings) about consequence situations. The

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system is driven by the interaction between cognition and emotion.[61] The self-learning algorithm
updates a memory matrix W =||w(a,s)|| such that in each iteration executes the following machine
learning routine:

1. in situation s perform action a

2. receive a consequence situation s'
3. compute emotion of being in the consequence situation v(s')
4. update crossbar memory w'(a,s) = w(a,s) + v(s')
It is a system with only one input, situation, and only one output, action (or behavior) a. There is
neither a separate reinforcement input nor an advice input from the environment. The
backpropagated value (secondary reinforcement) is the emotion toward the consequence situation.
The CAA exists in two environments, one is the behavioral environment where it behaves, and the
other is the genetic environment, wherefrom it initially and only once receives initial emotions about
situations to be encountered in the behavioral environment. After receiving the genome (species)
vector from the genetic environment, the CAA learns a goal-seeking behavior, in an environment that
contains both desirable and undesirable situations.[62]

Feature learning
Several learning algorithms aim at discovering better representations of the inputs provided during
training.[63] Classic examples include principal component analysis and cluster analysis. Feature
learning algorithms, also called representation learning algorithms, often attempt to preserve the
information in their input but also transform it in a way that makes it useful, often as a pre-processing
step before performing classification or predictions. This technique allows reconstruction of the
inputs coming from the unknown data-generating distribution, while not being necessarily faithful to
configurations that are implausible under that distribution. This replaces manual feature engineering,
and allows a machine to both learn the features and use them to perform a specific task.

Feature learning can be either supervised or unsupervised. In supervised feature learning, features are
learned using labeled input data. Examples include artificial neural networks, multilayer perceptrons,
and supervised dictionary learning. In unsupervised feature learning, features are learned with
unlabeled input data. Examples include dictionary learning, independent component analysis,
autoencoders, matrix factorization[64] and various forms of clustering.[65][66][67]

Manifold learning algorithms attempt to do so under the constraint that the learned representation is
low-dimensional. Sparse coding algorithms attempt to do so under the constraint that the learned
representation is sparse, meaning that the mathematical model has many zeros. Multilinear subspace
learning algorithms aim to learn low-dimensional representations directly from tensor
representations for multidimensional data, without reshaping them into higher-dimensional
vectors.[68] Deep learning algorithms discover multiple levels of representation, or a hierarchy of
features, with higher-level, more abstract features defined in terms of (or generating) lower-level
features. It has been argued that an intelligent machine is one that learns a representation that
disentangles the underlying factors of variation that explain the observed data.[69]

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Feature learning is motivated by the fact that machine learning tasks such as classification often
require input that is mathematically and computationally convenient to process. However, real-world
data such as images, video, and sensory data has not yielded attempts to algorithmically define
specific features. An alternative is to discover such features or representations through examination,
without relying on explicit algorithms.

Sparse dictionary learning

Sparse dictionary learning is a feature learning method where a training example is represented as a
linear combination of basis functions and assumed to be a sparse matrix. The method is strongly NP-
hard and difficult to solve approximately.[70] A popular heuristic method for sparse dictionary
learning is the k-SVD algorithm. Sparse dictionary learning has been applied in several contexts. In
classification, the problem is to determine the class to which a previously unseen training example
belongs. For a dictionary where each class has already been built, a new training example is associated
with the class that is best sparsely represented by the corresponding dictionary. Sparse dictionary
learning has also been applied in image de-noising. The key idea is that a clean image patch can be
sparsely represented by an image dictionary, but the noise cannot.[71]

Anomaly detection
In data mining, anomaly detection, also known as outlier detection, is the identification of rare items,
events or observations which raise suspicions by differing significantly from the majority of the
data.[72] Typically, the anomalous items represent an issue such as bank fraud, a structural defect,
medical problems or errors in a text. Anomalies are referred to as outliers, novelties, noise, deviations
and exceptions.[73]

In particular, in the context of abuse and network intrusion detection, the interesting objects are often
not rare objects, but unexpected bursts of inactivity. This pattern does not adhere to the common
statistical definition of an outlier as a rare object. Many outlier detection methods (in particular,
unsupervised algorithms) will fail on such data unless aggregated appropriately. Instead, a cluster
analysis algorithm may be able to detect the micro-clusters formed by these patterns.[74]

Three broad categories of anomaly detection techniques exist.[75] Unsupervised anomaly detection
techniques detect anomalies in an unlabeled test data set under the assumption that the majority of
the instances in the data set are normal, by looking for instances that seem to fit the least to the
remainder of the data set. Supervised anomaly detection techniques require a data set that has been
labeled as "normal" and "abnormal" and involves training a classifier (the key difference from many
other statistical classification problems is the inherently unbalanced nature of outlier detection).
Semi-supervised anomaly detection techniques construct a model representing normal behavior from
a given normal training data set and then test the likelihood of a test instance to be generated by the
model.

Robot learning
Robot learning is inspired by a multitude of machine learning methods, starting from supervised
learning, reinforcement learning,[76][77] and finally meta-learning (e.g. MAML).

Association rules
Association rule learning is a rule-based machine learning method for discovering relationships
between variables in large databases. It is intended to identify strong rules discovered in databases
using some measure of "interestingness".[78]
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Rule-based machine learning is a general term for any machine learning method that identifies,
learns, or evolves "rules" to store, manipulate or apply knowledge. The defining characteristic of a
rule-based machine learning algorithm is the identification and utilization of a set of relational rules
that collectively represent the knowledge captured by the system. This is in contrast to other machine
learning algorithms that commonly identify a singular model that can be universally applied to any
instance in order to make a prediction.[79] Rule-based machine learning approaches include learning
classifier systems, association rule learning, and artificial immune systems.

Based on the concept of strong rules, Rakesh Agrawal, Tomasz Imieliński and Arun Swami introduced
association rules for discovering regularities between products in large-scale transaction data
recorded by point-of-sale (POS) systems in supermarkets.[80] For example, the rule
found in the sales data of a supermarket would indicate that if a
customer buys onions and potatoes together, they are likely to also buy hamburger meat. Such
information can be used as the basis for decisions about marketing activities such as promotional
pricing or product placements. In addition to market basket analysis, association rules are employed
today in application areas including Web usage mining, intrusion detection, continuous production,
and bioinformatics. In contrast with sequence mining, association rule learning typically does not
consider the order of items either within a transaction or across transactions.

Learning classifier systems (LCS) are a family of rule-based machine learning algorithms that
combine a discovery component, typically a genetic algorithm, with a learning component, performing
either supervised learning, reinforcement learning, or unsupervised learning. They seek to identify a
set of context-dependent rules that collectively store and apply knowledge in a piecewise manner in
order to make predictions.[81]

Inductive logic programming (ILP) is an approach to rule learning using logic programming as a
uniform representation for input examples, background knowledge, and hypotheses. Given an
encoding of the known background knowledge and a set of examples represented as a logical database
of facts, an ILP system will derive a hypothesized logic program that entails all positive and no
negative examples. Inductive programming is a related field that considers any kind of programming
language for representing hypotheses (and not only logic programming), such as functional programs.

Inductive logic programming is particularly useful in bioinformatics and natural language processing.
Gordon Plotkin and Ehud Shapiro laid the initial theoretical foundation for inductive machine
learning in a logical setting.[82][83][84] Shapiro built their first implementation (Model Inference
System) in 1981: a Prolog program that inductively inferred logic programs from positive and negative
examples.[85] The term inductive here refers to philosophical induction, suggesting a theory to explain
observed facts, rather than mathematical induction, proving a property for all members of a well-
ordered set.

Models
A machine learning model is a type of mathematical model that, after being "trained" on a given
dataset, can be used to make predictions or classifications on new data. During training, a learning
algorithm iteratively adjusts the model's internal parameters to minimize errors in its predictions.[86]
By extension, the term "model" can refer to several levels of specificity, from a general class of models
and their associated learning algorithms to a fully trained model with all its internal parameters
tuned.[87]

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Various types of models have been used and researched for machine learning systems, picking the
best model for a task is called model selection.

Artificial neural networks

Artificial neural networks (ANNs), or connectionist
systems, are computing systems vaguely inspired by
the biological neural networks that constitute animal
brains. Such systems "learn" to perform tasks by
considering examples, generally without being
programmed with any task-specific rules.

An ANN is a model based on a collection of connected

units or nodes called "artificial neurons", which loosely
model the neurons in a biological brain. Each
connection, like the synapses in a biological brain, can
transmit information, a "signal", from one artificial
neuron to another. An artificial neuron that receives a
signal can process it and then signal additional
artificial neurons connected to it. In common ANN
implementations, the signal at a connection between
artificial neurons is a real number, and the output of
each artificial neuron is computed by some non-linear
An artificial neural network is an interconnected
function of the sum of its inputs. The connections
group of nodes, akin to the vast network of
between artificial neurons are called "edges". Artificial neurons in a brain. Here, each circular node
neurons and edges typically have a weight that adjusts represents an artificial neuron and an arrow
as learning proceeds. The weight increases or represents a connection from the output of one
decreases the strength of the signal at a connection. artificial neuron to the input of another.
Artificial neurons may have a threshold such that the
signal is only sent if the aggregate signal crosses that
threshold. Typically, artificial neurons are aggregated into layers. Different layers may perform
different kinds of transformations on their inputs. Signals travel from the first layer (the input layer)
to the last layer (the output layer), possibly after traversing the layers multiple times.

The original goal of the ANN approach was to solve problems in the same way that a human brain
would. However, over time, attention moved to performing specific tasks, leading to deviations from
biology. Artificial neural networks have been used on a variety of tasks, including computer vision,
speech recognition, machine translation, social network filtering, playing board and video games and
medical diagnosis.

Deep learning consists of multiple hidden layers in an artificial neural network. This approach tries to
model the way the human brain processes light and sound into vision and hearing. Some successful
applications of deep learning are computer vision and speech recognition.[88]

Decision trees
Decision tree learning uses a decision tree as a predictive model to go from observations about an
item (represented in the branches) to conclusions about the item's target value (represented in the
leaves). It is one of the predictive modeling approaches used in statistics, data mining, and machine
learning. Tree models where the target variable can take a discrete set of values are called
classification trees; in these tree structures, leaves represent class labels, and branches represent

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conjunctions of features that lead to those class labels. Decision

trees where the target variable can take continuous values
(typically real numbers) are called regression trees. In decision
analysis, a decision tree can be used to visually and explicitly
represent decisions and decision making. In data mining, a
decision tree describes data, but the resulting classification tree
can be an input for decision-making.

Support-vector machines
Support-vector machines (SVMs), also known as support-vector
networks, are a set of related supervised learning methods used
A decision tree showing survival
for classification and regression. Given a set of training examples, probability of passengers on the
each marked as belonging to one of two categories, an SVM Titanic
training algorithm builds a model that predicts whether a new
example falls into one category.[89] An SVM training algorithm is a
non-probabilistic, binary, linear classifier, although methods such as Platt scaling exist to use SVM in
a probabilistic classification setting. In addition to performing linear classification, SVMs can
efficiently perform a non-linear classification using what is called the kernel trick, implicitly mapping
their inputs into high-dimensional feature spaces.

Regression analysis
Regression analysis encompasses a large variety of
statistical methods to estimate the relationship between
input variables and their associated features. Its most
common form is linear regression, where a single line is
drawn to best fit the given data according to a
mathematical criterion such as ordinary least squares.
The latter is often extended by regularization methods to
mitigate overfitting and bias, as in ridge regression.
When dealing with non-linear problems, go-to models
include polynomial regression (for example, used for Illustration of linear regression on a data set
trendline fitting in Microsoft Excel[90]), logistic
regression (often used in statistical classification) or
even kernel regression, which introduces non-linearity by taking advantage of the kernel trick to
implicitly map input variables to higher-dimensional space.

Bayesian networks
A Bayesian network, belief network, or directed acyclic graphical model is a probabilistic graphical
model that represents a set of random variables and their conditional independence with a directed
acyclic graph (DAG). For example, a Bayesian network could represent the probabilistic relationships
between diseases and symptoms. Given symptoms, the network can be used to compute the
probabilities of the presence of various diseases. Efficient algorithms exist that perform inference and
learning. Bayesian networks that model sequences of variables, like speech signals or protein
sequences, are called dynamic Bayesian networks. Generalizations of Bayesian networks that can
represent and solve decision problems under uncertainty are called influence diagrams.

Gaussian processes
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A Gaussian process is a stochastic process in which every finite

collection of the random variables in the process has a
multivariate normal distribution, and it relies on a pre-defined
covariance function, or kernel, that models how pairs of points
relate to each other depending on their locations.

Given a set of observed points, or input–output examples, the A simple Bayesian network. Rain
distribution of the (unobserved) output of a new point as function influences whether the sprinkler is
of its input data can be directly computed by looking like the activated, and both rain and the
observed points and the covariances between those points and the sprinkler influence whether the
new, unobserved point. grass is wet.

Gaussian processes are popular surrogate models in Bayesian

optimization used to do hyperparameter optimization.

Genetic algorithms
A genetic algorithm (GA) is a search algorithm and heuristic
technique that mimics the process of natural selection, using An example of Gaussian Process
methods such as mutation and crossover to generate new Regression (prediction) compared
genotypes in the hope of finding good solutions to a given with other regression models[91]
problem. In machine learning, genetic algorithms were used in the
1980s and 1990s.[92][93] Conversely, machine learning techniques
have been used to improve the performance of genetic and evolutionary algorithms.[94]

Belief functions
The theory of belief functions, also referred to as evidence theory or Dempster–Shafer theory, is a
general framework for reasoning with uncertainty, with understood connections to other frameworks
such as probability, possibility and imprecise probability theories. These theoretical frameworks can
be thought of as a kind of learner and have some analogous properties of how evidence is combined
(e.g., Dempster's rule of combination), just like how in a pmf-based Bayesian approach would
combine probabilities. However, there are many caveats to these beliefs functions when compared to
Bayesian approaches in order to incorporate ignorance and uncertainty quantification. These belief
function approaches that are implemented within the machine learning domain typically leverage a
fusion approach of various ensemble methods to better handle the learner's decision boundary, low
samples, and ambiguous class issues that standard machine learning approach tend to have difficulty
resolving.[4][9] However, the computational complexity of these algorithms are dependent on the
number of propositions (classes), and can lead to a much higher computation time when compared to
other machine learning approaches.

Training models
Typically, machine learning models require a high quantity of reliable data to perform accurate
predictions. When training a machine learning model, machine learning engineers need to target and
collect a large and representative sample of data. Data from the training set can be as varied as a
corpus of text, a collection of images, sensor data, and data collected from individual users of a
service. Overfitting is something to watch out for when training a machine learning model. Trained
models derived from biased or non-evaluated data can result in skewed or undesired predictions.
Biased models may result in detrimental outcomes, thereby furthering the negative impacts on society

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or objectives. Algorithmic bias is a potential result of data not being fully prepared for training.
Machine learning ethics is becoming a field of study and notably, becoming integrated within machine
learning engineering teams.

Federated learning
Federated learning is an adapted form of distributed artificial intelligence to training machine
learning models that decentralizes the training process, allowing for users' privacy to be maintained
by not needing to send their data to a centralized server. This also increases efficiency by
decentralizing the training process to many devices. For example, Gboard uses federated machine
learning to train search query prediction models on users' mobile phones without having to send
individual searches back to Google.[95]

Applications
There are many applications for machine learning, including:

Agriculture Knowledge graph embedding

Anatomy Linguistics
Adaptive website Machine learning control
Affective computing Machine perception
Astronomy Machine translation
Automated decision-making Marketing
Banking Medical diagnosis
Behaviorism Natural language processing
Bioinformatics Natural language understanding
Brain–machine interfaces Online advertising
Cheminformatics Optimization
Citizen Science Recommender systems
Climate Science Robot locomotion
Computer networks Search engines
Computer vision Sentiment analysis
Credit-card fraud detection Sequence mining
Data quality Software engineering
DNA sequence classification Speech recognition
Economics Structural health monitoring
Financial market analysis[96] Syntactic pattern recognition
General game playing Telecommunication
Handwriting recognition Theorem proving
Healthcare Time-series forecasting
Information retrieval Tomographic reconstruction[97]
Insurance User behavior analytics
Internet fraud detection
In 2006, the media-services provider Netflix held the first "Netflix Prize" competition to find a
program to better predict user preferences and improve the accuracy of its existing Cinematch movie
recommendation algorithm by at least 10%. A joint team made up of researchers from AT&T Labs-
Research in collaboration with the teams Big Chaos and Pragmatic Theory built an ensemble model to
win the Grand Prize in 2009 for $1 million.[98] Shortly after the prize was awarded, Netflix realized
that viewers' ratings were not the best indicators of their viewing patterns ("everything is a
recommendation") and they changed their recommendation engine accordingly.[99] In 2010 The Wall
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Street Journal wrote about the firm Rebellion Research and their use of machine learning to predict
the financial crisis.[100] In 2012, co-founder of Sun Microsystems, Vinod Khosla, predicted that 80%
of medical doctors jobs would be lost in the next two decades to automated machine learning medical
diagnostic software.[101] In 2014, it was reported that a machine learning algorithm had been applied
in the field of art history to study fine art paintings and that it may have revealed previously
unrecognized influences among artists.[102] In 2019 Springer Nature published the first research book
created using machine learning.[103] In 2020, machine learning technology was used to help make
diagnoses and aid researchers in developing a cure for COVID-19.[104] Machine learning was recently
applied to predict the pro-environmental behavior of travelers.[105] Recently, machine learning
technology was also applied to optimize smartphone's performance and thermal behavior based on
the user's interaction with the phone.[106][107][108] When applied correctly, machine learning
algorithms (MLAs) can utilize a wide range of company characteristics to predict stock returns
without overfitting. By employing effective feature engineering and combining forecasts, MLAs can
generate results that far surpass those obtained from basic linear techniques like OLS.[109]

Recent advancements in machine learning have extended into the field of quantum chemistry, where
novel algorithms now enable the prediction of solvent effects on chemical reactions, thereby offering
new tools for chemists to tailor experimental conditions for optimal outcomes.[110]

Machine Learning is becoming a useful tool to investigate and predict evacuation decision making in
large scale and small scale disasters. Different solutions have been tested to predict if and when
householders decide to evacuate during wildfires and hurricanes.[111][112][113] Other applications have
been focusing on pre evacuation decisions in building fires.[114][115]

Limitations
Although machine learning has been transformative in some fields, machine-learning programs often
fail to deliver expected results.[116][117][118] Reasons for this are numerous: lack of (suitable) data, lack
of access to the data, data bias, privacy problems, badly chosen tasks and algorithms, wrong tools and
people, lack of resources, and evaluation problems.[119]

The "black box theory" poses another yet significant challenge. Black box refers to a situation where
the algorithm or the process of producing an output is entirely opaque, meaning that even the coders
of the algorithm cannot audit the pattern that the machine extracted out of the data.[120] The House of
Lords Select Committee, which claimed that such an “intelligence system” that could have a
“substantial impact on an individual’s life” would not be considered acceptable unless it provided “a
full and satisfactory explanation for the decisions” it makes.[120]

In 2018, a self-driving car from Uber failed to detect a pedestrian, who was killed after a collision.[121]
Attempts to use machine learning in healthcare with the IBM Watson system failed to deliver even
after years of time and billions of dollars invested.[122][123] Microsoft's Bing Chat chatbot has been
reported to produce hostile and offensive response against its users.[124]

Machine learning has been used as a strategy to update the evidence related to a systematic review
and increased reviewer burden related to the growth of biomedical literature. While it has improved
with training sets, it has not yet developed sufficiently to reduce the workload burden without limiting
the necessary sensitivity for the findings research themselves.[125]

Bias

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Different machine learning approaches can suffer from different data biases. A machine learning
system trained specifically on current customers may not be able to predict the needs of new customer
groups that are not represented in the training data. When trained on human-made data, machine
learning is likely to pick up the constitutional and unconscious biases already present in society.[126]

Language models learned from data have been shown to contain human-like biases.[127][128] In an
experiment carried out by ProPublica, an investigative journalism organization, a machine learning
algorithm's insight into the recidivism rates among prisoners falsely flagged "black defendants high
risk twice as often as white defendants."[129] In 2015, Google Photos would often tag black people as
gorillas,[129] and in 2018, this still was not well resolved, but Google reportedly was still using the
workaround to remove all gorillas from the training data and thus was not able to recognize real
gorillas at all.[130] Similar issues with recognizing non-white people have been found in many other
systems.[131] In 2016, Microsoft tested Tay, a chatbot that learned from Twitter, and it quickly picked
up racist and sexist language.[132]

Because of such challenges, the effective use of machine learning may take longer to be adopted in
other domains.[133] Concern for fairness in machine learning, that is, reducing bias in machine
learning and propelling its use for human good, is increasingly expressed by artificial intelligence
scientists, including Fei-Fei Li, who reminds engineers that "[t]here's nothing artificial about AI. It's
inspired by people, it's created by people, and—most importantly—it impacts people. It is a powerful
tool we are only just beginning to understand, and that is a profound responsibility."[134]

Explainability
Explainable AI (XAI), or Interpretable AI, or Explainable Machine Learning (XML), is artificial
intelligence (AI) in which humans can understand the decisions or predictions made by the AI.[135] It
contrasts with the "black box" concept in machine learning where even its designers cannot explain
why an AI arrived at a specific decision.[136] By refining the mental models of users of AI-powered
systems and dismantling their misconceptions, XAI promises to help users perform more effectively.
XAI may be an implementation of the social right to explanation.

Overfitting
Settling on a bad, overly complex theory gerrymandered to fit all
the past training data is known as overfitting. Many systems
attempt to reduce overfitting by rewarding a theory in accordance
with how well it fits the data but penalizing the theory in
accordance with how complex the theory is.[137]

Other limitations and vulnerabilities

The blue line could be an example
Learners can also disappoint by "learning the wrong lesson". A toy of overfitting a linear function due to
example is that an image classifier trained only on pictures of random noise.
brown horses and black cats might conclude that all brown
patches are likely to be horses.[138] A real-world example is that,
unlike humans, current image classifiers often do not primarily make judgments from the spatial
relationship between components of the picture, and they learn relationships between pixels that
humans are oblivious to, but that still correlate with images of certain types of real objects. Modifying
these patterns on a legitimate image can result in "adversarial" images that the system
misclassifies.[139][140]

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Adversarial vulnerabilities can also result in nonlinear systems, or from non-pattern perturbations.
For some systems, it is possible to change the output by only changing a single adversarially chosen
pixel.[141] Machine learning models are often vulnerable to manipulation and/or evasion via
adversarial machine learning.[142]

Researchers have demonstrated how backdoors can be placed undetectably into classifying (e.g., for
categories "spam" and well-visible "not spam" of posts) machine learning models that are often
developed and/or trained by third parties. Parties can change the classification of any input, including
in cases for which a type of data/software transparency is provided, possibly including white-box
access.[143][144][145]

Model assessments
Classification of machine learning models can be validated by accuracy estimation techniques like the
holdout method, which splits the data in a training and test set (conventionally 2/3 training set and
1/3 test set designation) and evaluates the performance of the training model on the test set. In
comparison, the K-fold-cross-validation method randomly partitions the data into K subsets and then
K experiments are performed each respectively considering 1 subset for evaluation and the remaining
K-1 subsets for training the model. In addition to the holdout and cross-validation methods,
bootstrap, which samples n instances with replacement from the dataset, can be used to assess model
accuracy.[146]

In addition to overall accuracy, investigators frequently report sensitivity and specificity meaning
True Positive Rate (TPR) and True Negative Rate (TNR) respectively. Similarly, investigators
sometimes report the false positive rate (FPR) as well as the false negative rate (FNR). However, these
rates are ratios that fail to reveal their numerators and denominators. The total operating
characteristic (TOC) is an effective method to express a model's diagnostic ability. TOC shows the
numerators and denominators of the previously mentioned rates, thus TOC provides more
information than the commonly used receiver operating characteristic (ROC) and ROC's associated
area under the curve (AUC).[147]

Ethics
Machine learning poses a host of ethical questions. Systems that are trained on datasets collected with
biases may exhibit these biases upon use (algorithmic bias), thus digitizing cultural prejudices.[148]
For example, in 1988, the UK's Commission for Racial Equality found that St. George's Medical
School had been using a computer program trained from data of previous admissions staff and that
this program had denied nearly 60 candidates who were found to either be women or have non-
European sounding names.[126] Using job hiring data from a firm with racist hiring policies may lead
to a machine learning system duplicating the bias by scoring job applicants by similarity to previous
successful applicants.[149][150] Another example includes predictive policing company Geolitica's
predictive algorithm that resulted in “disproportionately high levels of over-policing in low-income
and minority communities” after being trained with historical crime data.[129]

While responsible collection of data and documentation of algorithmic rules used by a system is
considered a critical part of machine learning, some researchers blame lack of participation and
representation of minority population in the field of AI for machine learning's vulnerability to
biases.[151] In fact, according to research carried out by the Computing Research Association (CRA) in
2021, “female faculty merely make up 16.1%” of all faculty members who focus on AI among several

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universities around the world.[152]

Furthermore, among the group of “new U.S. resident AI PhD
graduates,” 45% identified as white, 22.4% as Asian, 3.2% as Hispanic, and 2.4% as African American,
which further demonstrates a lack of diversity in the field of AI.[152]

AI can be well-equipped to make decisions in technical fields, which rely heavily on data and historical
information. These decisions rely on objectivity and logical reasoning.[153] Because human languages
contain biases, machines trained on language corpora will necessarily also learn these biases.[154][155]

Other forms of ethical challenges, not related to personal biases, are seen in health care. There are
concerns among health care professionals that these systems might not be designed in the public's
interest but as income-generating machines.[156] This is especially true in the United States where
there is a long-standing ethical dilemma of improving health care, but also increasing profits. For
example, the algorithms could be designed to provide patients with unnecessary tests or medication in
which the algorithm's proprietary owners hold stakes. There is potential for machine learning in
health care to provide professionals an additional tool to diagnose, medicate, and plan recovery paths
for patients, but this requires these biases to be mitigated.[157]

Hardware
Since the 2010s, advances in both machine learning algorithms and computer hardware have led to
more efficient methods for training deep neural networks (a particular narrow subdomain of machine
learning) that contain many layers of nonlinear hidden units.[158] By 2019, graphic processing units
(GPUs), often with AI-specific enhancements, had displaced CPUs as the dominant method of
training large-scale commercial cloud AI.[159] OpenAI estimated the hardware computing used in the
largest deep learning projects from AlexNet (2012) to AlphaZero (2017), and found a 300,000-fold
increase in the amount of compute required, with a doubling-time trendline of 3.4 months.[160][161]

Neuromorphic/Physical Neural Networks

A physical neural network or Neuromorphic computer is a type of artificial neural network in which
an electrically adjustable material is used to emulate the function of a neural synapse. "Physical"
neural network is used to emphasize the reliance on physical hardware used to emulate neurons as
opposed to software-based approaches. More generally the term is applicable to other artificial neural
networks in which a memristor or other electrically adjustable resistance material is used to emulate a
neural synapse.[162][163]

Embedded Machine Learning

Embedded Machine Learning is a sub-field of machine learning, where the machine learning
model is run on embedded systems with limited computing resources such as wearable computers,
edge devices and microcontrollers.[164][165][166] Running machine learning model in embedded
devices removes the need for transferring and storing data on cloud servers for further processing,
henceforth, reducing data breaches and privacy leaks happening because of transferring data, and also
minimizes theft of intellectual properties, personal data and business secrets. Embedded Machine
Learning could be applied through several techniques including hardware acceleration,[167][168] using
approximate computing,[169] optimization of machine learning models and many more.[170][171]

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Pruning, Quantization, Knowledge Distillation, Low-Rank Factorization, Network Architecture Search

(NAS) & Parameter Sharing are few of the techniques used for optimization of machine learning
models.

Software
Software suites containing a variety of machine learning algorithms include the following:

Free and open-source software

Caffe MXNet
Deeplearning4j OpenNN
DeepSpeed Orange
ELKI pandas (software)
Google JAX ROOT (TMVA with ROOT)
Infer.NET scikit-learn
Keras Shogun
Kubeflow Spark MLlib
LightGBM SystemML
Mahout TensorFlow
Mallet Torch / PyTorch
Microsoft Cognitive Toolkit Weka / MOA
ML.NET XGBoost
mlpack Yooreeka

Proprietary software with free and open-source editions

KNIME
RapidMiner

Proprietary software
Amazon Machine Learning Neural Designer
Angoss KnowledgeSTUDIO NeuroSolutions
Azure Machine Learning Oracle Data Mining
IBM Watson Studio Oracle AI Platform Cloud Service
Google Cloud Vertex AI PolyAnalyst
Google Prediction API RCASE
IBM SPSS Modeler SAS Enterprise Miner
KXEN Modeler SequenceL
LIONsolver Splunk
Mathematica STATISTICA Data Miner
MATLAB

Journals
Journal of Machine Learning Research
Machine Learning
Nature Machine Intelligence

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Neural Computation
IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence

Conferences
AAAI Conference on Artificial Intelligence
Association for Computational Linguistics (ACL)
European Conference on Machine Learning and Principles and Practice of Knowledge Discovery
in Databases (ECML PKDD)
International Conference on Computational Intelligence Methods for Bioinformatics and
Biostatistics (CIBB)
International Conference on Machine Learning (ICML)
International Conference on Learning Representations (ICLR)
International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems (IROS)
Conference on Knowledge Discovery and Data Mining (KDD)
Conference on Neural Information Processing Systems (NeurIPS)

See also
Automated machine learning – Process of automating the application of machine learning
Big data – Extremely large or complex datasets
Differentiable programming – Programming paradigm
Force control
List of important publications in machine learning
List of datasets for machine-learning research

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Further reading
Nils J. Nilsson, Introduction to Machine Learning (https://ai.stanford.edu/people/nilsson/mlbook.ht
ml) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20190816182600/http://ai.stanford.edu/people/nilsson/
mlbook.html) 2019-08-16 at the Wayback Machine.
Trevor Hastie, Robert Tibshirani and Jerome H. Friedman (2001). The Elements of Statistical
Learning (https://web.stanford.edu/~hastie/ElemStatLearn/) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/
20131027220938/http://www-stat.stanford.edu/%7Etibs/ElemStatLearn//) 2013-10-27 at the
Wayback Machine, Springer. ISBN 0-387-95284-5.
Pedro Domingos (September 2015), The Master Algorithm, Basic Books, ISBN 978-0-465-06570-
7
Ian H. Witten and Eibe Frank (2011). Data Mining: Practical machine learning tools and
techniques Morgan Kaufmann, 664pp., ISBN 978-0-12-374856-0.
Ethem Alpaydin (2004). Introduction to Machine Learning, MIT Press, ISBN 978-0-262-01243-0.
David J. C. MacKay. Information Theory, Inference, and Learning Algorithms (http://www.inferenc
e.phy.cam.ac.uk/mackay/itila/book.html) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20160217105359/
http://www.inference.phy.cam.ac.uk/mackay/itila/book.html) 2016-02-17 at the Wayback Machine
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003. ISBN 0-521-64298-1
Richard O. Duda, Peter E. Hart, David G. Stork (2001) Pattern classification (2nd edition), Wiley,
New York, ISBN 0-471-05669-3.
Christopher Bishop (1995). Neural Networks for Pattern Recognition, Oxford University Press.
ISBN 0-19-853864-2.
Stuart Russell & Peter Norvig, (2009). Artificial Intelligence – A Modern Approach (http://aima.cs.b
erkeley.edu/) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20110228023805/http://aima.cs.berkeley.edu/)
2011-02-28 at the Wayback Machine. Pearson, ISBN 9789332543515.
Ray Solomonoff, An Inductive Inference Machine, IRE Convention Record, Section on Information
Theory, Part 2, pp., 56–62, 1957.
Ray Solomonoff, An Inductive Inference Machine (http://world.std.com/~rjs/indinf56.pdf) Archived
(https://web.archive.org/web/20110426161749/http://world.std.com/~rjs/indinf56.pdf) 2011-04-26
at the Wayback Machine A privately circulated report from the 1956 Dartmouth Summer Research
Conference on AI.
Kevin P. Murphy (2021). Probabilistic Machine Learning: An Introduction (https://probml.github.io/p
ml-book/book1.html) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20210411153246/https://probml.githu
b.io/pml-book/book1.html) 2021-04-11 at the Wayback Machine, MIT Press.

External links
Quotations related to Machine learning at Wikiquote

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_learning 35/36
7/17/24, 8:04 PM Machine learning - Wikipedia

International Machine Learning Society (https://web.archive.org/web/20171230081341/http://mach

inelearning.org/)
mloss (https://mloss.org/) is an academic database of open-source machine learning software.

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