CHAPTER 1

1 INTRODUCTION

Fluid dynamics which characterizes the flow of fluids, illustrates the

peculiarity on wide range of applications through aerodynamics and
hydrodynamics. Contemplation of fluid dynamics at varying complexities trigger
analysts to compensate ideas at difficulties and several innovations. It proposes
orderly structures that holds laws for flow measurement and used to solve
practical problems. The exploration of hydrodynamics by the principle equations
concerning important technical applications that is being practically extreme
diverse by the flow field. The intention of guiding a flow field to reach a goal
acquiring by the fundamental essential part of flow control.
There are several activities where flow control can be applied, however this
work focuses on modify the leading edge on the airfoil. This preferred method
control the flow that intended to satisfy the requirements of performance
enhancement. The aspiration of this work is to investigate the performance
enrichment potential of tubercles take possession along the leading edge of
airfoil. Enhanced performance gives description in terms of delay stall by flow
control. The tubercles control the flow separation through the reattachment of
flow on account of boundary layer momentum.

1.1 Flow Control

Flow over the surface differs on shape of the solid objects. Streamline body
and bluff body are identified generally among shape of the objects. When the drag
is dominated by pressure drag, the body is streamlined and when it is dominated
by pressure drag, the body is bluff.

1
 The net force acted upwards on the airfoil by the pressure on the suction
surface (upper surface) lower than the pressure surface (lower surface). Whereas
viscosity is fundamental for the lift generation. The possessions and the properties
of viscosity supremacy to the formation of starting vortex, in turn is accountable
for bearing the capable circumstances for lift.
This vorticity is ultimately cast at the trailing edge producing alternating sign
in the wake. The circulation around the airfoil formed due to satisfy the
conservation of angular momentum, there must be an equivalent motion to
obstruct the vortex movement. By the form of circulation around the airfoil, the
velocity vectors from the counter circulation add to the free flow velocity vectors
that develops higher velocity above the airfoil and lower velocity below the airfoil
that requires a pressure on above surface lower than the ambient pressure.
Flow separation occurs when the boundary layer travels far enough against an
adverse pressure gradient. The fluid becomes detached from the surface of the
object, and instead takes the forms of eddies and vortices. Boundary layer
separation is the detachment of a boundary layer from the surface into a broader
wake. Boundary layer separation occurs when the portion of the boundary layer
closest to the wall or leading edge reverses in flow direction. The laminar or the
transiting boundary layer which desirable to delay the location of separation.

1.1.1 Classifications of flow control

Separation meant for the flow is detaches from the surface (separation point is
not fixed). Two types of separation are generally focused one is weak separation
and another is strong separation. Weak separation occurs at streamline bodies (ex:
flow over a wing) which is pressure drag dominated when compared to viscous
drag. The separation increases when angle of attack increases.
The strong separation case is one where the separation point is fixed. Mostly
all bluff bodies with sharp corners occuring in strong separation which have more

2
viscous drag when compared to pressure drag. It increases while velocity
increases (ex: nose part of aircraft, missiles and rockets).

Separating/separated flows

Weak separation Strong separation

Separation flow control Separation flow control

Separating/separated flows Separating/separated flows

Passive Active

1. Optimal shape 1. Vibrating flaps

2. Vortex generators 2. Acoustic excitation

3. Leading edge 3. Suction and/or blowing

tubercle (steady or periodic)

Fig: 1.1 Separated/ separating Flows and possible actuations.

Passive, a devise depends on additional power input; whereas active, a device

requisites additional energy to function. Passive flow control deals with either
modify the geometry of airfoil or adding non-moving elements to the airfoil
surface. Active control envelope the utilization of supplementary energy to
operate devices.

3
 By the capability of switching on or off, active flow control techniques provide
various performance advantages over passive flow control. By the peculiarity of
active flow control it possess greater adaptability to changing flight conditions,
capability to target specific instabilities and lower associated drag. Over passive
flow control, the utilization of active flow control is complicated and less cost
effective.
Lift enhancement and drag reduction were the useful classification on
designation of flow control. The generation of lift by an airfoil considered on
alteration of shape, its orientation relative to the flow can be changed, tip stall can
be minimized or degree of flow attachment and circulation can be enhanced.
Hence, lift can be increased by wing area, angle of attack, camber, augmentation
of circulation and momentum exchange in the boundary layer. The flow control
methods focusses on drag reduction by avoiding/delaying flow separation,
reducing spanwise flow, avoiding/delaying transition to turbulence and reducing
coherence of turbulent structures.

1.2 Boundary Layer

A boundary layer is a thin layer of viscous fluid close to the solid surface of a
wall in contact with the moving stream in which (within its thickness) the flow
velocity zero at the wall (where the flow sticks to the wall) and the variation in
velocity depends on boundary layer thickness. Airfoils with relatively large upper
surface curvatures, high local curvature over the forward part of the chord may
initiate a laminar separation when the airfoil is at quiet a moderate angle of
incidence. Under certain conditions, the separated laminar layer may undergo
transition to turbulence with characteristic rapid thickening. A boundary layer is
a thin layer of viscous fluid close to the solid surface of a wall in contact with the
moving stream in which (within its thickness) the flow velocity zero at the wall
(where the flow sticks to the wall) and the variation in velocity depends on

4
boundary layer thickness. Under certain conditions, the separated laminar layer
may undergo transition to turbulence with characteristic rapid thickening. This
rapid thickening may be sufficient for the lower edge of the turbulent, shear layer
to come back into contact with the surface and re-attach as a turbulent boundary
layer on the surface.
To distinct types of bubble are observed to occur. One is short bubble, of the
order of 1 percent of the chord in length (or 100 separation point displacement
thicknesses) which exerts negligible effect on the peak suction value just ahead
of the bubble. Another is long bubble, which may be of almost any length from a
few percent of chord (10000 separation displacement thicknesses) up to almost
the entire chord, which exerts a large effect on the value of the peak suction near
the airfoil leading edge. Short bubbles exert very little influence on the pressure
distribution over the airfoil surface and remain small, with increasing incidence,
right up to the stall.

Fig: 1.2 Bubble-Induced unsteadiness on a wind turbine airfoil.

If a long bubble forms at moderate incidence, its length will rapidly increase
with increasing incidence, causing a continuous reduction of the leading-edge
suction peak.

5
Table: 1.1 Flow control devices and their corresponding effects and benefits

Sl. Devices Effect on flow Benefits

No.
Tubercles, vortex generators,
leading edge serrations, rippled
trailing edge, moveable flaps, Increased lift/stall
slots, suction, vortex generator Delayed angle, possible
jets, internal/external acoustic separation. drag reduction.
1
excitation, oscillating wire,
plasma.
Increased velocity Increased lift/stall
2 Flaps, slats, leading edge flaps.
on Suction surface. Angle.
Circulation Increased lift/stall
3 Blown flaps, Gurney flap.
augmentation. Angle.
Vortex lift Increased lift/stall
4 Strakes, owl comb.
generation. Angle.
Tubercles, wing fences, saw Restricted span Minimization /
5 tooth leading edge, notched wise flow. Avoidance of tip
leading edge, Vortex generators. stall.
Turbulator, manipulation of Accelerated Avoidance of
6
near-wall viscosity. transition. stall.
Shape optimization, compliant
Reduced skin
7 Coatings, suction, manipulation Delayed transition
friction drag
of near-wall viscosity.
Reduced
Riblets, large-eddy break up Reduced skin
8 momentum
devices friction drag
Exchange
Restructuring of
Magneto hydrodynamic flow Reduced skin
9 boundary layer
control friction Drag
vorticity field

6
1.3 Biomimetics

Biomimetic refers to human-made processes, substances, devices or systems

that imitates nature. The art and science of designing and building biomimetic
apparatus is also known as biomimicry because they mimic biological systems.
Novelty in biomimetics contributes countless applications in Engineering like
self-healing abilities, environmental exposure tolerance and resistance,
hydrophobicity, self-assembly and harnessing solar energy. Living organisms
have evolved well-adapted structures and materials over geological time through
natural selection. Exploring origin and evolutionary specializations of
biodiversity fulfilled numerous requisition for aeronautics. Nature’s morphology
implemented in self-cleaning properties from lotus effect and gull wing
implemented in aerospace by birds morphology.
The implementation of aquatic animal’s composition into infinite mechanisms
accomplished and greeted to shift subsequent obligations. Aerodynamicists
continuously inspecting morphological peculiarity of marine mammals for
materialization. The capability of sufficient water flow control around the body
rules the performance of marine mammal’s evolvement. Curiousness of aquatic
mammals evolved a propulsive mechanisms to loco mate effectively through
water and its hydrodynamics is related largely to flow control in actively and
passively that effects aerodynamic performance. One among the observable
evolution, the humpback whale intended among the numerous marine mammals
in the designs of airfoil. Among the blue whale family, humpback whale notable
for its tight turning manoeuvers caught to considered for its flipper composition,
tracing tubercles as the critical criteria for the advancement of airfoil. Fish and
Battle report that humpback whale flippers have large aspect ratios (s/c≈6, s=
span, c= chord length) as well as the large scale protuberances located along the
leading edge (Fish F.E & Battle J.M, 1995).

7
1.3.1 Humpback whale

The humpback whales (Megaptera novaeangliae) are rorquals that any of

several baleen whales of the family Balaenopteridae processing longitudinal
grooves on throat and a small pointed dorsal fin. Though clearly related to the
giant whales found in oceans and seas around the world can easily be identified
by their stocky body obvious hump, black dorsal coloring and elongated pectoral
fins. It is known for breaching and other distinctive surface behaviors.
Humpbacks feed in polar waters and migrate up to 25,000 km (16,000 mi) each
year. Humpbacks feed in polar waters, and migrate to tropical or subtropical
waters to breed and give birth when they fast and live off their fat reserves. Their
diet consists mostly of krill and small fish. Humpbacks have a diverse repertoire
of feeding methods, including the bubble net technique.
Like other large whales, the humpback was a target for the whaling industry.
Once hunted to the brink of extinction, its population fell by an estimated 90%
before a 1966 moratorium. While stocks have partially recovered, entanglement
in fishing gear, collisions with ships and noise pollution continue to impact the
population of 80,000.

Fig: 1.3 Humpback whale.

8
1.3.2 Morphology and behavior

Humpback have 270 to 400 darkly colored baleen plates on each side of their
mouths. The plates measure from 18 inch (46cm) in the front about 3ft (0.91cm)
in the black, behind the hinge. Newborn calves are roughly the length of their
mother’s head. At birth, calves measure 6 m (20 feet) at 2 short tons (1.8 tons).
Adults range in length from 12-16m (39-52feet) and weight about 36,000kg
(79,000lb). The amplitude protuberances ranges from 2.5 to 12% of the chord
length and wavelength varies from 10-50%of the chord.
For most of the humpback whales, the thickness ratio range from 0.20 to 0.28
of the chord length. The cross section of the flipper has a profile similar to the
NACA 634-021. It has been hypothesized tubercles act as a form of passive flow
control (Fish F.E. &Battle J.M., 1995) or a form of drag reduction (Bushnell, D.
M. and Moore, K.J., 1991).
Whales are air-breathing mammals who must surface to get the air they need.
The stubby dorsal fin is visible soon after the blow (exhalation) when the whale
surfaces, but disappears by the time the flukes emerge. Humpbacks have a 3 m
(9.8 ft), heart-shaped to bushy blow through the blowholes. They do not generally
sleep at the surface, but must continue to breathe. Possibly only half of their brain
sleeps at one time, allowing the other half to manage the surface/blow/dive
process without awakening the other half.
The movements which observed on humpback whale are protraction,
abduction, adduction, retraction and medial rotation. The tips move forward
means protraction and backward represents retraction. The mode of the flipper’s
movement leading upward means abduction and mode of movement downward
refers adduction. Feeding and predation are the crucial observations for
maneuverability and trigger to implement its futures on various fields.

9
 Fig: 1.4 Humpback whale movements.

1.3.3 Tubercles on humpback whale

Tubercles through flipper on humpback whale are rounded, leading edge

protuberances that alter the flow field. The position and number of tubercles on
the flipper suggested analogues with specified leading edge control devices
associated with improvements in hydrodynamics performance. The pectoral
flipper was 28% of the total length of the whale. The flipper planform was
elliptical and tappered distally.

Fig: 1.5 Flipper planform view.

A slight sweep-back of 19 deg relative to the longitudinal axis of the flipper

was measured for the distal third of flipper. Eleven tubercles were found along
the leading edge of the flipper. The largest tubercle was located proximally on
the flipper at 33% of the flipper span. The smallest tubercle was located near the
flipper tip at 99.1% of span. Bones were present in both anterior and median
portions of the sections, but where not observed near the posterior trailing edge

10
 The morphological adaptation for delaying stall would be highly beneficial for
the Humpback whale as it would increase the maximum attainable lift coefficient,
enabling a smaller turning radius. Another advantage of delayed stall is that an
equivalent lift coefficient could be achieved at a lower flow velocity for an airfoil
with tubercles compared to an unmodified airfoil. There would be a lower
associated drag and hence improved efficiency.
It has been reported that the mechanism responsible for the improvement in
performance is the generation of stream wise vortices, which enhance momentum
exchange within the boundary layer (Fish and Battle, 1995; Miklosovic et al.,
2004). Thus, there may be a strong similarity between tubercles and other vortex
generating devices currently in use such as strakes and small delta wings (Fish,
Howle & Murray, 2008). Other mechanisms have also been suggested, such as
the elimination of spanwise stall progression through flow compartmentalization
(Miklosovic&Murray, 2007).

(a) (b)

Fig: 1.6 (a) Humpback whale, (b) Flipper with its tubercles.

11
1.3.4 Effect of tubercles on airfoil

The method of performance optimization involves modifying the design shape

of the airfoil. For a given angle of attack and span, a wing will generate more lift
if it has a greater camber and chord length. The mechanism responsible for the
improvement in performance is the generation of stream wise vortices which
enhance momentum exchange within the boundary layer. Thus there may be a
strong similarity between tubercle and other vortex generating devices currently
in use such as stakes and small delta wings. Other mechanisms have also been
suggested, such as the elimination of span wise stall progression through flow
compartmentalization.
The potential benefits of increased lift in post stall region and decreased lift in
pre stall region due to tubercles of airfoil, it is anticipated that they will be broadly
adopted for man-made systems in the near future. Incorporating tubercles into the
leading edge could be achieved by either retrofitting the devices on existing
wings, fabricating a solid composite structure with tubercles or milling the
sinusoidal protuberances into the leading edge depending on the circumstances.

1.4 Literature Survey

Three dimensional active movements including protraction -retraction,

abduction-adduction and lateral-medial rotation were observed. Flipper should
consists of blunt rounded leading edge and tapered leading edge should form a
smooth streamline around the flipper. (R.K.Edel, et.al 1978).
It is similar like airfoil 634-021. Maximum thickness ratio varied from 0.20 to
0.28.Humpback whale flipper suggest that it is adapted for high maneuverability.
Laminar flow in the boundary layer produces less drag than turbulent flow until
the boundary layer separation. (Frank E.Fish, et.al 1995).

12
 Boundary layer control techniques such as vortex generators that delay wing
stall often increase maximum lift by 30% or more. Streamlined bodies such as
fins and rudders may experience larger control forces and extended operating
envelopes due to the addition of leading edge tubercles. The ability to reduce
wing tip vorticity suggests that tubercles could also enhance the stealth of marine
vehicles. (P. Watts Jan 2001).
Lot of four digit airfoils aspect ratio and Reynolds number at various angle of
attack. The addition of tubercles of a length scale 0.56c and intensity of 4% was
found to delay stall on the NACA 0021 model in accordance with other results, it
shows the turbulence intensity of 7% delayed stall. (K.E.Swalwell Dec 2001).
The use of rib let’s to reduce turbulent skin friction came in part from the study
of modern shark dermal denticles (Walsh 1990). Rib lets are stream wise
microgrooves that act as fences to break up span wise vortices and reduce the
surface shear stress and momentum loss by preventing eddies from transporting
high speed fluid close to the surface. (F.E. Fish, et.al 2006).
To examine the effects of protuberances on hydrofoil performance, the lift,
drag and pitching moments of two dimensional hydrofoils with leading edge
sinusoidal protuberances were measured in a water tunnel and compared to those
of a baseline NACA 634-021 hydrofoil. The amplitude of the protuberances
ranged from 2.5% to 12% of the mean chord length and the span wise
wavelengths were 25% and 50% of the mean chord length. (Derrick Custodio
Dec 2007).
Leading edge bumps on flippers or wings have been compared to vortex
generater which are small objects placed on a wing that inject momentum in to
boundary layer I.e., making it turbulent)which is used to delay flow separation.
Bumps on the flippers act as vortex generators since both the wave length and
amplitude.(Ernst A. van Nierop, et.al Feb 2008).

13
 The near-surface flow structure and topology on a delta wing of low sweep
angle, having sinusoidal leading edges of varying amplitude and wavelength, are
investigated at a Reynolds number of 15,000. The lift and drag characteristics on
a flipper with leading edge protuberances, relative to a flipper with a smooth
leading edge, showed that the stall angle could be delayed by approximately 40%
and correspondingly, increased lift and decreased drag were attained (T. Goruney
D. Rockwell May 2009)
The addition of protuberances, inspired by the humpback whale flipper, on the
leading edge of lift producing foils has been shown to improve hydrodynamic
performance under a certain range of flow conditions. Specifically, finite wing
models have displayed delayed stall characteristics at higher angles of attack and
increased maximum lift coefficients without significant hydrodynamic penalties.
(Timothy Gruber, et.al Nov 2011).
Geometry undulation of the leading of a finite wing investigated numericated
at low Reynolds number in the context of passive separation control .The
numerical simulation is performed on a NACA0020 wing profile in deep stall
configuration at 20 degree angle of attack .The same angle of attack can be done
both with and without tubercles .The effect of the both airfoil can be done at
Reynolds number in 800. (Julien favier, et.al Dec 2011).
The experiment of the airfoils was carried out in a low-speed wind tunnel,
including airfoil performance measurements and visualization of airfoil surface
flow field by oil film. The airfoil performance with protuberances on leading edge
has no significant increase in lift, but the drag was reduced. The most significant
effect for performance took place for the foil with longest amplitude of the
protuberances. (J.-H. Chen, et.al June 2012).
Tubercled wing is also tested at high Reynolds number to find if the
aerodynamic behaviour is similar to when it is operating at lower Reynolds
number. Reynolds number equal to 1.83*105. The tubercles leading edge wing
shows better Aerodynamics performance at higher Reynolds number. Higher

14
angles of attack could not be simulated since the K-epsilon turbulence model
failed to obtain converged solution due to flow complexity (Arian Visheh, et.al
Jun2014).
The effect of three patterns namely saw-tooth semi-circular and slots with
same wavelength and amplitude were examined. It’s were carried out for
Reynolds number based on Wavelength ranging from 1540 to3850.Increasing the
Reynolds number caused the vortex structure grow along the stream-wise
direction and diffused prior to turbulence. Increasing the Reynolds number the
vortex structure breakdown earlier (Seyed Mohammed hasheminejad, et.al Jan
2014).
All models had an underlying NACA 63 4-021 profile with protuberance
amplitudes of 0.025 to 0.12 times the chord length. The models were examined
at Reynolds numbers up to 4.5× 105 and angles of attackupto30 deg. (D. Custodio,
et.al. Jan 2015).
The vortex pairs meander and interact with adjacent flows, causing the flow
separation behaviour to be occasionally unstable, thus leading to variable flow
separation region sizes. This suggests that measures may have to be taken to
ensure the stability of the counter-rotating vortex pairs for more persistent and
predictable improvements. (Zhaoyu Wei August 2015).
Blade profile chosen for the cascade is the NACA 65209 profile, which is a
standard axial compressor blade profile. The chord of the blade is chosen as 60
mm, so as to have an aspect ratio of 2.5. The results reported a 4.8% increase in
lift, 10.9% reduction in induced drag, and 17.6% increase in lift-to-drag ratio at a
10deg angle of attack. (M.C.Keerthi and et.al oct2015).
Experiments were performed on a cascade of airfoils with a NACA 65209
profile with different tubercle geometries. The effect of sinusoidal leading-edge
tubercles in a linear compressor cascade with a Reynolds number of 130,000 is
studied. The results indicate that the performance of the cascade has substantially
improved due to the effect of tubercles in terms of delaying the stall. The surface

15
oil-flow visualization on the end wall reveals a delay in the onset of flow
separation (M. C. Keerthi, et.al Dec 2015).
Prandtl’s lifting-line theory has been implemented to determine the effects of
a tubercle’s amplitude and wavelength on the lift coefficient, induced drag
coefficient, and the lift-to induced-drag ratio of a NACA 0021 wing at an angle
of attack of 3°, and a Reynolds number of 120,000. (Michael D. Bolzon 2016).
The intention of guiding a flow field to reach a goal acquiring by the
fundamental essential part of flow control. The implementation of aquatic
animals’ composition into infinite mechanisms of engineering applications.
Humpback whale notable for its tight turning manoeuvers caught to tracing
tubercles on leading edge as the critical criteria for the advancement of airfoil.

16
 CHAPTER 2

2 MATERIALS AND METHODOLOGY

NACA0015 and NACA4415 have being carry off the maneuver servitude. The
maneuverability deciding aspect plays in the role of tubercles of leading edge.
The enclosure is to be create for base line and modified airfoils. The leading edge
tubercles, a crucial determinant being formulated through unequable chord
length. The tubercle amplitude (A) and tubercle wavelength (λ) expressed as (η)
retain high-priority in the design perspective of tubercle proceedings. The
variable chord length along with span wise ordinates elucidated by the henceforth
wave equation,

C (z) = Acos (2πz /λ) + C (2.1)

Where,
C (z) = span wise chord variation (mm),
A = Tubercle Amplitude (mm),
λ = Tubercle Wave length (mm),
z = Span wise ordinate (mm),
C = Mean chord (mm).

Fig: 2.1 Span wise chord variation.

17
 The graph signifies variation in chord length (∆c) and span wise ordinates (z)
leaning on x axis and y axis respectively.

2.1 Procedure for modeling

STEP: 1 On a CATIA V5R21 new document, fixed 3D workspace as workbench

and subsequently part design prepared for mechanical design.
STEP: 2 Points and spline persists opener to the designation, the geometrical set
committed for the definition of work place. Numerous geometrical sets that
performed vital aspect as a result of hide and show specification.
STEP: 3 Initiated upon the point definition commandment in the reference
element toolbar, brought over the middle coordinate point as origin for the
symmetric BUMP0015 on xy plane. Maintained the origin as root point and
actualized the adjacent points one after another.

Fig: 2.2 Coordinate points possess spline of airfoil profile 1.

STEP: 4 First complete wireframe airfoil profile has reached without misleading
the cusp using spline ordinance (Fig: 2.2) and observed the airfoil wireframe
profile one comes under first specification tree.
STEP: 5 Assumption of fourteen profiles as half configuration, second
geometrical set acquired the subsequent specification tree where second
reference plane implemented through xy plane by the definition of work place.
18
STEP: 6 Accomplished the draft through similar procedures, as leading edge and
trailing edge guiding curves mandatory, the trailing and leading edge of two
profiles were connected by the a curve utilizing similar spline ordinance by
selecting edge points.
STEP: 7 Reproduced the procedures for the accomplishment of half profile.
Perfect connectivity of leading and trailing edge curves implemented through join
definition concerning generative shape design (Fig: 2.3) aft working in part
design. Posterior to the unification of guide curves, the complete half
configuration fluctuated to the symmetry line-up techniques.

Fig: 2.3 Accomplishment of semi configuration.

STEP: 8 As the symmetry definition allows the mirror to retain the original
geometry, select the profiles and two guide curves with the reference xy plane
through one complete trough region obtained (Fig: 2.4).
STEP: 9 Approaching the multi-section solid dialog box, selected the leading and
trailing edge curves as guides. The entire numerous profile were selected in order
as it defines the order of connection between the sections. The exact multi-
sections solid of airfoil BUMP0015 obtained (Fig: 2.5) by ensured the location
and directions of the closing points are correct.

19
STEP: 10 To portray the unsymmetrical BUMP4415, the proceeding
characterization alike to the symmetrical BUMP0015 other than coordinate points
ninety nine which is enumerated by span wise ordinates through formulae.

Fig: 2.4 Intact wireframe structure.

Fig: 2.5 Isometric view BUMP0015.

The tabulation expose various tubercle amplitude (A) and tubercle wavelength
(ʎ) ratio (η) values of different airfoils,
Table: 2.1 Various tubercle amplitude to wave length ratio values.

Η Tubercle Amplitude Tubercle Wave

Sl.No.
A(mm) Length λ(mm)
1 0.10 2.5 25
2 0.05 2.5 50
20
 (a) (b)

(c) (d)

Fig: 2.6 (a) BUMP0015 airfoil with η =0.1, (b) BUMP0015 airfoil with η =0.05,

(c) BUMP4415 airfoil with η =0.1, (d) BUMP4415 airfoil with η =0.05.

2.2 Meshing

Mesh is volume comprised of elements used to discretize a domain for

numerical solution. Mesh used in structural, fluid dynamics, electromagnetics and
etc. The formats of mesh are structured, unstructured and hybrid.

2.2.1 Structured mesh

Whereas in structured mesh, building mesh for a CFD simulation hexahedron

mesh comes in handy. One of many reasons why hexa mesh is more suitable is
21
that it takes approximately eight times of tetrahedrons for meshing same volume
part as it takes to build hexa mesh. Therefore it takes more CPU time. In this
structure oriented mesh the accuracy is high and it is quick result convergence
and even this been difficult to generate the mesh in complex structure.

2.2.2 Unstructured mesh

Unstructured grid methods originally emerged as a viable alternative to the

structured grid techniques for discretizing complex geometries. These methods
make use either of collections of simplicial elements (triangle in two dimensions,
tetrahedral in three dimensions) or of elements of mixed type with irregular
connectivity. The generality of unstructured grid methods and their ability to
enhance solution accuracy through adaptive procedures have proved to be such a
great advantage for CFD.

2.2.3 Hybrid mesh

Hybrid mesh contains a mixture of structural portions and unstructural

portions. It integrates structured mesh and unstructured mesh in an efficient
manner. Those parts of the geometry that are regular can have structured mesh
and those that are complex can have unstructured mesh.

2.2.4 Procedure for meshing

Meshing is carried out using unstructured grid with tetrahedral elements.

STEP: 1 Import the designed airfoils (BUMP0015, BUMP4415, NACA0015 and
NACA4415) IGES format.
STEP: 2 Naming the airfoil (upper and lower surface, upper surface leading edge,
lower surface leading edge and end) shown in Fig: 2.7 is essential for meshing. It
helps to initialize the mesh element size.
22
STEP:3 To import coordinate points (20c) of outer domain (spherical domain)
and naming the two sides of domain as wall while the remaining domain surface
will be pressure far field and the interior of the domain named as fluid (Fig:2.8).

Fig: 2.7 Entitle of airfoil surface.

Fig: 2.8 Entitle of domain.

23
STEP: 4 The pre mesh parameters are global mesh, shell mesh, volume mesh and
prism layer parameters given in meshing structures. In global mesh, set the
maximum element size as 0.3 and scale factor as 1 (Fig: 2.9 a). In shell mesh to
set mesh type as “All Tri” and also mesh method as patch dependent (Fig: 2.9 b).
Patch dependent is best for capturing the surface details alike Patch independent
– Good for dirty geometry, ignoring small features, gaps, holes.
STEP: 5 In volume mesh to set the mesh type as Tetra/ mixed and also mesh
method as Robust (Octree) (Fig: 2.9 c). All tri/ tetrahedral elements are formed
as 60 degree angle. Its adapt to complex geometries and good prediction of flow
parameters, fine elements are to be formed.
STEP: 6 Prism layer helps to good prediction of boundary layer and drag also. In
prism layer parameter input the initial height as 0.0000113885018 which is
calculated from online y+ calculator and numbers of layers as 15 and click auto
reduction (Fig: 2.9 d). Compute the Octree mesh.
STEP: 7 Delaunay mesh it need pre mesh parameters less number of elements are
to be formed compare to Octree (half of the elements will be reduced (Fig: 2.9 e).

(a) (b)

24
 (c) (d)

(e)

Fig: 2.9 (a) Global mesh setup dialog box, (b) Shell mesh parameter dialog box,

(c) Volume mesh dialog box, (d) Prism mesh parameter dialog box,

(e) Compute mesh dialog box.

25
Fig: 2.10 Prism layer formation in BUMP0015 airfoil surface.

Fig: 2.11 Mesh formation in BUMP0015 domain.

26
 Table: 2.2 Mesh elements count in different airfoils.

Upper Lower Total

Upper Lower surface surface elements
surface surface leading leading (surface+
Airfoil Name
elements elements edge edge volume
elements elements elements)
NACA0015 22597 22868 2922 2909 1323205
NACA4415 24653 22247 3117 2948 1425762
BUMP0015(η=0.1) 37629 38303 5484 5668 2218487
BUMP4415(η=0.1) 40700 35795 5901 5163 1188554
BUMP0015(η=0.05) 36524 37108 5130 5161 1136096
BUMP4415(η=0.05) 39256 35216 5387 4695 1135394

The table shows mesh elements for baseline and modified airfoils

2.3 Procedure for CFD Analysis

STEP: 1 To acquire the definite result on the effect of leading edge tubercles,
density based and ideal gas type were tagged from general navigation pane for
compressible flow (Fig:2.12).
STEP: 2 Viscous-SST k-omega remained by models navigation pane
(Fig: 2.12 b).
STEP: 3 Choose pressure_far_field from Boundary condition pane and given
exact values for Mach number (Mach number calculated from Re = 1,83,000) and
X&Y component flow direction in task page (Fig: 2.12 c).
STEP: 4 On Reference values task page pressure_far_field was computed,
followed by exact area and length values were (Fig: 2.12 d).
STEP: 5 From solution task page, formulation (Implict) was picked and followed
by least square cell based gradient has chosen (Fig: 2.12 f).

27
STEP: 6 CL and CD plot was obtained from monitor’s navigation pane (Fig: 2.12
g).
STEP: 7 On solution initialization task page pressure far field was computed
(Fig: 2.12 h).
STEP: 8 From run calculation pane, the number iterations was remained as
needed and calculated that (Fig: 2.12 i).

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

28
(e) (f)

(g) (h)

29
 (i)

Fig: 2.12 (a) General task page, (b) Model navigation pane, (c) Boundary

Condition pane, (d) Reference value task page, (e) Solution task page,

(f) Monitors navigation pane, (g) Monitors navigation pane,

(h) Solution initialization task pane, (i) Run calculation pane.

2.4 Manufacturing Process

On first method, the modified airfoil (BUMP4415) igs file is imported to CNC
machining process for the actualization of complete model using aluminium bar.

(a) (b)

Fig 2.13 (a) Before machining process of airfoil,

(b) After machining process of airfoil.

30
 Cavity molding is utilized for second method, the patterns using teak wood
was made for baseline airfoils (NACA0015 & NACA4415) and modified airfoil
(BUMP0015) by importing igs file to CNC machining process.

(a) (b) (c)

(d) (e)
Fig: 2.14 (a) Patterns of BUMP4415, (b) Patterns of NACA0015,

(c) Patterns of NACA4415, (d) Inner surface ofBUMP4415,

(e) Outer surfaces of BUMP4415.

It is desirable to have highest possible filling speed during filling phase. The glass
fiber and epoxy resin employed to make the models. Utilizing cavity molding

31
manufacturing process, the requisite airfoils were shaped and created. The model
is allowed to cool and proceeded to finishing process.

Table: 2.3 Location of pressure tapings.

Sl.No. Upper surface(x/c) Lower surface(x/c)

1 0.02 0.15
2 0.1 0.25
3 0.2 0.4
4 0.3 0.6
5 0.5 0.8
6 0.7 -
7 0.9 -

By drilling 1.4mm diameter hole on the surface for pressure tappings fixation.
According to the x/c values the pressure tapings were fixed on upper and lower
surfaces of airfoils.

On the baseline airfoils, the pressure tappings were placed at the ratio y/b=0.5.
While for the modified airfoils, the ratio provided for the peak, middle and trough
regions to fitting pressure tappings were y/b=0.6,0.55 and 0.5 respectively. Steel
tube has employed for fitting measurable pressure tappings. After the fixation of
tappings, the upper and lower surfaces have combined utilizing araldite. The
eventual models of baseline and modified airfoils
(Fig: 2.15).

32
 (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h)

Fig: 2.15 (a) Upper surface of NACA0015, (b) Lower surface of NACA0015

(c) Upper surface of BUMP0015 (η =0.05),

(d) Lower surface of BUMP0015 (η =0.05),

(e) Upper surface of NACA4415,

(f) Lower surface of NACA4415,

(g) Upper surface of BUMP4415 (η =0.05),

(h) Lower surface of BUMP4415 (η =0.05).

2.5 Experimental Setup

Using subsonic wind tunnel, the experimental validation was carried out. The
employed wind tunnel is suction type with an axial flow fan driven by a 2880 rpm
which is 15 HP 440 volts 50 cycles 3 phase AC motor. The total length of the
wind tunnel is about 6.0 m. The axial flow fan and the duct is 0.9 m long. The
maximum height is about 1.2 m. The test section of 30 cm * 30 cm cross section
and 100 cm length with thick Plexiglas window.

33
 Fig: 2.16 Subsonic wind tunnel.

2.5.1 Mounting of model

The model is mounted vertically and the pressure tappings tube is elongated
and connected through 1.5 mm and 2.5 mm tubes to the manometer measurement
tubes.

(a) (b)

Fig: 2.17 (a) Front mounting of airfoil in test section,

(b) Top view on mounting of airfoil in test section.

34
2.5.2 Experimental analysis

The initial readings of manometer were noticed after mounting. The wind
tunnel is allowed to flow 27.5 m/s. The change in manometer readings were noted
for various angle of attack of varying airfoil models.
Using coefficient of pressure formula, the pressure distribution for upper and
lower surfaces was found out.

Coefficient of pressure,

𝑃𝑖 − 𝑃𝑠
𝐶𝑝 = (2.1)
𝑃𝑜 − 𝑃𝑠

P = ρ𝑤 ghsinθ (2.2)

Where,
Pi = Pressure from pressure tapings (N/m2),
Ps = Static pressure or reference pressure (N/m2),
Po = Total pressure (N/m2),
ρw = Density of water (1000kg/m3),
g = Acceleration due to gravity (9.81 m/s2),
h = Height of the liquid in the multi-tube manometer (m),
θ = Manometer inclination angle.

The leading edge tubercles, a crucial determinant being formulated through

unequable chord length. Imported coordinate points of outer domain. Named the
airfoil (upper and lower surface, upper surface leading edge, lower surface
leading edge and end) and meshing carried out.

35
 CHAPTER3

3 RESULT AND DISCUSSION

To peruse the impact of tubercles initially viscous fluid flow over a baseline
airfoils were simulated. So that the modified airfoils were simulated with same
Reynolds number. The analytical work was carried out at the angle of attack range
from 0o to 21o. The effect of tubercles was identified based on coefficient of lift,
coefficient of drag, coefficient of pressure, velocity vector and streamline pattern.

3.1 Streamline patterns for normal and modified airfoils

(a) (b)

(c)

Fig: 3.1 Streamline pattern for NACA0015 (a)0o, (b)10o, (c)15o.

36
 (a) (b)

(c) (d)

(e) (f)

Fig: 3.2 Streamline pattern for BUMP0015 (η =0.10), (a) Peak region at 0o,

(b) Trough region at 0o, (c) peak region at 10o, (d) Trough region at 10 o,

(e) Peak region at 15 o, (f) Trough region at 15 o.

37
 (a) (b)

(c) (d)

(e) (f)

Fig:3.3 Streamline pattern for BUMP0015 (η =0.05), (a) Peak region at 0o,

(b) Trough region at 0 o, (c) Peak region at 10 o, (d) Prough region at 10 o,

(e) Peak region at 15o, (f) Trough region at 15o.

38
 (a) (b)

(c)

Fig: 3.4 Streamline pattern for NACA4415 (a)0o, (b)10o, (c)14o.

39
 (a) (b)

(c) (d)

(e) (f)

Fig: 3.5 Streamline pattern for BUMP4415 (η =0.1), (a) Peak region at 0o,

(b) Trough region at 0o, (c) Peak region at 10o, (d) Trough region at 10o,

(e) Peak region at 14o, (f) Trough region at 14o.

40
 (a) (b)

(c) (d)

(e) (f)

Fig: 3.6 Streamline pattern for BUMP4415 (η =0.05), (a) Peak region at 0o,

(b) Trough region at 0o, (c) Peak region at 10o, (d) Trough region at 10o,

(e) Peak region at 14o, (f) Trough region at 14o.

41
 The purpose of the reported results is to reveal the overall flow separation
behaviors and the mechanism associated with the tubercles. The two dimensional
stream line along the peak region, trough region for modified airfoils
(BUMP0015 & BUMP4415) and mid region for baseline airfoils (NACA0015 &
NACA415) were determined at a various angles of attack. Through the effect of
favorable pressure gradient, the upstream flow is attached over the upper surface
of airfoil and because of adverse pressure gradient, the downstream flow is
detached upper surface of airfoil.

NACA0015 stream line pattern where explored at middle region (y/b=0.5).

Considering 0o angle of attack the flow is fully attached (Fig: 3.1 a). At 10o angle
of attack the flow remains attached (Fig: 3.1 b), whereas 15o angle of attack the
flow is attached up to maximum thickness and detached after maximum thickness
(Fig: 3.1 c).
In BUMP0015 (η= 0.05) the streamline pattern where explored at peak region
(y/b=0.5) and trough region (y/b=0.25). For 0o angle of attack the flow is attached
peak and trough region (Fig: 3.2). Likewise 10o angle of attack the flow remains
attached in peak and trough region. Whereas angle of attack 15o the flow is
attached in peak region and detached in trough region due to counter rotating
vortices, the counter rotating vortices produce higher momentum exchange in
boundary layer. Alike BUMP0015 (η =0.1) the peak region where explored at
(y/b= 0.25) and trough region (y/b= 0.125). NACA4415 airfoil at 0o angle of
attack the flow is fully attached, likewise NACA0015. At 10o angle of attack the
flow is separated slightly compare to 0 o. At 14o angle of attack the flow is
detached.
In BUMP4415 (η= 0.05) the stream line pattern where explored at peak
region(y/b=0.5) and trough region (y/b =0.25). At 0o angle of attack, the flow
fully attached on peak and trough region. At 10 o angle of attack, the flow is
attached at peak region and that he flow is slightly detached compared to peak.

42
At 14o angle of attack the flow is attached in peak region and detached in trough
region due to counter rotating vortices. Similar BUMP0015 (η =0.1) the peak
region where explored at (y/b= 0.25) and trough region (y/b= 0.125).

3.2 Effects of Tubercles on Aerodynamic Co-efficient

BUMP0015(η=0.1) NACA0015 BUMP0015(η=0.05)

1.4

1.2

0.8
CL

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 5 10 15 20 25
-0.2
α

(a)

BUMP0015(η=0.1) NACA0015 BUMP0015(η=0.05)

0.5

0.4

0.3
Cd

0.2

0.1

0
0 5 10 15 20 25
α

(b)
Fig: 3.7 (a) Comparison of symmetric normal and modified airfoil lift
coefficient with angle of attack, (b) Comparison of symmetric normal and
modified airfoil drag coefficient with angle of attack.

43
 NACA4415 BUMP4415(η=0.1) BUMP4415(η=0.05)
1.6
1.4
1.2
1
CL
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 5 10 15 20
α

(a)

NACA4415 BUMP4415(η=0.1) BUMP4415(η=0.05)

0.3

0.25

0.2
Cd

0.15

0.1

0.05

0
0 5 10 α 15 20

(b)

Fig: 3.8 (a) Comparison of unsymmetric normal and modified airfoil drag
coefficient with angle of attack, (b) Comparison of unsymmetric normal and
modified airfoil drag coefficient with angle of attack.

The effect of aerodynamic coefficients with angles of attack is plotted for both
baseline and modified airfoils as shown in Fig3.8. At low angle of attack the
baseline airfoil and modified airfoil (η =0.05) is not significant, and compared
baseline airfoil with modified airfoil (η =0.1) there is a difference in coefficient
of lift. NACA0015 airfoil CL is increasing and stalls at 14o.

44
 The BUMP0015 (η =0.05) airfoil CL is increases and stalls at 19o. The
coefficient of lift for BUMP0015 (η =0.05) is not significant as compare to
baseline airfoil. The coefficient of drag in above compared airfoil is not
significant.
The BUMP0015 (η =0.1), the coefficient of lift increases and stalls at 18o and
compare to baseline airfoil there is a huge difference in coefficient of lift and also
difference in coefficient of drag.
NACA4415 airfoil CL is increasing and stalls at 12o. The BUMP4415
(η =0.05) the coefficient of lift increases and stalls at 15 o. At low angle of attack
the coefficient of lift for BUMP4415 (η =0.05) is not significant and coefficient
of drag is also not significant. The BUMP4415 (η =0.1), the coefficient of lift is
increases and stalls at 15o and there is a huge difference in coefficient of lift
compared to baseline airfoil.

3.3 FLOW FIELD OVER TUBERCLES

(a) (b)

45
 (c) (d)

Fig: 3.9 Counter rotating vorticity variations of BUMP0015 (η = 0.10)

(a)12o, (b)15o, (c)18o, (d)20o.

(a) (b)

(c) (d)
Fig: 3.10 Counter rotating vorticity variations of BUMP0015 (η = 0.05)

(a)15o, (b)18o, (c)19o, (d)20o.

46
 The implementation of tubercles at the leading edge of airfoil leads to the
formation of counter rotating pairs of streamwise vortices between the tubercles
peaks (i.e. trough region). The row of tubercles redirects the flow of air into the
scalloped valley between each tubercle, causing swirling vortices that roll up and
over the airfoil which actually enhances lift properties. The swirling vortices
exchange momentum into the flow and this exchange of momentum keeps the
flow attached to the suction side of the airfoil and delays stall to higher angles of
attack.
In the BUMP0015(η =0.1) airfoil at 12o angle of attack the formation of
counter rotating streamwise vortices help to attach the flow in peak region and
detach the flow in trough region. The strength of counter rotating vortices
increases, when the angle of attack is increases. At stall angle strength of the
counter rotating vortices and formation of separation bubbles maximum, and flow
is reversed. The counter rotating streamwise vortices formed at 15o angle of attack
for BUMP0015 (η =0.05).

3.4 Effect of Tubercles on Pressure Distribution

NACA0015 UP NACA0015 LWS

BUMP0015 UP 0.05 BUMP0015 LWS 0.05
BUMP0015 UP 0.1 BUMP0015 LWS 0.1
2
1
0
CP

-1 0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12

-2
-3
-4
X/C

(a)

47
 NACA0015 UP NACA0015 LWS
BUMP0015 UP 0.05 BUMP0015 LWS 0.05
BUMP0015 UP 0.1 BUMP0015 LWS 0.1
2
1
0
-1 0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12
CP

-2
-3
-4
-5
-6
X/C

(b)

NACA4415 UP NACA4415 LWS

BUMP4415 UP 0.05 BUMP4415 LWS 0.05
BUMP4415 UP 0.1 BUMP4415 LWS 0.1
1.5
1
0.5
0
CP

-0.5 0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12

-1
-1.5
-2
-2.5
X/C

(c)

48
 NACA4415 UP NACA4415 LWS
BUMP4415 UP 0.05 BUMP4415 LWS 0.05
BUMP4415 UP 0.1 BUMP4415 LWS 0.1
1.5
1
0.5
0
-0.5 0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12
CP

-1
-1.5
-2
-2.5
-3
-3.5
X/C

(d)

Fig: 3.11 Pressure distribution of normal and modified airfoil

(a) Symmetric airfoil at 10o, (b) Symmetric airfoil at 15o,

(c) Unsymmetric airfoil at 10o, (d) Unsymmetric airfoil at 14o.

The chord wise pressure distribution for baseline airfoil and modified airfoils
are plotted in the above graphs. Analysis of the surface pressure distribution
allows identification of the point at which the initiates for each cross section. In
the baseline airfoil, the Cp achieves a minimum value near the leading edge and
after the peak value, the Cp increases along the downstream creating strong
adverse pressure gradient. This causes the boundary layer to separate from the
top surface. The most negative values of the peak pressure developed over the
suction surface of the BUMP 4415 aerofoil at α = 10ᵒ, is associated with the
trough cross section. With the addition of the tubercles, the maximum suction
peak almost the same, the subsequent rate of increase of Cp is less. So the adverse
pressure gradient over the aerofoil is decreased and hence the stall is delayed.

49
3.4.1Experimental validation of pressure distribution

NACA0015 UP NACA0015 LWS

BUMP0015 0.05 UP T BUMP0015 0.05 LWS T
BUMP0015 0.05 UP M BUMP0015 0.05 LWS M
BUMP0015 0.05 UP P BUMP0015 0.05 LWS P
1.5
1
0.5
0
-0.5
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
CP

-1
-1.5
-2
-2.5
-3
X/C

(a)

NACA0015 UP NACA0015 LWS

BUMP0015 0.05 UP T BUMP0015 0.05 LWS T
BUMP0015 0.05 UP M BUMP0015 0.05 LWS M
BUMP0015 0.05 UP P BUMP0015 0.05 LWS P
1.5
1
0.5
0
-0.5
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
CP

-1
-1.5
-2
-2.5
-3
-3.5
X/C

(b)

50
 NACA0015 UP NACA0015 LWS
BUMP0015 0.05 UP T BUMP0015 0.05 LWS T
BUMP0015 0.05 UP M BUMP0015 0.05 LWS M
BUMP0015 0.05 UP P BUMP0015 0.05 LWS P
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
CP

-0.5 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2

-1
-1.5
-2
-2.5
X/C

(c)

NACA4415 UP NACA4415 LWS

BUMP4415 0.05 UP T BUMP4415 0.05 LWS T
BUMP4415 0.05 UP M BUMP4415 0.05 LWS M
BUMP4415 0.05 UP P BUMP4415 0.05 LWS P
2
1
0
-1 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
CP

-2
-3
-4
-5
X/C

(d)

51
 NACA4415 UP NACA4415 LWS
BUMP4415 0.05 UP T BUMP4415 0.05 LWS T
BUMP4415 0.05 UP M BUMP4415 0.05 LWS M
BUMP4415 0.05 UP P BUMP4415 0.05 LWS P

2
1
0
-1 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
CP

-2
-3
-4
-5
-6
X/C

(e)

NACA4415 UP NACA4415 LWS

BUMP4415 0.05 UP T BUMP4415 0.05 LWS T
BUMP4415 0.05 UP M BUMP4415 0.05 LWS M
BUMP4415 0.05 UP P BUMP4415 0.05 LWS P

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2

CP

-1

-2

-3

-4
X/C

(f)

Fig: 3.12 Experimental pressure distribution of normal and modified airfoil

(a) Symmetric airfoil at 10o, (b) Symmetric airfoil at 14o,

(c) Symmetric airfoil at 18o, (d) Unsymmetric airfoil at 10o,

(e) Unsymmetric airfoil at 12o, (f) Unsymmetric airfoil at 15o.

52
 As the tappings were positioned on the suction and pressure side for the
baseline and modified airfoils, the pressure distribution is elucidated. Extreme
concern was taken to measure the peak, trough and mid region pressure
distribution. The surface pressure measurements taken varying chordwise
positions for the picked airfoil. The chordwise pressure distribution shows the
existence of spanwise variation in pressure by means of effective aerodynamic
characteristics.
The comparisons of NACA0015, BUMP0015 (η = 0.05) at 10o, 14o & 18o
angle of attack and NACA4415, BUMP4415 (η = 0.05) at 10 o, 12o & 15o angle
of attack respectively was examined.
Towards the comparison of NACA0015 and BUMP0015, at 10o angle of
attack utmost negative pressure appearing in peak through the influence of the
trough region on the suction surface and rate of increases of adverse pressure
gradient is less in downstream (static pressure decreases). Whereas the pressure
distribution in middle region higher than trough and lower than peak region. By
the cause of decrease in dynamic pressure, the pressure distribution of peak,
trough and middle region is high compared to baseline airfoil and no significant
distribution of pressure on pressure side nearer to the leading edge shown in Fig:
3.11a. At 14o angle of attack, the baseline airfoil possess high negative pressure
distribution compare to peak, trough and mid region on suction surface as a result
of dropping of static pressure in downstream of airfoil. On pressure side, the
positive pressure distribution of modified airfoil is inferior to baseline airfoil
although no indicative pressure distribution on peak, trough and middle at leading
edge shown in Fig: 3.11 b. At 18o angle of attack maximal negative dispersion of
pressure in peak and slightly higher than trough region. The baseline airfoil
possess lacking pressure compare to modified airfoil on suction surface because
of the increasing adverse pressure gradient in downstream direction. Whereas
pressure side the baseline airfoil possess maximal positive pressure dispersal
compare to modified airfoil shown in Fig: 3.11c.

53
Fronting to the comparison of NACA4415 and BUMP4415, at 10o angle of attack
topmost negative dispersion of pressure arises at suction surface of baseline
airfoil when correlated to modified airfoil on account of less increment in the rate
of adverse pressure gradient in downstream of an airfoil. By the mutual relation
of peak, trough and middle region, the mostest negative pressure transpire on
trough than remaining two regions as a result of same effect and no significant
positive pressure distribution on pressure side nearer to the leading edge for both
modified and baseline airfoil shown in Fig: 3.11d. At 12o angle of attack, the
utmost negative pressure distribution rises on baseline airfoil than the modified
airfoil owing to increasing in dynamic pressure in downstream on suction surface.
On the correlation of peak, trough and mid region, the mid region possess low
negative pressure than remaining two regions and there is no significant positive
pressure distribution on baseline and modified airfoil nearer to the leading edge
on the pressure side shown in Fig: 3.11e. At 15o angle of attack, maximal negative
pressure distribution increases in trough because of decreasing static pressure.
The mid region bear low pressure dispersion because of arising static pressure on
suction surface. The lower surface of baseline airfoil obtains moderate positive
pressure dispersion compared to modified airfoil shown in Fig: 3.11f.
The flow is separated on the trough region and attached on peak region due to
the effect of tubercles. The effect is similar for both BUMP0015 and BUMP4415.
The analytical work was carried out at the angle of attack range from 0o to 21o.
The effect of tubercles was identified based on coefficient of lift, coefficient of
drag, coefficient of pressure, velocity vector and streamline pattern and compared
with baseline airfoils.

54
 CHAPTER 4

4 CONCLUSION

The effect of tubercles on the pre stall and post stall characteristics have been
investigated by the surface pressure characteristics. The aerodynamic
characteristics had been held by the comparison of baseline and modified airfoils.
The important parameters considered when specifying the use of tubercles by
amplitude and wavelength. It was found that performance changes, in terms of
enhanced lift with minimal drag for modified airfoils, is limited to specific
Reynolds number regimes. Analysis of the flow behavior revealed that a pair of
streamwise counter rotating vortices was generated in the troughs between
tubercles and that counter rotating vorticity and circulation where highly
dependent on streamwise location and angle of attack.
The purpose of the reported results is to reveal the overall flow separation
behavior and the mechanism associated with the tubercles. Through the effect of
favorable pressure gradient, the upstream flow is attached over the upper surface
of airfoil and because of adverse pressure gradient, the downstream flow is
detached upper surface of airfoil.
The implementation of tubercles at the leading edge of airfoil leads to the
formation of counter rotating pairs of streamwise vortices between the tubercles
peaks (i.e. trough region). The row of tubercles redirects the flow of air into the
scalloped valley between each tubercle, causing swirling vortices that roll up and
over the airfoil which actually enhances lift properties. The swirling vortices
exchange momentum into the flow and this exchange of momentum keeps the
flow attached to the suction side of the airfoil and delays stall to higher angles of
attack.

55
 The experimental validation shows the pressure distribution on suction and
pressure side of the selected airfoils to determine the effective aerodynamic
characteristics.
Through the effect of favorable pressure gradient, the upstream flow is
attached over the upper surface of airfoil and because of adverse pressure
gradient, the downstream flow is detached upper surface of airfoil. As the
tappings were positioned on the suction and pressure side for the baseline and
modified airfoils, the pressure distribution is elucidated.

4.1 Future work

There are various opportunities for future work on this proposition by large
number of variables to consider when selecting an optimum tubercle
configuration with varying Reynolds number, changing the shape of the
tubercles, selecting airfoil with different profile shape.
Further investigation into the effects of sweep and taper on tubercle
performance would deepen understanding of the importance of three-dimensional
effects on the performance enhancement mechanism.

56
 REFERENCES

1. Alessandro Corsini, Giovanni Delibra, Anthony G. Sheard (2013), “On the

Role of Leading-Edge Bumps in the Control of Stall Onset in Axial Fan
Blades” Journal of Fluids Engineering Vol. 135 / 081104-1.
2. Arian Visheh and Lim Boon Kian (2014) ‘‘on aerodynamic Performance
of humpback whale-inspired wind turbine blade design’’, Department Of
Biology.
3. Camara, J. F. D. and Sousa, J. M.M ( Jan. 2013), “Numerical study on the
use of a sinusoidal leading edge for passive stall control at low Reynolds
number,” 51st AIAA Aerospace Sciences Meeting, AIAA Paper
20130062.
4. D. Custodio and C. W. Henoch (2015),‘‘Aerodynamic characteristics of
finite span wings with leading-edge protuberances’’, AIAA Vol. 53, pp.7-
14.
5. Edel, RK and Winn, HE (1978), “Observations on underwater locomotion
and flipper movement of the Humpback whale Megaptera novaeangliae,”
Marine Biology 48, pp.279-287.
6. Fish, FE and Lauder, GV (2006), “Passive and active flow control by
swimming fishes and mammals,” Annual Review of Fluid Mechanics, 38,
pp. 193-224.
7. Frank E. Fish and Juliann M. Battle (1995) ‘‘Hydrodynamic design of the
humpback whale flipper’’, journal of morphology ,225, pp.51-60.
8. Irelyn Fernandes, Yogesh Sapkota, Tania Mammen, Atif Rasheed and
Calvin L. Rebello (2013) ‘‘Theoretical and Experimental Investigation of
the Leading Edge Tubercles on the Wing Performance’’, AIAA Aviation
2013-4300.
9. Johari, H, Henoch, C, Custodio, D & Levshin, (2007), “Effects of leading
edge protuberances on airfoil performance,” AIAA Journal, 45, pp. 2634-
2642.
10.Julien Favier, Alfredo Pinelli and Ugo Piomelli (2011) ‘‘Control of the
separated flow around an aero foil using a wavy leading edge inspired by
humpback whales flippers’’,C.R.Mecanique vol340, pp.107-114.
11.K.E.Swalwell, J. Sheridan and W.H. Melbourne (2001) ‘‘The Effect of
Turbulence Intensity on Stall of the NACA0021 Aero foil’’, 14th
Australasian Fluid Mechanics Conference.

57
12.Lissaman, P. B. S.,(1983) “Low-Reynolds-Number Airfoils,” Annual
Review of Fluid Mechanics, Vol. 15, pp. 223–239.
13.Mark W. Lohry, David Clifton and Luigi Martinelli (2012)
‘‘Characterization and design of tubercle leading-edge wings’’, CFD7-
2012-4302.
14.Miklosovic, D. S., Murray, M. M., Howle, L. E., and Fish, F. E.,
(2004)“Leading Edge Tubercles Delay Stall on Humpback Whale
Flippers”, Physics of Fluids, Vol. 16, No. 5,pp. L39–L42
15.Seyed Mohammad Hasheminejad, Hatsari Mitsudharmadi, Sonny Handojo
Winoto (2014) ‘‘Effect of Flat Plate Leading Edge Pattern on Structure of
Stream wise Vortices Generated in Its Boundary Layer’’, Measurement &
Visualization, Vol. 135 / 081104-1 ol 2, pp.18-23.
16.T. Goruney, E D. Rockwell (2009) ‘‘Flow past a delta wing with a
sinusoidal leading edge: near-surface topology and flow structure’’,
Experimental Fluids (2009) 47:321–331.
17.Timothy Gruber, Mark M. Murray and David W. Fredriksson (2011)
‘‘Effect of Humpback Whale Inspired Tubercles On Marine Tidal Turbine
Blades’’, ASME 2011 International Mechanical Engineering Congress &
Exposition IMECE2011.
18.van Nierop, E., Alben, S., and Brenner, M. P.,( Feb. 2008) “How Bumps
on Whale Flippers Delay Stall: an Aerodynamic Model,” Physical Review
Letters,Vol. 100,Paper 054502.
19.Watts, P and Fish, FE 2001, “The influence of passive, leading edge
tubercles on wing performance,” Proceedings of the Twelfth International
Symposium on Unmanned Untethered Submersible Technology UUST,
Autonomous Undersea Systems Institute, Lee, NH, Aug. 2005.
20.Zhaoyu Weia, T.H. Newa,n, Y.D. Cuib ‘‘An experimental study on flow
separation control of hydrofoils with leading-edge tubercles at low
Reynolds number’’, Ocean Engineering 108,2015 (336-349).

BOOKS

1. Abbott .H. Albert E., “Theory of wing sections”, Dover publications,1959.

2. Anderson, J. D., “Fundamentals of Aerodynamics”, 5th ed,
McGraw– Hill, New York, 2011.
3. Clancy L.J., “Aerodynamics”, Sterling book house, 2006.
4. Houghton, E.L., Carruthers, N.B., “Aerodynamics for Engineering
Students”, 3rd ed., Arnold Publishers, 1982.
5. Jewel B. Barlow, William H. RAE., Alan pope., “Low speed wind tunnel
Testing”, 3rd ed., Wiley India Pvt. Ltd, 2010.

58
 APPENDIX 1

NACA0015 coordinates
x y
1 0.00158
0.95 0.01008
0.9 0.0181
0.8 0.03279
0.7 0.0458
0.6 0.05704
0.5 0.06617
0.4 0.07254
0.3 0.07502
0.25 0.07427
0.2 0.07172
0.15 0.06682
0.1 0.05853
0.075 0.0525
0.05 0.04443
0.025 0.03268
0.0125 0.02367
0 0
0.0125 -0.02367
0.025 -0.03268
0.05 -0.04443
0.075 -0.0525
0.1 -0.05853
0.15 -0.06682
0.2 -0.07172
0.25 -0.07427
0.3 -0.07502
0.4 -0.07254
0.5 -0.06617
0.6 -0.05704
0.7 -0.0458
0.8 -0.03279
0.9 -0.0181
0.95 -0.01008
1 -0.00158

59
 APPENDIX 2
NACA0015 coordinates
X y
1 0 0.00107 -0.00566
0.99893 0.00039 0.00428 -0.01102
0.99572 0.00156 0.00961 -0.0159
0.99039 0.00349 0.01704 -0.02061
0.98296 0.0061 0.02653 -0.02502
0.97347 0.00932 0.03806 -0.02915
0.96194 0.01303 0.05156 -0.03281
0.94844 0.01716 0.06699 -0.03582
0.93301 0.02166 0.08427 -0.03817
0.91573 0.02652 0.10332 -0.03991
0.89668 0.03171 0.12408 -0.04106
0.87592 0.03717 0.14645 -0.04166
0.85355 0.04283 0.17033 -0.04177
0.82967 0.04863 0.19562 -0.04147
0.80438 0.05453 0.22221 -0.04078
0.77779 0.06048 0.25 -0.03974
0.75 0.06642 0.27886 -0.03845
0.72114 0.07227 0.30866 -0.037
0.69134 0.07795 0.33928 -0.03547
0.66072 0.08341 0.37059 -0.0339
0.62941 0.08858 0.40245 -0.03229
0.59755 0.09341 0.43474 -0.03063
0.56526 0.09785 0.4673 -0.02891
0.5327 0.10185 0.5 -0.02713
0.5 0.10538 0.5327 -0.02529
0.4673 0.10837 0.56526 -0.0234
0.43474 0.11076 0.59755 -0.02149
0.40245 0.11248 0.62941 -0.01958
0.37059 0.11345 0.66072 -0.01772
0.33928 0.11361 0.69134 -0.01596
0.30866 0.11294 0.72114 -0.0143
0.27886 0.11141 0.75 -0.01277
0.25 0.10903 0.77779 -0.01136
0.22221 0.10584 0.80438 -0.01006
0.19562 0.1019 0.82967 -0.00886
0.17033 0.09726 0.85355 -0.00775
0.14645 0.09195 0.87592 -0.00674
0.12408 0.08607 0.89668 -0.00583
0.10332 0.0797 0.91573 -0.00502
0 0.00075 0.93301 -0.00431
0.06699 0.06541 0.94844 -0.00364
0.05156 0.05753 0.96194 -0.00297
0.03806 0.04937 0.97347 -0.00227
0.02653 0.04118 0.98296 -0.00156
0.01704 0.03303 0.99039 -0.00092
0.00961 0.02489 0.99572 -0.00042
0.00428 0.01654 0.99893 -0.00011
0.00107 0.00825 1 0
60