NETWORK THEOREMS

The fundamental laws that govern electric circuits are the Ohm’s Law and the Kirchoff’s
Laws.

Ohm’s Law
* Ohm’s Law states that the voltage v(t) across a resistor R is directly proportional
to the current I(t) flowing through it. R I(t)
►
v(t) ∝ I(t) or v(t) = R.I(t) ►
v(t)
KIRCHOFF’S CURRENT LAW (KCL)

* Kirchoff’s current law states that in a node, sum of entering current is equal sum
of leaving current. i.e., ∑ I at junction point = 0
* The theorem is applicable not only to a node, but to a closed system.
I 1 + I2 - I 3 + I4 - I 5 = 0 Id Ie
I5 I1

►
►
I 1 + I 2 + I 4 = I3 + I 5
►

I4
►

Also for the closed boundary, ► I2 ►

Ia

►
► ►
I3
►
Ia - Ib + Ic - Id - Ie = 0
►

Ic ► ►
►

Ib
►

* Kirchoff’s voltage law states that the algebraic sum of the voltages around any
closed path is zero. ►

i.e., Around a closed path ∑V = 0

►

Vd
Where V are the voltages across the branches in ►
► Ve
►

the loop. Vc
►
loop
►

v a + v b+ v c + vd - ve = 0 ► ►
►
Vb Va
Superposition Theorem
►

* If a numbers of voltage or current sources are acting simultaneously in a linear

network, the resultant current in any branch is the algebraic sum of the currents
that would be produced in it, when each source acts alone replacing all other in-
dependent sources by their internal resistance. r1 r2

* In figure to apply superposition theorem.

V1 +
_ r3 +
_ V2

Page -1
* Let us first take the source V1 alone I′1 I′2
► ►
at first replacing V2 by short circuit. r1 r2
____ V1
Here, I′1 = r2 r V1 +
_ r3
____3
r2 + r3 + r1 I′3

►
r3
____
I′2 = I′1 r + r and I′3 = I′1 - I′2
2 3 I″1 I″2
► ►

* Now, removing V1 by short circuit, r1 r2

I″3

►
let the circuit be energized by V2 only.
r3 +_ V2
____ V2
Here, I″2 = r r
____
1 3
r1 + r3 + r2
r3
____
and I″1 = I″2 r1 + r 3 I″3 = I2″ - I1

As per superposition theorem, I3 = I′3 + I″3 I2 = I′2 - I″2

I1 = I′1 - I″1

THEVENIN’S THEOREM ( or Helmholtz’s Theorem)

* Any two terminal bilateral linear d.c. circuit can be replaced by an equivalen
circuit consisting of a voltage source and a series resistor. r2
* Let us consider a simple d.c. circuit as r1
shown in figure (a). We find I1 by
Thevenin’s Theorem.
Vs +_ r3 I1 rL
►

Figure (a)
* Find the equivalent voltage source then r2
r1 is removed figure (b) and VO.C is r1
+
►

calculated
Vs
VO.C = Ir3 = ____ .r3 .... (i) Vs +
_ I r3 VO.C
r1 + r3 ►

_
►

Figure (b)

Page -2
 r1 r2
. Now to find the internal resistance of
the network . as shown in figure (c)
r1r3 .....(ii) Rth
Rth = r2 + r3
r1 + r3

Figure (c)
. As per Thevenin’s Theorem, the Source networks
equivalent circuit being figure (d).
Rth
From equation (i) and (ii)
VOC +
_ VOC rL IL
I1 = Amp.
RTh + rL

Figure (d)
Norton’s Theorem
A linear active network consisting of independent and or dependent voltage and
current source and linear bilateral network elements can be replaced by an equi-
valent circuit consisting of a current source in parallel with a resistance, the
current source being the short circuited current across the load terminal and the
resistance being the internal resistance of the source network looking through
the open circuited load terminals.
r1 r2
A simple d.c. network
+
_ Vs r3 IL rL

I
r1 r2
. Figure (a)

+
_ Vs r3 IS.C S.C ____ Vs
I = r 2 r3
►
____
r1 + r + r
2 3
____r3
Figure (b) Finding of I S.C and IS.C = I r +r
3 2
. r1 r2
* R int (Internal Resistance) is

Rint
r1 r3 r3 ►

Rint = r2 + ____
r1 + r3

Figure (c) Finding of R th(or Rint)

Page -3
 Equivalent source network
------------------------

►
* To find load current I L is

-------------------

-------------------
Rint IL rL

►
Rint
____ IS.C

►
I L = IS.C
Rint + rL
------------------------
Figure (d) Norton’s equivalent circuit
Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

* According to maximum power transfer theorem a resistance load, being

connected to a d.c. network, receives maximum power when the load re-
sistance is equal to the internal resistance of the source network as seen
from the load terminals. Thevenins equivalen
with reference to figure of D.C. source network
V0
____
I = .... (i)
Rth + R L ------------------------ X ►I

►
-------------------

-------------------
While the power delivered to the resistive Rth
load is +
( )
_ V0

►
V0
____ 2 RL
PL = I²RL = × RL ... (ii)
Rth + R L
PL can be maximised by varying R L and ------------------------ Y
Figure (a)
hence, maximum power can be delivered
dPL
____
when = 0
dRL
dPL
____
dRL =
____ 1
[(R th+ R L)²]²
V²0 (Rth - RL )
[
(Rth+ R L)²
d (V² R ) -V ²R ____
____
dRL
0 L 0 L
d (R + R )²
dRL
th L ]
____
(Rth + RL )³ = 0 then (Rth - R L ) = 0

or, Rth = RL V²0 Rth V²0

____ ____
From equation (ii) Pmax = (R + R )² = 4R th
th th
V²0
Obviously, the power transfer by the source would be also ____ .
4R th
The load power and source power being the same. V²0
V²
____ ____
The total power supplied is thus P = 2 0 = 2R th
4R th
During maximum power transfer the efficiency η becomes
P
____
max
η = P × 100 = 50%
Page -4
Reciprocity Theorem
* This theorem states that ay source of emf E, located at one point in a network
composed of linear bilateral circuit element produces a current I at the second
Point in the network, the same source of emf, E acting at the second point will
produce the same current I at the first point.
I►L IL= I0
+ ►
+
V0 _
_ V0
Network RL Network
R0 R0
RL

V0 of a voltage source in one part of the network driving a current I L in

another part remains the same if the source V0 and IL are interchanged.
MILLMAN’S THEOREM

* According to this theorem if number of voltage sources V1 , V2 , V3 ..... Vn

having internal impedance Z 1 , Z2 , Z3 ...... Zn are connected in parallel
supplying a common load Z1 , this arrangement can be replaced by a single
voltage source Veq in series with an impedance Zeq as shown. Zeq
--
Z1 Z2 Z3 ---
ZL ⇒ Veq +_ ZL
V1 +_ V1 +_ V3 +_ ---
--
V1 Y1 + V2 Y2 + V3 Y3 + ..... Vn Yn
____
Veq = Y1 + Y2 + Y3 + ...... Yn n
∑ YKVK n
____
K=1 1
____
Veq = n and Z eq = ∑ Y
K=1 K
∑ YK
K=1
TELLEGEN’S THEOREM

* This theorem states that the algebraic sum of power delivered to each branch
of any electric network is zero. n
∑ VKIK = 0
K=1
Where,
n = No. of branches of network
VK = Voltage across Kth branch
I K = Current in Kth branch
Page -5
Wye (Star) to Delta Tranformation
A
RAB RARB + RB RC+ RCRA
= ____ A
RC RA RAB
or
RB
O
RC
⇒ RCA

B C
RARB RBC
RAB = RA+ R B + ____ B C
Similarly RC
RBRC + RCRA + RARB RBRC
R BC = ____ or R BC = R B+ R C+ ____
RA RA
RCRA + RARB + RB RC R CRA
and R CA = ____ or RCA = R A + R C + ____
RB RB

Delta to Wye (Star) Transformation A

A
RAB × RCA RA
RA = ____
RAB + RBC + RCA
RAB RCA
⇒R O
RC
B
Similarly B C
RBC B C
RAB × RBC
____
RB = R +R +R
AB BC CA
RCA× RBC
____
RC =
RAB + RBC + RCA

Page -6
 NETWORK ELEMENTS AND GRAPHS

Interconnection of two or more simple circuit elements is called an electric network.

Classification of Network Elements

1. Lumped and Distributed Circuite Elements

* Lumped circuit element : Physically separate elements.
Example : Resistor, Capacitor, Inductor.
* Distributed element : A distributed element is one which is not separable
for electrical purpose.
Example : Transmission line has distributed resistance, capacitance and
inductance.

2. Active and Passive Elements

* Active element : The source of energy is called active element.
Example: Voltage source, current source.
* Passive element: The element which stores or dissipates energy is called
passive element.
Example: Resistor, Inductor, Capacitor

3. Linear and Non linear Elements

* Linear element: If the element obeys superposition principle, then it is
said to be linear elements.
Example: Resistor
* Nonlinear element: If the given network is not obeying superposition
principle, then it is said to be composed of non-linear elements.
Example: Transistor, Diode.

4. Bilateral and Unilateral Element

* Bilateral element: In bilateral element, voltage current relation is same
for both the directions.
Example: Resistor
* Unilateral element: In unilateral element, voltage current relation is not
same for both the directions.
Example: Diode, Transistors.

Sources

Two types of sources are: V _

+ I ↑ V
_
+ I ↑
* Independent sources
* Dependent sources
Independent Independent Dependent Dependent
voltage source current source voltage source current source
Page -1
* Ideal Voltage source: The sources are ►
Rint=0
independent of current direction and +
magnitude. It’s internal resistance is V_ RL
zero.
R int = 0 Ideal voltage source

* Ideal current source: These source are ► ►

independent of voltage direction (polarity)
and magnitude. It’s internal resistance is I ↑ RL
infinite. Rint=∞
►
R int = ∞ Ideal current source

* Source Conversion: A voltage source can be replaced by a shunt source as

follows.
Rint
+ V
__
V_ Output ⇔ I= R ↑ Rint Output

Resistance (R)

Resistance of a wire depends on its material and it’s size. It is given by

ρℓ
___
R = , where, ρ = Reistivity of a material in Ω cm.
A
ℓ = Length of the wire, and
A = Area of cross-section of wire.
* The power absorbed by the resistor is given by P = VI = (IR)I = I²R watt
* When n resistors are connected in series the equivalent resistance is
Req = R 1 + R 2 + R 3 + ........ + R n
* When n resistors are connected in parallel the equivalent resistance is
1
____ 1
___ 1
___ 1
___ 1
___
R eq = +
R1 R2 + + ...... +
R3 Rn
Inductance (L)

Inductance is the characteristic of an electrical conductor that opposes change in

current. The symbol for inductance is L and the basic unit of inductance is the
Henry (H).
Nϕ
___
Inductance (L) = Henry
L
where,
N = No. of turns in the coil, ϕ = Flux set by current I.
Also μ0 μ r N²A
_________
L = I Henry
Page -2
* Current through inductor is given by
t
1 t 1
__
I(t) = __ ∫ vdt or I(t) = ∫ vdt + I 0 Amp(A)
L -∞ L -∞
where, I 0 being the initial current
* Voltage across inductor is given by dϕ
dI
__ __
V =L = N dt volt.
dt
* The power absorbed by the inductor is given by
dI
__
P = VI = LI. watt.
dt
* When n inductors are connected in series the equivalent inductance is
L eq = L1 + L2 + L 3 + ...... + Ln
* When n inductors are connected in parallel the equivalent inductance is
1
____ 1
___ 1
___ 1
___ 1
L eq = + + + ....... + ___
L1 L2 L3 Ln
Capacitance (C)

Capacitance is the property of material by virtue of which it opposes the variation

in potential between the two sides. q
__
C = v
where, q = Charge, v = potential
ε0 ε r A
______
C = d
where,
C = Capacitance, is proportional to the dielectric and area of the plates, and is inve-
rsely proportional to the distance between the plates.
ε 0 = 8.86 × 10 -12 F/m; ε r = Relative permittivity; A = Area of the plate;
d = Spacing between two plates.
* Current through the capacitor is
dv
__
I = C Amp(A)
dt
* Voltage across the capacitor is
t t
1
__ 1
__
V =
C ∫ I(t)dt or V= C ∫ I(t)dt + v0
-∞ -∞

where, v 0 being the initial voltage

* when n capacitors are connected in series the equivalent capacitance is
1
____ 1
___ 1
___ 1
___ 1
___
C eq = + + + ........ +
C1 C2 C3 Cn
Page -3
* When n capacitors are connected in parallel the equivalent capacitance is
C eq = C1 + C2 + C3 + ...... + Cn

Graph Theory

A graph of any network can be drawn by placing all the nodes which are points of
intersection of more than two branches. Consider a network given below:
L
1 2 2
3 1 3
C1 C2
R1 R2 R3

4
4
Given network Graph of the given network
* Terminology used in network graph.
* Branch: A branch is a line segment representing one network element.
* Node: A node point is defined as an end point of a line segment and exists
at the junction between two branches.
* Tree: It is an interconnected open set of branches which include all the
nodes of the given graph. In a tree of the graph there cannot be any closed
loop. a
►
2 b 2 c
1 3 3
►
► ► 1
►
►
b c Corresponding
d tree d
►

►
►

e f
►

4 4
Given graph Tree
Simple graph and tree
* In the above figure branches b, c, d are called twig while the branches a, e, f,
are called links.
* Twig: Any branch of a tree is called twig.
Twig = n - 1 where, n = no. of nodes

* Link or chord: Branch of graph which is not in the tree.

* The number of links L is given by L=b-n+1
where,
L = number of links; b = number of branches; n = number of nodes.
Page -4
* The rank of tree is (n - 1). This is also the rank of a graph to which the tree
belongs i.e. both and graph has same rank. Where n is the number of nodes
in a graph.
Consider the following circuit for example:
_ 2 + _ 3
1 +
R
+ ↑ I
V_

4
* All the components are replaced by a line segment so a graph is obtained.
2
1 3

Connected graph

4
* This type of graph is called connected graph.
* If components are separate then this is called not connected graph or
unconnected graph.

⇒ Unconnected
graph

* If directions are shown in any graph then this is called directed graph.
2
1 ► ► 3
►

Directed graph
►

4
* Now we see the direction or load set of a reference.

Loop

If we start from any node and come back to the same node then this path is called
loop.
* In loop we doesn’t see the direction of graph.
* In loop, the branches may be present inside the loop.

Mesh

Is same as loop but no branch is present inside the mesh.

Page -5
 a 2 c
1 3
► ►
abec is loop but not mesh.
d

►
abd is both loop and mesh.

►
e

►
b

4
Complete Incidence Matrix f
►

* This is a matric between nodes and branches. 2

1 3
►
►
* At any node, if branch is not connected to this b d
a c

►
node then we place 0 in it.

►
e

►
* If the branch is connected to any node then
we see the direction. 4
* For incoming at any node ⇒ -1. * For outgoing at any node ⇒ +1.
So, Nodes Branches →
↓ a b c d e f

[ ]
1 1 1 0 0 0 1
2 0 -1 -1 -1 0 0
3 0 0 0 1 1 -1
4 -1 0 1 0 -1 0 (n × b)
Sum 0 0 0 0 0 0

* The sum of each column must be zero.

* Complete incidence matrix is a matrix with order (n × b).
* If any of the row is absent in the matrix then we can find it because we know
sum of all column should be zero. But we should know that which row was
absent.

Reduced Incident Matrix

If we remove any row from complete incidence matrix then this matrix is called
reduced incidence matrix.
* Obviously this is of the order of (n - 1) × b.
Nodes Branches →
↓ a b c d e f
1 1
2 0
3 0[ 1
-1
0
0
-1
0
0
-1
1
0
0
1
1
0
]
-1 (n - 1) × b
f
Fundamental Cut Set of a Graph ►

2
1 3
►
►
Cut-set of a graph which exactly cut the graph b d
into two parts, with the restriction that by c
►

a e
►
►

substituting any branch back, then it should

be connected.
4
Page -6
* cut set (a, b, f) 2 3
►
1 d

►
c

►
e

4
* (a, b, f, c) this is not a cut set
d
►

because if we place the branch

c back

►
e

Minimum number of cut set = Number of nodes

Fundamental Cut-Set (f cut-set)

This is a cut set which contains exactly one twig. (Not more than one or not less
than 1).
Let the tree is ►
►

f 1 = (a, b, f) b d
c
►

f 2 = (d, e, f)
f 3 = (a, c, e)
So number of fundamental cut set should be (n - 1)
* For the matrix with fundamental cut set we take the reference direction as
the direction of twig (+1).
Nodes Branches →
↓ a b c d e f

Sum
[
f1 1
f2 0
f 3 -1
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
1
1
0
1
0
1
0
-1
1
0
1
-1
0 (n - 1) b
0
]
* In the matrix of fundamental cut set column with only (+1) entry will be twig
and other will be link.
* Loop: This is the dual of cut-set.
duality
loop ⇔ cut-set
►
Fundamental Loop (Tie-Set) Matrix e
►
►
b d
Loop in which only one link will be present.
* For fundamental-loop we take the direction of c f
►
►

a
►

link as a direction for reference.

Page -7
So fundamental loops are
b► d
►
-- c

--
►
-- c c

--
►

►
►
-- ►
►
a f

--
►
-- b d

--
--

--
(1) (2) (3)
Number of fundamental loop = Number of links = b - n + 1
Loops Branches →
↓ a b c d e f

*
l1 1
l2 0
l3 0
[
-1
0
1
-1
1
0
0
1
-1
0
0
1
0
1
0 l b
Column with one entry will be link and others are twig.
]
* Number of equations with variables N - 1 = twigs
* For example let twig are the voltage variable
* Links are the shunt variable.

Mesh Analysis

The mesh or loop method of analysis is explained by the circuit below.

Z1 Z2 Z6
I1 I2 I3
+ +
V1_ I Z 3 II Z4 III _V2
► ► ►

Z5
Mesh Analysis
In Mesh-I
I 1 Z 1+ (I 1 - I2 )Z3 - V1 = 0 ∴ (Z1 + Z 3)I1 + (-Z 3 )I 2 + 0I3 = V1 ...(i)

In Mesh - II
(I2 - I1 )Z3 + I 2 Z2 + (I2 - I 3) Z4 + I2 Z5 = 0
(-Z 3 ) I 1 + (Z2 + Z 3 + Z4 + Z 5 ) I 2 + (-Z 4) I 3 = 0 ... (ii)

In Mesh - II
(I3 - I 2 ) Z4 + I3 Z 6 + (V2 ) = 0
(0) I1 + (-Z4 ) I 2 + (Z 4 + Z6 ) I3 = -V2 .....(iii)

Writing equation (i), (ii) and (iii) in the matrix form

Page -8
 [ Z1 + Z3
-Z3
0
-Z 3
Z2 + Z 3 + Z4 + Z5
-Z4
0
-Z4
Z 4 + Z6
][ ] [ ]
I1
I2
I3
= 0
V1

-V2

Now by cramer’s rule Mesh currents I 1 , I 2, I3 will be

1 V1
__ -Z 3 0
I1 =
∆ 0 Z2 + Z 3 + Z4 + Z5 -Z4
-V2 -Z4 Z 4 + Z6
Z1 + Z3 V1 0
1
__ -Z3 0 -Z 4
I2 =
∆ 0 -Z2 Z4 + Z6
Z1 + Z3 -Z 3 V1
1
__
I3 = ∆ -Z3 Z2 + Z 3 + Z4 + Z5 0
0 -Z4 -V2
where
Z1 + Z3 -Z 3 0
∆ = -Z3 Z2 + Z 3 + Z4 + Z5 -Z4
0 -Z4 Z4 + Z 6
Generalised mesh equations can be written as
[Z] [1] = [V] [Z] → Impedance matrix
having Z ij as elements i = 1, 2, ........ m and j = 1, 2, ..... m
and V is the column matrix of input voltages Vi , i = 1, 2, ...... m.
The elements Zij of the impedance matrix [Z] are
(i) Z ii , self impedance of the i th mesh
(ii) Zij , the mutual impedance between i th and j th meshes.
The order of Z matrix will be according to the number of meshes.

][ ] [ ]
Writing the elements of the matrix.

[
Z11 Z12 ... Z1m I1 V1
Z21 Z 22 ... Z2m I 2 = V2
...
...
...
...

...

...

Zm1 Zm2 ... Z mm Im Vm

1 2
► Y2 Y5
NODE ANALYSIS ►
►

I1 I3 I2 I4 ►
►
►

V1 I5
1 Y
►

At node 1, writing KCL, 1 Y3 V2 Y 4

I - I 1 - I 2 - I3 = 0
and in terms of potential and
0
admittances will be
I - Y1 V1 - Y3 V1 - Y2 (V1 - V2 ) = 0
Page -9
 ⇒ (Y1 + Y2 + Y3 ) V1 + (-Y2 ) V2 = I .... (i)
At node 2, I2 - I 4 - I 5 = 0
Y2 (V1 - V2 ) - Y4 V2 - Y5 V2 = 0
⇒ (-Y2 ) V1 + (Y2 + Y4 + Y5 ) V2 = 0 .... (ii)
Writing equation (i), (ii) in matrix form as

[Y1 + Y2 + Y3
Y2
-Y2
Y2 + Y4 + Y5 ] [ ] []
V1
V2
=
I
0

By cramer’s rule __
1 1 -Y2 1 Y1 + Y2 + Y3
__ 1
∴ V1 = ∆ 0 Y2 + Y4 + Y5 V2 =
∆ -Y2 0
Y1 + Y2 + Y3 -Y2
where ∆ =
-Y2 Y2 + Y4 + Y5
Generalised node equations can be written as [Y][V] = [I]
Square matrix Y is called the admittance matrix,
V is the column matrix of the node voltages with respect to reference node
and I is the column matrix of input currents.
The elements Yij , i = 1, 2, .... m, j = 1, 2, .... m of the admittance matrix Y are
(i) Yij , the self admittance of the ith node.
(ii) Yij , the mutual admittance between the i th and jth node of negative sign.

Consider a generalised network with (n + 1) nodes including the reference node,

we can write the node equations in matrix form of order (n × n) using KCL as

[ Y11
Y21
Y12
Y22
...
...
Y1n
Y2n
][ ] [ ]
V1
V2
=
I1
I2
...
...

...
...

...

...

Yn1 Yn2 ... Ynn Vn In

Page -10
One Port and Two Port Network Function
I1 I2
+ 1 ►
Two port ◄ 2 +
V1 V2
_ 1' Network
2" _

Driving Point Impedance and Admittance Function

(a) Driving impedance function at port 1 :
V1 (s)
Z11 (s) = ___
I1 (s)
(b) Driving impedance function port 2 :
V2 (s)
Z22 (s) = ___
I2 (s)
I1 (s)
(c) Driving admittance function port 1 : Y11 (s) = ___
V1 (s)
I2 (s)
(d) Driving admittance function at port 2 : Y22 (s) = ___
V2 (s)
1 1
Note : Z11 = ___ ; Z22 = ___
Y22
Y11
Impedance and Admittance Transfer Function
V2 (s) V1 (s)
(a) Z21 (s) = ___ ; (b) Z12 (s) = ___
I1 (s) I2 (s)
I2 (s) I1 (s)
(c) Y21 (s) = ___ ; (d) Z12 (s) = ___
V1 (s) V2 (s)
Note : Numerator carries response and denominator carrier excitation.
Voltage and Current Transfer function
(a) Voltage transfer function
V1 (s)
V2 (s) ; 2. G12 (s) = _____
1. G21 (s) = _____
V1 (s) V2 (s)
(b) Current transfer function
I2 (s)
1. α21 = _____ I1 (s)
; 2. α12 = _____
I1 (s) I2 (s)
Consider a Network Function
a0 s n + a1 s n - 1 + . . . + an
________________________________
H(s) = m
b 0 s + b 1 s m - 1 + . . . + bm
 (a0 - b0) [(s - Z1) (s - Z2) (s - Z3) . . . (s - Zn)]
___________________________________
= [(s - P1) (s - P2) . . . (s - Pm)]
P(s)
= ____
Q(s)
Matrix Method for determination of Network Functions
1. Determination of impedance function from nodal analysis
I = YV
∆Kj
Zjk = ___
∆
where ∆ = | Y | and ∆Kj = co - factor
= (-1) K + j MKj
MKj is minor aKj element pf | Y |
2. Determination of admittance function from mesh analysis
V = ZI
∆Kj
YjK = ___
∆
where ∆ = | Z | and ∆Kj = (-1) K + j MKj
3. Determination of current transfer function mesh analysis
V = ZI
∆12
____
α12 =
∆11
∆Kj = (-1)K + 1 MKj
MKj minor of element aKj of | Z |
4. Determination of voltage transfer function Nodal analysis
I = YV
∆12
___
G12 = ∆11
∆Kj = (-1)K + j MKj
MKj Minor of element of aKj of | Y |
Properties of driving point impedance and admittance functions or
necessary conditions for driving point impedance and admittance function
1. All coefficient of P(s) and Q(s) must be positive and real.
2. Complex and imaginary poles and zeros must be conjugate.
s+1
i.e. F(s) = _____________
(s + 3) (s + 1 - j)
is not a driving point impedance function.
3. (a) Real part of all poles and zeros must not be positive.
(b) If poles and zeros are imaginary they must be simple (non-repeated).
4. There should not be any missing power of ‘s’ between highest and lowest
power in numerator and denominator both except when either all even or odd
power are missing.
5. The degree of P(s) and Q(s) can at the most differ by 1.
6. Lowest power of s in numerator and denominator can differ at most ‘1’.
Network Transform Functions
• A transfer function is the ratio of Laplace transform of the output Y(s) to
Laplace transform of the input X(s).
• By setting the denominator of the transfer function to zero, and obtaining the
roots by solving the equation, we can know the system’s stability by
considering by setting s = 0, i.e G(0) give DC gain where G(s) is transfer
function.
Procedure for Deriving Transfer Functions
Following assumption is made in deriving the transfer function :
• It is assumed that no loading of one system on other. If the system has more
than one non loading element, the transfer function of each element can be
determined independently and the overall transfer function can be obtain by
multiplying the individual transfer function.
• If the system consisting of element, which load each other, the overall
transfer function should be derived by the basic analysis.
Necessary Conditions for Transfer Function
1. The coefficients in the polynomials P(s) and Q(s) of H(s) = P(s)/Q(s) must
be real and those for Q(s) must be positive.
2. Poles and zeros which are complex and imaginary must be conjugate.
3. The real part of the poles must be either negative or zero, if poles are
imaginary, then they must be simple (non-repeated). But zeros can have
positive real part also.
4. There should not be any missing power of s between lowest and highest
power of s in denominator except all odd all even power are missing.
Numerator can have i.e. (P(s)) can have missing terms of s and some of the
coefficients of may be negative.
5. The degree of P(s) may be as small as zero independent of the degree of
Q(s).
6. (a) For G12 and α12 , the maximum degree of P(s) is the degree of Q(s).
(b) For Z12 and Y12 , the maximum degree of P(s) is the degree of Q(s)
pulse one.
Impedance Matrix of Gyrator
• It is a device that gyrates the current of one port into a voltage at the other
and vice versa.
I1 I2
+ +
►
V1 V2
_ _
V1 = -αI2 V2 = αI1
As impedance transforming element

V1 V2

Ro
V1 + Ro I2 = 0
V2 = Ro I1
0 -α i1 V1
___
___
___
___

___
___

• Matrix form =
α 0 i2 V2
• If the gyrator is terminated in an impedance ZL , the driving point impedance
Z11 ZL + ∆Z ; Zin = (α²/ZL)
Zd = _________
Z22 + ZL
• If ZL is capacitor, then ZL = (1/sC)
Zin = sCα² give inductor of value = α²C
• If ZL is an inductor ZL = sL
Zin = (α²/sL) gives capacitor of value = (L/α²)
• Used to simulate inductor from capacitor.
Z or Impedance Parameters
In this, the dependent variables are V1 and V2 and independent variable I1 and
I2 .
Defining equations are :
V1 = Z11 I1 + Z12 I2
V2 = Z21 I1 + Z22 I2
In Impedance Matrix Form
V1
= Z11 Z12 I1
___
___
___

___
___
___
V2 Z21 Z22 I2
• To obtain the Z-parameters, we open circuit the output and input port
alternately.
• With output open circuit I2 = 0
V1 = Z11 I1
or Z11 = ___
V1
___

= input impedance
I1 I2 = 0
V2 = Z21 I1
or Z21 = ___
V2
___

= forward transfer impedance

I1 I2 = 0
• With input open circuit I1 = 0
V1 = Z12 I2
or Z12 = ___
V1
___

= reverse transfer impedance

I2 I1 = 0
V2 = Z22 I2
or Z22 = ___
V2
___

= output impedance
I2 I1 = 0

Z-parameter for a T-network

I1 Zd ZB I2
+ +
V1 Zc V2
_ _

ZA + ZC ZC
Z=
ZC ZB + ZC
Property of Z-parameter
• Z11 , Z22 are called driving point input and output impedance function.
• Z12 and Z21 are called transfer function.
• Network for which Z11 = Z22 called as symmetrical.
• Network for which Z12 = Z21 are known as reciprocal network.
• Reciprocal network need not be symmetrical.
Y or Admittance Parameter
• Also known as admittance parameter.
• Independent variables are voltage V1 , V2 and dependent variable current I1 ,
I2 .
• I1 = Y11 V1 + Y12 V2
I2 = Y21 V1 + Y22 V2
• Admittance in matrix form
Y11 Y12
Y=
Y21 Y22
• For reciprocal Y12 = Y21
Symmetric
A two port is symmetric if port can be interchanged, without any effect on the
performance.
Z11 = Z22
Y11 = Y22
Hybrid (h) Parameters
Current (I1) and voltage (V2) are the independent variable and current (I2) and
voltage (V1) are dependent variable.
V1 = h11 I1 + h12 V2
I2 = h21 I1 + h22 V2
Inverse Hybrid Parameter 9g-parameter)
I1 = g11 V1 + g12 I2
V2 = g21 V1 + g22 I2
Transmission Parameters (ABCD parameters)
• It relates the voltage and current at input port to volatage and current at
output port.
• V1 = AV2 - BI2
I1 = CV2 - DI2
• For symmetrical Network A = D
• For reciprocal A B =1
C D
= i.e. AD - BC = 1
Cascading
Two Port Network Connected in Cascade
Overall ABCD parameter of two cascaded two port network is multiplication
of their ABCD parameters.
 I1 → ← I2
+ A B A’ B’ +
_V1 C C’ D’ V2 - _
D
I1 I2 +
+ A1 B1
_ V1 C1 D1 V2 _

A1 B1 A B A' B'
= ×
C1 D1 C D C' D'
Two Port Network in Parallel
Overall matrix for two port network connected in parallel is the sum of the
individual network y-parameters (yA) =(yB)
where
(y) = overall y-parameter of combine network
(yA) = y-parameter of network A
(yB) = y-parameter of network B.
Two Port Network Connected in Series
The overall matrix for two=port network connected in series is equal to the
sum of the individual network Z-parameter matrix
(z) = (zA) + (zB)
Some Special Results
I1 → ← I2
+ z +
_ V1 V2
_

Z-parameter of this network does not exist.

(
y = 1/z
-1/z
-1/z
1/z )
, ABCD = 1
0
Z
1 ( )
I1 I2
+ +
V1 Z V2
_ _
This network cannot have y-parameter
Z= Z
Z( )
Z ; ABCD = 1
Z 0 ( Z
1 )
Obtain T-equivalent of the �-network

1 2 1
Z2 Yc 2
+ Z1 +

Z3 Ya Yb
_ _

Za (Zb + Zc ) Za Zb
Z11 = ___________ , Z12 = Z21 = _________
Za + Zb + Zc Za + Zb + Zc
Za (Zb + Zc)
Z22 = ___________
Za + Zb + Zc
Za Zb
Z3 = _________
Za + Zb + Zc
Za Zc
Z21 = __________
Za + Zb + Zc
Za Zc
Z2 = _________
Za + Zb + Zc
Impedance Matching
1 2
Za

Zs Zb Zf
<
> Z2i Z1i

• L-section Za and Zb is inserted between impedances Zs (source) and Zli (load)

so that the source sees an impedfance Zli and seen as impedance Z2i . Such an
arrangement is called impedance matching.
• Impedance Zli and Z2i is called image impedance.
• Z²a = Zli (Z1l - Z2i)
Za . Zb = Z1i - Z2i
• If Zli < Z2i ; Za and Zb are reactive for purely resistive image impedances.
Also one of the Z, Zb is inductive and the other capacitive.