LESSON 1 Our Island, Earth

Guiding Question: How does environmental science help us understand

the natural world?

• Explain the focus of environmental science. Reading Strategy Create a KWL chart for each of the
• Describe the recent trends in human population and vocabulary terms in this lesson. Before you read, fill in what
resource consumption. you know and what you want to learn. After reading, fill in
what you learned.
Vocabulary environment, environmental science,
environmentalism, natural resource, renewable natural
resource, nonrenewable natural resource, sustainable,
fossil fuel, ecological footprint

Viewed from space, our home planet

resembles a small blue marble suspended against
a vast inky-black backdrop. Earth may seem vast
1.1 LESSON PLAN PREVIEW
here on its surface, but an astronaut’s perspec-
Real World Students list
specific ways they influence tive reveals that Earth and its natural systems are
the environment. limited. It has become clear that as our popula-
Differentiated Instruction tion and technological powers increase, so does
Less proficient readers use our ability to change our planet and possibly
different strategies to break damage the very systems that keep us alive.
the reading into manage-
able parts.
Our Environment
1.1 RESOURCES Environmental scientists study how the natural world works,
Modeling Activity, Finite Resources
and how humans and the environment affect each other.
• Graph It, An Introduction to
Graphing • Map It Online • Les-
son 1.1 Worksheets • Lesson 1.1 From space, Earth looks simple—blue oceans, green and brown land
Assessment • Chapter 1 Overview masses, white clouds—but this is not a complete picture of the environ-
Presentation ment. The environment includes all the living and nonliving things with
which organisms interact. It includes the continents, oceans, clouds, and
GUIDING QUESTION icecaps visible in the photo of Earth from space, but it also includes the
animals, plants, forests, and farms that you cannot see from such a great
FOCUS Have students write for two
minutes about the term environ- distance. The environment includes remote areas rarely visited by people,
mental science. Then, have them but it also includes all of the buildings, urban centers, and houses that
review what they have written. Call people have built, as well as the complex webs of social relationships that
on volunteers to share what they shape our daily lives.
wrote with the class. Use students’
responses to launch a class discus- Humans and the Environment Unfortunately, environment is often
sion on how environmental science
can promote understanding of the
used to mean the nonhuman or “natural” world. But humans are part
natural world. of nature. Like all other species on Earth, we interact with our environ-
ment and rely on a healthy, functioning planet for everything we need—
including air, water, food, and shelter. Without a healthy environment, we
cannot survive. Studying environmental science reminds us that we are
part of the natural world and how we interact with it matters a great deal.

4 Lesson 1
Understanding Human Influences Many people today enjoy lon-
ger life spans, better health, and greater material wealth than ever before.
We can fly around the world with ease and cure previously incurable
diseases with a pill. However, these improvements have often harmed
the natural systems that sustain us, destroying habitats and polluting
the water and atmosphere. The discovery that synthetic chemicals were
harming Earth’s ozone layer served as a wake-up call, illustrating how
human influences can ultimately threaten long-term health and survival.
Environmental science is the study of how the natural world works,
how our environment affects us, and how we affect our environment.
Understanding interactions between humans and the environment is the
first step toward solving environmental problems. The size and scope of
these problems can seem overwhelming. However, with these problems
also come countless opportunities for devising creative solutions. In the
case of ozone depletion, a very real and effective solution has been found
to a seemingly impossible problem. Scientists now predict that within fifty
years, ozone depletion will be reversed and the ozone hole will be gone. ANSWERS
Environmental scientists study issues that are important to our world Reading Checkpoint People rely on
and its future. Right now, global conditions are changing quickly, but so is the natural world for everything they
our knowledge and understanding of the natural world. With such large need to survive.
challenges and opportunities, this particular moment in history is a very
exciting time to be studying environmental science. Figure 1 Humans in the
Environment For better or worse,
Reading Why do people need the natural world? people—just like every other other
Checkpoint species—affect the environment.
Unlike other species, however, our
actions have the ability to do great
harm, or great good, on a global scale.

An Introduction to Environmental Science 5

Figure 2 Environmentalism or (a) (b)
Environmental Science? Can you tell
which is which? (a) Environmentalists
protest commercial whaling in
Anchorage, Alaska, in 2007.
(b) Environmental scientists from the
New England Aquarium, in Boston,
Massachusetts, collect data on right
whales that will help them understand
how the whales live in the wild.

Environmental Science vs. Environmentalism Many environ-

mental scientists are motivated by a desire to develop solutions to envi-
ronmental problems. Studying our interactions with our environment
is a complex endeavor that requires expertise from many disciplines,
including ecology, earth science, chemistry, biology, economics, political
science, and others. Environmental science is thus an interdisciplinary
field, one that borrows techniques from numerous disciplines and brings
research results from these disciplines together.
Although many environmental scientists are interested in solving
problems, it would be incorrect to confuse environmental science with
environmentalism, or environmental activism. They are not the same,
as shown in Figure 2. Environmental science is the pursuit of knowl-
edge about the workings of the environment and our interactions with
it. Environmentalism is a social movement dedicated to protecting the
natural world—and, by extension, people—from undesirable changes
brought about by human actions. Although environmental scientists may
study many of the same issues environmentalists care about, they try to
maintain an objective approach in their work, avoiding bias whenever
possible. Bias is a preference or viewpoint that is personal, not scientific.
Attempting to remain free from bias, open to whatever conclusions the
data demand, is a hallmark of the effective scientist.

Population Up, Resources Down

In the last several hundred years, both human population and
resource consumption have increased dramatically.

Inhabitants of an island must cope with limited materials, whether food,

water, or other supplies. On our island Earth, human beings, like all living
things, ultimately face environmental constraints. Specifically, there are
limits to many of our natural resources, materials, and energy sources
found in nature, that humans need to survive.

6 Lesson 1
 Renewable natural • Fresh water Nonrenewable natural
resources • Forest products resources
• Agricultural crops
• Sunlight • Crude oil
• Soil
• Wind energy • Natural gas
• Wave energy • Coal
• Geothermal energy • Copper, aluminum,
and other metals

Renewable or Nonrenewable? Nature “makes” natural resources in Figure 3 Natural Resources

different ways and at varied speeds. Some natural resources, such as fruits Natural resources lie along a
continuum from always available
and grains, are naturally replenished, or renewed, over short periods. and completely renewable to
These resources are renewable natural resources. In contrast, resources nonrenewable. Completely renewable
such as coal and oil are nonrenewable natural resources because they are resources, such as sunlight and wind
energy, will always be there for us.
naturally formed much more slowly than we use them. Once nonrenew- Nonrenewable resources, such as oil
able resources are completely depleted, or used up, they are gone forever. and coal, exist in limited amounts that
could one day be gone. Resources such
▶ A Renewability Continuum As shown in Figure 3, the renewability as timber, soil, and fresh water can be
of natural resources can be visualized as a continuum. Some renewable renewed naturally if we are careful not
resources, such as sunlight, wind, and wave energy, are essentially avail- to use them faster than nature can
replace them.
able at all times. Nonrenewable resources, such as coal and oil, are at
the other end of the continuum—for example, it takes millions of years
of intense heat and pressure to form oil, but only a few hours to burn
through a tank of gasoline.
▶ Sustainability In between these two extremes are natural resources
such as fresh water, timber, and soil. These resources can renew them-
selves, but it takes some time—not millions of years like nonrenewable
resources, but still months, years, or decades. These types of renewable
resources may become nonrenewable if they are not used at a sustainable
rate. Resource use is considered sustainable if it can continue at the same
rate into the foreseeable future.
If nonrenewable resources and the “in between” resources like timber
and water are used unsustainably, then we can run out of them. For
example, lakes and reservoirs can dry up if the freshwater supplies are
drained faster than rainfall and snowmelt can refill them. In recent years,
consumption of natural resources has increased to unsustainable levels, ANSWERS
driven by the growth of the largest human population in history.
Reading Checkpoint We use
Reading How do we use resources sustainably? resources sustainably by using them
Checkpoint
at a rate that can continue for the
foreseeable future.

An Introduction to Environmental Science 7

 World Population Growth
Human Population Growth For nearly all of
human history, only a few million people lived on
7
Earth at any one time. Although past populations

Human population (billions)

6 cannot be calculated precisely, Figure 4 gives you
5 some idea of just how recently and suddenly our
population has grown to about 6.8 billion people.
4
Industrial We add about 78 million people to the planet each
Revolution
Agricultural
3 year—that’s more than 200,000 people each day.
Revolution
2 Today, the rate of population growth is slowing,
Bubonic
plague but our absolute numbers continue to increase and
1
shape our interactions with one another and with
0 our environment.
8000 B. C. 4000 B. C. 2000 B. C. 0 2000 A. D.
The remark-
▶ The Agricultural Revolution

able increases in population size can be attributed

Figure 4 Human Population
Growth For almost all of human history,
to two events in recent human history. The first
our population was low and relatively was the transition from a hunter-gatherer lifestyle to an agricultural way
stable. It increased significantly due to of life. This change began around 10,000 years ago and is known as the
two events: the Agricultural Revolution Agricultural Revolution. As people began to grow crops, raise domestic
and the Industrial Revolution. The only
significant drop in population occurred animals, and live in villages, they found it easier to meet their nutritional
when 25 million people died of bubonic needs. As a result, they began to live longer and to produce more children
plague in the 1300s. who survived to adulthood.
▶ The Industrial Revolution About 300 years ago in the early 1700s, the
An Introduction to second event, known as the Industrial Revolution began. The Industrial
Graphing
Revolution describes the shift from rural life, with animal-powered
agriculture, and handmade manufacturing, to an urban society powered
Figure 5 Less Time, More Power by nonrenewable energy sources. These nonrenewable energy resources,
Technologies developed during the such as oil, coal, and natural gas, are known as fossil fuels. The Industrial
Industrial Revolution have made many Revolution introduced many improvements. Medical technology
tasks easier, but many of them require
the use of nonrenewable resources.
advanced, sanitation improved, and agricultural production increased
For example, (a) horses used to power with the use of fossil-fuel-powered equipment and chemical fertilizers.
plows, like this one from 1903, but Humans lived longer, had healthier lives, and over time, enjoyed new
(b) today gasoline powers plows. technologies like telephones, automobiles, and computers.

(a) (b)

8 Lesson 1
The Problem With Population Growth At the outset of the Figure 6 Too Many People, Too
Industrial Revolution in England, population growth was regarded as a Little Space For residents of Mumbai,
good thing. For parents, high birthrates meant more children to support India, there simply aren’t enough
resources to go around. Many people
them in old age. For society, it meant a greater pool of labor for factory live in extreme poverty within slums.
work. British economist Thomas Malthus had a different opinion, how-
ever. Malthus claimed that unless population growth was controlled, the What Do
This slum, Dharavi, is the largest
in Mumbai. It is estimated to have
number of people would outgrow the available food supply until starva- you think?
a population of around 1 million
people—the densest population of any
tion, war, or disease arose and reduced the population. Malthus expressed city on Earth.
his ideas in An Essay on the Principle of Population, published in 1798.
More recently, biologists Paul and Anne Ehrlich of Stanford Univer-
sity have warned that population growth will have disastrous effects on
human welfare. In his book The Population Bomb, published in 1968, Paul
Ehrlich predicted that the rapidly increasing human population would
ANSWERS
unleash famine and conflict that would consume civilization by the end of
the twentieth century. Luckily for us, Ehrlich’s forecasts have not materi- What Do You Think? Students’
alized on the scale he predicted. Some, such as economist Julian Simon, opinions will vary but should be well
think this dire prediction unlikely and maintain that technology can supported.
stretch our resources. However, concerned scientists warn that a global
population crisis is still possible.

Ecological Footprints Population growth unquestionably leads to What Do

many environmental problems. However, it is not just the number of you think?
people on Earth, but how much we consume, that is to blame. Resource
consumption can be quantified using the concept of the “ecological What do you think accounts for the
footprint,” developed in the 1990s by environmental scientists Mathis variation in sizes of ecological foot­
Wackernagel and William Rees. An ecological footprint expresses the prints among societies? Do you
environmental effects of an individual or population in terms of the total think that nations with larger foot­
amount of land and water required: (1) to provide the raw materials the prints should have to reduce their
individual or population consumes and (2) to dispose of or recycle the effects on the environment, to
waste the individual or population produces. The ecological footprint leave more resources available for
concept is most commonly applied to humans, but every organism and nations with smaller footprints?
natural or synthetic object has a footprint.

An Introduction to Environmental Science 9

 Ecological Deficit
 
No data

Map adapted from 2003 World Consumption Cartogram, © Jerrard Pierce 2007.

Figure 7 Relative Footprints In this

map, nation sizes have been altered
to indicate their relative ecological There is no universal way to calculate an ecological footprint. When
footprints. Nations in red have positive looking at the footprint for a potato, for example, one group of research-
ecological deficits, meaning that they ers may include only the resources needed to grow the potato, while
have ecological footprints greater
than the global average. These nations another group of researchers might include the resources needed to cook
appear bloated on the map. In contrast, the potato as well. When comparing footprints, however, it does not mat-
nations in shades of green have ter what approach is used to calculate footprint values as long as it is used
negative deficits and appear shrunken
consistently. In this way, ecological footprints can be enormously useful
because their ecological footprints are
below average. as a tool to compare resource use across individuals or populations.
For example, by one set of calculations, the average American has
ANSWERS an ecological footprint about 3.5 times that of the global average. Resi-
dents of other nations, such as Canada, Chile, and Australia, however,
Map It For answers to the Map It
activity, see page A–1 at the back of are consuming resources at a rate less than the global average. Figure 7
the book. shows one research group’s summary of how footprints compare across
the globe.

Map it
Comparing Ecological Footprints 3. Infer Use the Internet or other
The map in Figure 7 uses data from the Global Footprint Network and reference material to look up the
CIA World Factbook to compare resource consumption in the world’s ten nations with the largest gross
nations. Each nation’s shape has been stretched in proportion to its rela- national product (GNP), a mea-
tive ecological footprint size. Color also serves to indicate how a nation sure of a nation’s wealth. How
compares to the world average. does the wealth of a nation relate
1. Interpret Maps Describe how color is used in the map. What does to its relative ecological footprint?
green indicate? What does red indicate?
2. Interpret Maps Use the Internet or an atlas to identify five of the
nations shown in the darkest shades of red.

10 Lesson 1
The Tragedy of the Commons What will happen if we use resources
globally at an unsustainable rate? Increased resource use can cause what
Garrett Hardin of the University of California at Santa Barbara called a
tragedy of the commons. According to Hardin, unless resources are regu-
lated, we will eventually be left with nothing.
▶ The Original “Commons” Hardin bases his argument on a scenario
described in an 1833 English pamphlet describing public pastures, or
“commons,” that were open to unregulated community grazing. Hardin
argues that the commons model, in which a resource is left unregulated,
motivates individuals to increase their resource consumption. If the com-
mon is open to public use, why would anyone turn it down? But as more
and more people acted in their own self-interest, in this case by adding
animals to graze upon the pasture, a problem arose: The animals ate the
grass faster than it could regrow. Eventually, no grass was left and all of Figure 8 A Modern-Day Tragedy of
the Commons Many parts of southern
the animals suffered. Hardin argues that when resources are unregulated, Africa are experiencing a tragedy of the
everyone takes what he or she can until the resource is depleted. No one commons today. Vast forested regions
takes responsibility, so everyone eventually loses. As shown in Figure 8, have been cleared to enable farming
and ranching. Improper techniques
tragedies of the commons still occur today.
coupled with overuse, however, are
causing the land to dry up, making
▶ Learning From the Past How can the tragedy of the commons be
it unsuitable for the very crops and
avoided? The most obvious solution, perhaps, is for people sharing a com- animals it was intended for.
mon resource to voluntarily organize, cooperate, and enforce responsible
use. Some have argued that this type of management is often impracti-
cal, and that private ownership of natural resources is the better option.
With resource privatization, a regulating body, such as a government,
gives each person a share of the resource that he or she controls instead of
leaving resources open to everyone. While this strategy has potential with
discrete resources such as minerals, fish, or farmland, privatization does
not work as well with continuous, global resources such as the oceans or
the ozone layer.
It is important for individuals and governments to consider every ANSWERS
kind of solution for the diverse problems facing us today. One way or Lesson 1 Assessment For answers
another, environmental scientists warn, we must address the rate at which to the Lesson 1 Assessment, see page
resources are consumed—and soon. A–1 at the back of the book.

1
1. Apply Concepts Ecology is the study of how 3. Suppose you make your
organisms interact with their environments. How living fishing for lobster. You and everyone else are
is environmental science different from ecology? In free to set out as many traps as you like. As more
what way is ecology part of environmental science? and more traps are set up, however, fewer and
Explain. fewer lobsters are caught. Soon, lobster catches are
2. Form an Opinion Do you think it is possible to too small to support your families. A meeting is
have the benefits of the Agricultural and Industrial coming up where you and your fellow lobster fish-
revolutions without the environmental costs? ers will present possible solutions to this problem.
Explain why or why not. What will you propose to combat this tragedy of
the commons and restore the fishery?

An Introduction to Environmental Science 11

 LESSON 2 The Nature of Science
Guiding Question: What does it mean to “do science”?

• Explain what science is. Reading Strategy Before you read, write process of science on
• Describe the process of science.
a piece of paper and draw a circle around it. As you read, make a
cluster diagram using this circled phrase as your main idea.
Vocabulary hypothesis, prediction, independent variable,
dependent variable, controlled study, data

The end of the world as we know it? It seems like

predictions of environmental catastrophe come out every day. Constantly,
scientists are on television, the radio, in the newspapers, or on the
1.2 LESSON PLAN PREVIEW
Internet explaining their latest data—of a warming Earth, rising seas,
Inquiry Students develop
scientific questions and discuss and declining resources. On the other hand, there are reports that these
ways to investigate them. environmental concerns are exaggerated and the science is flawed. How
Differentiated Instruction do we sort fact from fiction? Studying environmental science will outfit
Struggling students study the you with the tools that can help you to evaluate information on environ-
parts of a diagram to under- mental change and to think critically and creatively about possible actions
stand the process of science.
to take in response.
1.2 RESOURCES
Scientific Method Lab, Green vs. What Science Is and Is Not
Conventional Cleaners • Lesson 1.2 Science is both an organized and methodical way of studying
Worksheets • Lesson 1.2 Assessment •
Chapter 1 Overview Presentation the natural world and the knowledge gained from such studies.

What is science? Modern scientists describe it as a systematic process for

GUIDING QUESTION learning about the world and testing our understanding of it. The term
Show students a picture of a scien- science also refers to the accumulated body of knowledge that arises as
tist at work in a laboratory. a result of this process. Therefore, science is both a process of learning
Ask What is this person doing? about the natural world and a summary of what we have already learned.
(Students will probably identify that Many scientists are motivated by the potential for developing useful
the scientist is “doing science.”
applications of scientific knowledge and a desire to understand how the
Ask What are some other ways to
do science? world works. Science is essential if we hope to develop solutions to the
Encourage students to identify a problems—environmental and otherwise—that we face.
wide variety of ways that science is
carried out, such as field investiga- Science and the Natural World Whether storm chasers waiting
tions and computer modeling. Em- for tornadoes, or bird watchers waiting for a rare species, scientists work
phasize that not all scientists work exclusively within the natural world. This includes every part of our
in a laboratory. physical environment, from the smallest atom to the largest galaxy. The
natural world also includes the forces and energies that operate on and
within our environment, such as gravity and solar radiation.

label t/k.

12 Lesson 2
 Figure 9 Gathering Evidence
A scientist takes and records readings
as Mount Etna, a volcano in Sicily, Italy,
erupts nearby.

Science assumes that the natural world functions in accordance with

rules that do not change unpredictably from time to time or from place to
place. The boiling point of pure water at sea level, for example, is 100°C.
As long as you’re at sea level, water will boil at 100°C today, tomorrow,
and 1000 years from now, because boiling point is determined by rules of
molecular attraction and bonding that do not change. The goal of science
is to discover how the rules of the natural world operate and what effect
they have. Science does not deal with the supernatural, which includes
anything not governed by the rules of the natural world.

Science and Evidence Scientists examine the workings of the natural

world by collecting evidence. They rely on their senses and test results
for evidence. Then they use their reasoning abilities to figure out what
that evidence suggests about the underlying processes at work. Ideas
that cannot be tested against evidence gathered and analyzed in this way
cannot be evaluated by science. For example, science cannot determine BIG QUESTION
which flower is prettier, a rose or a tulip, even though roses and tulips How do scientists uncover, re-
are part of the natural world. The answer to this question is an opinion search, and solve environmental
rooted in personal preference and not in scientific evidence. However, problems?
science can examine what percent of people prefer roses to tulips and Explanation As students read about
The Process of Science, bring their
under what conditions they might change their minds. Science can also
attention to the Big Question. Have
help us learn about the chemical processes these flowers use to perform students consider the following
photosynthesis. statement: “The most important
character traits for a successful
Science, Skepticism, and Change Nothing in science can be career in environmental science are
absolutely proven no matter how much evidence is collected. Instead, curiosity and imagination.” Ask stu-
ideas can only be repeatedly supported by rigorous scientific testing. dents if they agree or disagree. Then,
have students write a paragraph
Effective scientists, therefore, are always skeptical, meaning that they do explaining how curiosity and imagi-
not simply accept what they hear from others. Instead, scientists actively nation can help scientists uncover,
seek evidence that provides answers to scientific questions, and are open research, and solve environmental
to results that change, or even refute, a previously accepted idea. problems.
Scientists are critical thinkers, and will either accept or reject ideas based
on the strength of evidence that supports them. Note that scientists
“accept”—rather than “believe in”—scientific ideas, because believing in ANSWERS
something often means accepting something without supporting evidence. Reading Checkpoint It means there
is strong evidence supporting the
Reading What does it mean if a scientific idea is “accepted”? idea.
Checkpoint

An Introduction to Environmental Science 13

 EXPLORATION
AND
The Process of Science
DISCOVERY The process of science involves making observations, asking
questions, developing hypotheses, making and testing predictions,
and analyzing and interpreting results—often many times and in
many changing orders.
TESTING
IDEAS In their quest for understanding, scientists engage in many different activ-
COMMUNITY
ities: They ask questions, make observations, seek evidence, share ideas,
BENEFITS
AND ANALYSIS and analyze data. These activities are all part of the dynamic process of
OUTCOMES AND
FEEDBACK science. There is nothing mysterious about the process of science; it uses
the same reasoning abilities and logical steps that any of us might natu-
rally follow, using common sense, to resolve a question. As practiced by
Adapted from Understanding Science, individual researchers or research teams, the process of science typically
www.understandingscience.org,
UC Berkeley, Museum of Paleontology consists of the components shown in Figure 10. Notice that the parts
of the process do not proceed in a linear fashion. Real science usually
Figure 10 The Process of Science
Science involves many different people involves many activities that loop back on themselves, building up knowl-
doing many different activities at edge as they proceed. In fact, science is at its heart a creative endeavor.
different points in time. Testing ideas is Scientists take many different paths through the process depending on
at the heart of science, but it relies on
constant interactions among scientists,
the questions they are investigating and the resources available to them.
society, and the larger scientific
community. These interactions make Exploration and Discovery Scientific investigations begin in many
science an ongoing, unpredictable, and different ways, but the early stages of an investigation often involve the
dynamic process. observation of some phenomenon that the scientist wishes to explain.
Observations also function throughout the process as scientists gather
Note that Chapter 1 was done in
collaboration with the University of
evidence about their ideas. Observations can be made simply with the
California Berkeley, Museum of eye, or they can require sensitive instruments. Observations can happen
Paleontology. The Central Case unexpectedly, or they can be carefully planned after reading about other
covered in Chapter 1 is developed ideas and studies. Alternatively, by exploring the scientific literature, a
in more detail at its website scientist can stumble upon an interesting idea or phenomenon to test.
www.understandingscience.org.
Inspiration for scientific investigations can come from almost anywhere.
As scientists begin an investigation, they usually ask many ques-
tions. Curiosity is a fundamental human characteristic. As soon as we
can speak, we begin asking questions. As scientists explore these ques-
Making Asking tions, they may discuss them with their colleagues and read about similar
observations questions
questions in the scientific literature. Sharing ideas, like questioning, often
plays an important role in the beginning of an investigation. Lovelock
Sharing data presented his CFC research at a scientific meeting in 1972. Sherwood
and ideas Rowland was at the same meeting, and when he heard Lovelock’s pre-
sentation, he may have asked: “What are the effects of CFCs in our
Finding Exploring the atmosphere?”
inspiration literature

EXPLORATION
AND
DISCOVERY

Adapted from Understanding Science,

www.understandingscience.org, UC Berkeley,
Figure 11 Exploration and Discovery Observing,
Museum of Paleontology questioning, sharing ideas, and exploring the literature
are all ways in which scientists can be inspired to
investigate a phenomenon or problem.

14 Lesson 2
 Figure 12 Testing Ideas Gathering
Gathering data
and interpreting data are at the center
of scientific investigations. Generally,
Predicted Actual
data either support or contradict a
Hypotheses results/ results/ hypothesis, but occasionally data
observations observations suggest that a test is not working as
expected or inspire a new potential
explanation.
Interpreting data
ANSWERS
Data may...
...support a ...inspire revised Figure 13 Chlorine atoms are
hypothesis. assumptions. TESTING released when CFCs are exposed to
IDEAS
...oppose a ...inspire solar radiation.
hypothesis. revised/new
hypothesis.

Adapted from Understanding Science, www.understandingscience.org, UC Berkeley, Museum of Paleontology

Figure 13 Chlorine and Ozone: A
Bad Combination When a chlorine
Testing Scientific Ideas As Figure 12 shows, scientists attempt to atom collides with ozone in the upper
answer their questions by devising explanations that they can test. A atmosphere, a chain reaction starts that
hypothesis is a testable idea that attempts to explain a phenomenon or results in the destruction of many—
even tens of thousands—ozone
answer a scientific question. Scientists often explore many hypotheses molecules. Interpret Diagrams
at the same time. Rowland, together with Mario Molina, developed the Where do the chlorine atoms in the
hypothesis that CFCs break down in the upper atmosphere and react with upper atmosphere come from?
ozone, destroying it in the process.
Molina and Rowland came to this
hypothesis after a review of the scientific UV radiation
literature on CFCs revealed no known
Carbon (C)
process that affects CFCs in the lower
atmosphere. Because nothing destroyed O O3 Fluorine (F)
them, CFCs would eventually diffuse to Chlorine (Cl)
the upper atmosphere. Both Molina and The ozone layer is full of ozone (O3) and loose oxygen molecules (O).
Rowland had backgrounds in chemis- UV radiation breaks down CFC molecules, releasing chlorine atoms (Cl).
try and knew that solar radiation is far
more intense in the upper atmosphere
than in the lower atmosphere. Intense
solar radiation, they reasoned, would
break apart CFC molecules. What else
A single chlorine atom reacts with O3… producing chlorine monoxide (ClO)
was in the upper atmosphere for CFCs
and molecular oxygen (O2).
to react with? Ozone.
Molina and Rowland hypothesized
that chlorine released from CFCs
would react with the oxygen in ozone,
as shown in Figure 13. These reactions
are similar to the destructive reactions The ClO molecule then reacts with a loose oxygen atom… producing Cl and O2.
between nitrogen compounds and
ozone that Paul Crutzen had studied
more than five years before. Molina and
Rowland calculated that one chlorine
atom could destroy about 100,000 ozone
molecules. This leaves the chlorine atom (Cl) free to start the process all over again and
destroy another ozone molecule.
Adapted from Understanding Science, www.understandingscience.org, UC Berkeley, Museum of Paleontology

An Introduction to Environmental Science 15

 Predicted result/
Figure 14 Molina-Rowland Hypothesis and observation 1
Predictions Molina and Rowland’s hypothesis that CFCs
break down only in the upper atmosphere where they Chlorine monoxide will be
react with, and destroy, the ozone layer generated two present in the upper
key predictions: (1) Chlorine monoxide (ClO), a byproduct Hypothesis atmosphere.
of CFC-ozone reactions, will be present in the upper
atmosphere; and (2) more CFCs will be present at lower CFCs are destroying
altitudes than higher altitudes. the ozone layer.

Predicted result/
observation 2
More CFCs will be
present at lower altitudes.

Adapted from Understanding Science,

www.understandingscience.org, UC
Berkeley, Museum of Paleontology

▶ Predictions Scientists use hypotheses to generate predictions, which

are specific statements about what we would expect to observe if the
hypotheses are true. Sometimes figuring out what predictions a hypoth-
esis generates is straightforward, but sometimes it is more difficult. The
Earth’s atmosphere is an immensely complex system. In fact, it is so com-
plex that Molina and Rowland’s fellow scientists, including Paul Crutzen,
had to use mathematical models to generate predictions about what
should be happening in the atmosphere if Rowland and Molina’s ideas
were correct.
▶ Modeling Scientists often use models to generate predictions when
they cannot observe a phenomenon directly. Geologists, for example, can-
not easily perform experiments to test the effects of tectonic plate motion!
Instead, they build computer or mathematical models that represent the
system they are studying. Later in this book, you will use a mathemati-
cal equation to calculate population sizes—a simple mathematical model
that helps predict population size under a given set of conditions. While
you will be able to solve the population equation easily, the mathematical
models that tested Rowland and Molina’s ideas were far more complicated
and required a computer to solve.
The atmospheric models generated two predictions based on the
ANSWERS Molina-Rowland hypothesis: (1) chlorine monoxide (ClO) should be
present in the upper atmosphere, and (2) more CFCs will be present at
Reading Checkpoint They hypoth- lower altitudes. These predictions are shown in Figure 14.
esized that CFCs break down in the
upper atmosphere and react with Reading What did Molina and Rowland hypothesize about the
ozone, destroying it in the process. Checkpoint
ozone layer?

16 Lesson 2
Gathering Data Scientists test predictions by gathering evidence. If Figure 15 Caught on Camera
Remote, motion-activated cameras
the evidence matches their predictions, the hypothesis is supported, and
help scientists gather data on hard-to-
if the evidence doesn’t match the predictions, the hypothesis is con- find rainforest animals.
tradicted. There are many different ways to test predictions, including
experiments and observational studies. Depending on the scientific ques-
tion being investigated, one type of test might be more useful than others.
▶ Experiments An experiment is an activity designed to test the valid-
ity of a prediction or a hypothesis. It involves manipulating variables,
or conditions that can change. Consider the hypothesis that fertilizers
stimulate algal growth. This hypothesis generates the prediction that add-
ing agricultural fertilizers to a pond will cause the quantity of algae in the
pond to increase. A scientist could test this prediction by selecting two
similar ponds and adding fertilizer to one while leaving the other in its
natural state. In this example, fertilizer input is an independent variable,
a variable the scientist manipulates, whereas the quantity of algae that
results is the dependent variable, one that depends on the conditions set
up in the experiment.
Of course, some hypotheses cannot easily be tested with experiments.
In these cases, the appropriate experiment might take too long or might
be too expensive, dangerous, or ethically questionable. For example, a
doctor studying the effects of solar radiation on humans would not know-
ingly place human subjects in potentially harmful conditions. And in
other cases, experiments are simply impossible. Earth only has one atmo-
sphere and CFCs were already present in it when Molina and Rowland ANSWERS
began investigating a possible link to ozone destruction. A simple experi-
Reading Checkpoint An indepen-
ment could not answer their question. Experiments are just one way that dent variable is manipulated by
scientists carry out their research. the scientist; a dependent variable
changes depending on the condi-
Reading  hat is the difference between an independent and
W tions set up in the experiment.
Checkpoint
dependent variable?

An Introduction to Environmental Science 17

 ▶ Observational Studies Observational studies provide another key
source of scientific evidence. In an observational study, scientists look for
evidence in the natural world that would help confirm or contradict the
predictions generated by their hypotheses. Observational studies often
rely on correlation, a meaningful and predictable relationship among vari-
ables. In the mid-1970s, scientists searched for evidence about whether
or not CFCs were destroying the ozone layer using observational studies.
They used planes and high-altitude balloons to collect data about CFC
and chlorine monoxide concentrations at different altitudes. They were
looking for the predicted correlations between altitude and the levels of
these chemicals. If Molina and Rowland were right, the evidence should
Figure 16 Up in the Air James
Anderson and his team collected data show high CFC levels at low altitudes and chlorine monoxide at high
using weather balloons and a NASA altitudes.
ER-2 stratospheric research aircraft like
this one. ▶ Controlled Variables and Repetition Scientists studying cause-and-
effect relationships are careful to manage the variables in their tests; that
is, they try to keep all variables constant except the one whose effect they
are testing in a study. Controlled variables are variables kept constant in
a study. Controlled studies, in which all variables are controlled except
one, allow scientists to be more confident that any differences observed
were caused by the factor they are investigating.
Controlled variables are important in both experimental and obser-
vational tests. For example, in the pond experiment described earlier, the
scientist would try to pick two ponds that are as similar as possible—same
geographic region, same temperature, and so on—in order to be confi-
dent that any difference in algal growth was caused by the fertilizer and
not one of the other variables. In the tests of the Molina-Rowland hypoth-
esis, the scientists tried to make their observations of CFC levels at differ-
ent altitudes in exactly the same way—same instruments, same technique,
and so on—to be confident that the different levels detected were related
ANSWERS
to altitude and were not a result of the measurement technique.
Whenever possible, it is best to repeat the same test many times. For
Reading Checkpoint It means example, our wetlands scientist could perform the same experiment on,
there is a meaningful and predictable
say, ten pairs of ponds, adding fertilizer to one of each pair. Repetition
relationship between the variables.
is also important in observational tests. To test the Molina-Rowland
Figure 17 Underwater Science
hypothesis, James Anderson and the other scientists studying chlorine
Divers surveying a reef off of Kanton monoxide levels in the atmosphere repeated the same measurements on
Island in the Pacific Ocean carefully three different days in order to be more confident in their results.
measure and document fragile table
coral. Reading What does it mean for variables to show correlation?
Checkpoint

18 Lesson 2
 ✔ Figure 18 What Can Data Do
Lends
support for You? Most data gathered and
Predicted result/ 
or
Actual result/
or
analyzed in the course of a scientific
observation observation ✘ investigation will either lend support
 Helps to a hypothesis or will help to refute
refute it. Data cannot prove or disprove any
Adapted from Understanding Science, www.understandingscience.org, UC Berkeley, Museum of Paleontology
hypothesis.

▶ Interpreting Data Scientists collect and record data, or information,

from their studies. They particularly value quantitative data (informa-
tion expressed using numbers) because numbers provide precision and
are easy to compare. The scientists testing the first CFC model prediction
quantified the concentration of chlorine monoxide in the upper atmo-
sphere. For the second prediction, that CFCs should remain intact in the
lower atmosphere but break apart in the upper atmosphere, scientists
quantified the concentration of CFCs at different altitudes.
Generally, data in the form of results and observations either lend sup-
port to or help to refute a hypothesis, as shown in Figure 18. If many tests
refute a hypothesis, the scientist will ultimately have to reject that hypoth-
esis. It is important to remember, though, that science is always tentative:
We can never completely prove or disprove an idea. Science is always will-
ing to revise its ideas if warranted by new evidence.
In 1975, two research groups measured CFC concentrations at various
altitudes. Their data matched the predictions of the mathematical mod-
els, and therefore supported the hypothesis that CFCs destroy the ozone
layer. And in 1976, James Anderson’s team detected chlorine monoxide
concentrations in the upper atmosphere consistent with the predictions of
atmospheric models, providing further support.

Predicted result/ Actual result/ ✔

observation 1 observation 1
Chlorine monoxide
ClO concentration

will be present in the

upper atmosphere.

Hypothesis

CFCs are destroying altitude

the ozone layer. ANSWERS

Figure 19 There is a high CFC

Predicted result/ concentration at low altitudes and a
Actual result/
observation 2 observation 2 ✔ sudden drop-off at higher altitudes.

More CFCs will be

CFC concentration

present at lower
altitudes. Figure 19 Gathering Support Both
 of the predictions generated by the
Molina-Rowland CFC hypothesis
were supported by data gathered by
researchers in the mid-1970s.
altitude Interpret Graphs Describe how CFC
concentration changes with altitude
Adapted from Understanding Science, www.understandingscience.org, UC Berkeley, Museum of Paleontology according to the graph.

An Introduction to Environmental Science 19

 October 10, 1979

O3 and ClO Concentration vs. Latitude

Ozone
Concentration

Chlorine
monoxide

64 66 68 70
Latitude °S
Adapted from Understanding Science, www.understandingscience.org,
UC Berkeley, Museum of Paleontology as adapted from Anderson, J.G.,
W.H. Brune, and M.H. Proffitt. 1989.

(a) (b)

Figure 20 An Ozone Decline in Space and October 10, 1984

Time (a) James Anderson found that within the
“ozone hole,” ozone levels are low and ClO levels
are high—just as predicted by the Molina-Rowland
hypothesis. (b) NASA satellite data confirm Joseph Then, in 1982, a scientist named Joseph Farman detected
Farman’s ozone findings—increasingly low levels of
ozone (purple and blue) over Antarctica beginning a 40 percent drop in ozone concentration over the Antarctic.
around 1979. Interpret Graphs According to the He had been collecting ozone readings since 1957 and had
graph, at what latitudes are ozone concentrations the never encountered such a dramatic shift. The following year,
lowest?
he detected another steep decline. Reanalyzing data he had
collected since 1977, Farman realized that ozone concen-
tration had been steadily declining. Together with NASA
scientists, Farman had discovered the “ozone hole,” a region
of depleted ozone the size of the United States in the atmo-
ANSWERS sphere above Antarctica. The extent of ozone damage was
Figure 20 69°S and 70°S greater than scientists had predicted. Further study showed
Lesson 2 Assessment For answers that clouds of ice particles over Antarctica sped up ozone
to the Lesson 2 Assessment, see page destruction. The evidence all pointed to one fact—CFCs were
A–1 at the back of the book. indeed destroying the ozone layer.

2
1. Compare and Contrast What makes science 3. Explore the BIGQUESTION Why is the process of
different from other subjects you study in school, science better represented by the diagram shown in
such as writing, history, or language? Figure 10 than by a diagram like the one seen here?
2. Explain Some people think that science can be
defined as “a collection of facts.” Explain why Observations Questions Hypothesis
that is an inaccurate definition, and, in your own
words, write your own definition of science.
Results Test Predictions

20 Lesson 2
The Community of Science
3

LESSON
Guiding Question: What happens to a scientific study after data have
been gathered and the results are analyzed?

• Describe the major roles of the scientific community Reading Strategy As you read, make a T-chart that identifies
in the process of science. and explains the main concepts of this lesson.
• Explain the study of environmental ethics.
Vocabulary peer review, theory, ethics, environmental ethics

Scientific work takes place within the context of a community

of peers. Molina and Rowland built upon the observations of James
Lovelock and others. Other scientists, including James Anderson, tested
1.3 LESSON PLAN PREVIEW
the predictions of Molina and Rowland. With each discovery, the scien-
Differentiated Instruction
tists talked with peers and published their work, making their data acces- English language learners
sible to the entire scientific community. explore the difference between
the scientific and popular use
Community Analysis and Feedback of the word theory.
Real World Students describe
The scientific community, through peer review and replication, real-world examples of how
helps to verify the accuracy of results and contributes to the estab- science and society affect each
lishment of scientific theories. another.

When a researcher’s work on a particular test or idea is done, he or she 1.3 RESOURCES
writes up the findings. Frequently, scientists will present their work at In Your Neighborhood Activity, Local
Research Studies • Bellringer Video,
professional conferences, where Eco-Friendly Food Labels • Lesson 1.3
they interact with colleagues and Worksheets • Lesson 1.3 Assessment
receive informal comments on • Chapter 1 Overview Presentation
their research. Such feedback Peer review Replication
from colleagues can help improve
FOCUS Watch the ABC News
the quality of a scientist’s work video Eco-Friendly Food
before it is submitted to a journal Discussion with
Publication Labels, which describes how
colleagues
for publication. food labels in Britain give in-
formation about the environ-
mental impact of producing
Coming up and transporting the food.
Theory
with new
building Have students explain how
questions/ideas the food labels could benefit
the environment by helping
consumers make wise choices.

COMMUNITY
ANALYSIS Figure 21 Community Analysis
AND FEEDBACK and Feedback Science does not end
Adapted from Understanding Science,
in the lab or field. Interactions within
www.understandingscience.org, the scientific community help ensure
UC Berkeley, Museum of Paleontology accuracy and build consensus.

An Introduction to Environmental Science 21

 1 Scientists study 2 Scientists write 3 Journal editor sends 4 Peer reviewers read the article
something. about their results. the article out for review. and provide feedback to the editor.

✔ 5 Journal editor (1) sends it back

to the scientists for revision and
resubmission, (2) accepts the article,
or (3) rejects it for failing to meet
Adapted from Understanding Science,
www.understandingscience.org, UC Berkeley, Museum of Paleontology
✘ the journal’s high scientific standards.

Figure 22 Peer Review Results

published in peer-reviewed journals
are the most respected in science Peer Review Once a manuscript is submitted for publication, several
because they have passed through a other scientists specializing in the topic of the paper examine it. This
rigorous evaluation process involving
feedback from multiple sources.
procedure, known as peer review, is a more formal way for the researcher
to get comments and criticism from the scientific community. If the
reviewers feel the article should be published, the journal may publish it
as is or ask the scientists to address comments and turn in a final paper.
If, however, the peer reviewers are not satisfied with the work, the journal
will not publish the article. Peer review is a valuable guard against faulty
science contaminating the literature on which all scientists rely. The peer
review process is summarized in Figure 22.
ANSWERS
Replication Sound science is based on replication rather than a one-
Quick Lab time occurrence. Even when a hypothesis appears to explain observed
1. Answers will vary. phenomena, scientists are always willing to consider other scientific
2. Sample answer: So other scientists explanations. After test results are published, other scientists may attempt
can replicate the procedures and to reproduce the results by performing their own experiments and data
results
analysis. Generally, a hypothesis must be repeatedly tested and results
replicated in various ways before scientists are willing to accept it.

Can You Repeat That? 1 2 3 4 Compare

5 6 each
7 replicated
8 9 shape or struc-
1 Together
2 3 with4 a5partner,
6 7 arrange
8 ten
9 objects, such as pencils ture to the original.
or blocks, into an unusual shape or structure. Analyze and Conclude
1 2 Write
3 4directions
5 6 that7 another
8 9team can use to replicate your 1. Evaluate and Revise Identify the places
shape or structure without seeing it. where you could have written clearer
1 2 3 Exchange
4 5 directions
6 7 8with 9 another team. Replicate that instructions. Revise your instructions and
team’s shape or structure by following their directions. You swap them with another team. Did the
may not ask questions of the team or look at their original instructions work better the second time?
design. 2. Infer Why is it important that procedures
be included in published scientific papers?

22 Lesson 3
Self-Correction in Science As the scientific
community accumulates data in any given area of
research, interpretations may change. Most of the
time, the changes are minor, small adjustments
rather than complete revisions. However, science
may go through revolutions in which one strongly
held scientific view is abandoned for another.
For example, before the sixteenth century, scien-
tists thought that Earth was at the center of the uni-
verse. Their data on the movements of planets fit that
concept quite well, yet the idea was eventually shown
to be false by Nicolaus Copernicus. Such revolutions
in scientific thought demonstrate the strength and
vitality of science, showing it to be a process that
refines and improves itself through time. Science is
self-correcting, and understanding how science works is Figure 23 The Evolution of a
vital to assessing how scientific ideas and interpretations Theory Paleontologist Neil Shubin
change through time as new information accrues. sketches a 375-million-year-old fossil
of Tiktaalik roseae. It is a fish, but has
many characteristics of a land animal.
Scientific Theory-Building Hypotheses are explanations for a fairly Near Dr. Shubin is a fossil of an ancient
narrow set of phenomena, while theories are broader explanations that whale. Notice its legs, evidence
apply to a wider range of situations and observations. For example, that whales evolved from terrestrial
Molina, Rowland, and others formed specific hypotheses about the ancestors. Scientists have been adding
to and refining Darwin’s theory of
ozone-depleting chain of chemical reactions in the upper atmosphere. natural selection for more than 150
These specific hypotheses were based on broader chemical and physical years, making it among the strongest
theories that deal with how all atoms and molecules interact with one theories in science.
another. It is not always clear when an explanation should be called a
hypothesis and when it should be called a theory. Some scientists view
BIG QUESTION
Molina and Rowland’s set of ideas about ozone depletion as a theory, and
others view it as a hypothesis. Regardless of what we choose to call it, their How do scientists uncover, re-
search, and solve environmental
explanation has been supported by many different lines of evidence and is problems?
broadly accepted by the scientific community. Empathize Bring students’ attention
Note that scientific use of the word theory differs from popular usage to the Big Question. Point out that
of the word. In everyday language when we say something is “just a one way scientists seek to solve
theory,” we are suggesting it is an idea without much substance. Scientists, environmental problems, like a pol-
luted river, is by sharing their results
however, mean just the opposite when they use the term. To be accepted
with the public. Have students
as a scientific theory, an idea must effectively explain a phenomenon, make explain how scientists must feel
accurate predictions in a wide range of situations, and have undergone when their results are dismissed as
extensive, rigorous testing. Scientists are extremely confident in accepted “just a hypothesis,” or “just a theory.”
theories. Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural selection, for example, Then, have students develop a short
presentation that scientists could
has been supported and elaborated upon by many thousands of studies use to help the public understand
over 150 years of intensive research. Other prominent scientific theories the scientific definitions of hypoth-
include atomic theory, cell theory, the big bang theory, plate tectonics, esis and theory.
and the theory of general relativity.
Reading Why isn’t anything in science “just” a theory? ANSWERS
Checkpoint
Reading Checkpoint Theories in
science have undergone extensive
testing; they are the best-supported
explanations available, not guesses.

An Introduction to Environmental Science 23

 Develop Address
technology societal issues

Build Inform
knowledge policy

Satisfy Solve everyday

curiosity problems

Benefits and Outcomes

Environmental ethics explores how environmental science
interacts with, and is guided by, a society’s morals and principles.
BENEFITS
AND
OUTCOMES
Environmental scientists ask questions, test hypotheses, conduct experi-
Adapted from Understanding Science, ments, gather and analyze data, and draw conclusions about environmen-
www.understandingscience.org,
UC Berkeley, Museum of Paleontology tal processes. Beyond the simple satisfaction of generating results, their
work has helped contribute to our overall knowledge of the environment
Figure 24 Benefits and Outcomes and has led to the development of new technologies. But the work does
Science does not occur in isolation. not end with the science. To address environmental problems, we need
Society, especially its ethical standards
and worldview, influences science, just more than an understanding of the science—we also need to understand
as science influences society. Science how people value their environment. To value something is to think it is
and society work together to build important. Economics, covered in the next chapter, deals with how things
knowledge, satisfy curiosity, address
issues, inform policy, solve problems,
are valued in terms of money. Ethics deals with how things are morally
and develop technology. One scientific valued. Scientific knowledge can affect our social, ethical, and economic
benefit and outcome is this green decision making.
roof atop the California Academy of
Sciences building in San Francisco. Ethics Ethics is a branch of philosophy that involves the study of behav-
Green roofs like this one reduce energy ior: good and bad, right and wrong. The term ethics can also refer to the
demands and provide wildlife habitat.
set of moral principles or values held by a person or a society. Ethical
standards are grounded in values—for instance, promoting human wel-
fare, maximizing individual freedom, or minimizing pain and suffering.
We all use our own set of ethical standards as tools for making decisions,
consciously or unconsciously, in our everyday lives. Governments and
decision makers also employ ethics when deciding on public policy.

Culture and Worldview People of different cultures may differ in

their ethical standards. Culture is the ensemble of knowledge, beliefs,
values, and learned ways of life shared by a group of people. Culture,
together with personal experience, influences each person’s perception
of the world and his or her place within it, something described as the
person’s worldview. Worldview and culture can influence what a scientist
chooses to study or where to look for inspiration. Worldview reflects a
person’s or group’s beliefs about the meaning, operation, and essence
of the world.

24 Lesson 3
 You may be wondering why we are discussing beliefs in a book about
science—especially because we have said that scientists do not believe in
a scientific idea, they accept or reject it based on evidence. Although sci-
entists strive to be objective, worldview influences how society interprets
and acts on the results science produces. People with different worldviews
can study the same situation and review identical data yet draw dramati-
cally different conclusions.
For example, scientific investigations led to the conclusion that CFCs
were destroying the ozone layer. A discovery such as this is neither good
nor bad, it is just fact. What is done with the information, however, is
influenced by worldview, and may be seen differently by different people.
On May 11, 1977, the United States government announced that it was
phasing out CFCs. In 1987, nations began to sign on to the Montreal Pro-
tocol, an agreement to control the production and use of ozone-depleting
substances. Within a few years, nations that had adopted the treaty agreed
to a complete ban of CFCs and other chemicals. Environmentalists
viewed these developments as a triumph, but many people who worked in
industries that relied on CFCs were angered.

Ethics and the Environment Did we, as humans, have a responsi-

bility to ban CFCs and protect the ozone layer? The application of ethi-
cal standards to relationships between humans and their environment
is known as environmental ethics. This relatively new branch of ethics
arose once people became aware of environmental changes brought about
by industrialization. Human interactions with the environment frequently ANSWERS
give rise to ethical questions that can be difficult to resolve. For example, Figure 25 If only a few nations
does the present generation have an obligation to conserve resources had signed the Montreal Protocol
for future generations? What if protecting those resources means people and banned CFCs, CFCs released by
today will suffer because they have fewer resources available to them? nations that didn’t sign the treaty
could continue to destroy the ozone
Answers to questions like these depend partly on what ethical standards a layer—a resource shared by everyone.
person chooses to use. Three important ethical standards in environmen- This would lessen the overall success
tal ethics are anthropocentrism, biocentrism, and ecocentrism. of the treaty.

Figure 25 Phasing Out Mario

Molina gave a speech celebrating the
Protocol’s success at the twentieth
anniversary celebration seminar on
the Montreal Protocol, September 16,
2007, in Montreal, Canada. Infer Why
might the Montreal Protocol not have
been as successful if very few nations
had signed on?

25
 Find Out
ANSWERS More ▶ Anthropocentrism Anthropocentrism describes a human-centered
Find Out More Answers will vary, view of our relationship with the environment. An anthropocentrist
but should show students researched places the highest value on humans and human welfare. In evaluating a
factories, waste dumps, and polluting decision, someone with this worldview would likely consider the impacts
facilities in their city or town. on human health and economies more important than the impacts on
Reading Checkpoint It means that other aspects of the environment.
one values groups of organisms and
whole ecosystems over individuals. ▶ Biocentrism In contrast to anthropocentrism, biocentrism gives value
Figure 27 1997 to all living things. In this perspective, nonhuman life has ethical stand-
Lesson 3 Assessment ing, so a biocentrist evaluates actions in terms of their overall effect on
1. Sample answer: I would recom- living things, both human and nonhuman. Some biocentrists advocate
mend peer-reviewed articles be-
cause I know that they have been equal consideration of all living things, whereas others advocate that
read and evaluated by scientists. some types of organisms should receive more consideration than others.
2. Sample answer: Individuals and
governments interpret and react
▶ Ecocentrism Ecocentrism judges actions in terms of their benefit or
to science based on their ethical harm to the integrity of whole ecological systems, which consist of both
standards and their worldview. living and nonliving elements and the relationships among them. An eco-
3. Answers will vary. centrist would value the well-being of species, communities, or ecosys-
tems over the welfare of a given individual. Implicit in this view is that the
preservation of larger systems generally protects their components.
Find Out Environmental Justice In recent years, people of all persuasions have
More increasingly realized the connection between environmental quality and
human quality of life. Unfortunately, disadvantaged people tend to be
Where are the factories, waste exposed to a greater share of pollution, hazards, and environmental deg-
dumps, and polluting facilities radation than are affluent people. In addition, just as wealthy people often
located in your city or town? impose their pollution on poorer people, wealthy nations often do the
Prepare a short oral presentation of same to poorer nations. The environmental justice movement promotes
your findings. the fair and equitable treatment of all people with respect to environmen-
tal policy and practice, regardless of their income, race, or ethnicity. As
we explore environmental issues from a scientific standpoint, we will also
encounter the social aspects of these issues, and the concept of environ-
mental justice will arise again and again.
Reading What does it mean to have an ecocentric worldview?
Checkpoint

Ecocentric

Figure 26 Ethical Views Individuals Biocentric

vary in how much value they give
living things and the environment.
People with an anthropocentric Anthropocentric
worldview tend to measure the costs
and benefits of actions primarily
according to their effect on humans.
Biocentric individuals consider the
costs and benefits to all living things.
Ecocentrists tend to think that whole
ecological systems, involving living and
nonliving parts, should be protected
over individuals.

26 Lesson 3
 Declining Chlorine
3.0

Stratospheric chlorine
(parts per billion)
2.5

2.0

1.5

1.0
0
1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
Year
Data from CSIRO Atmospheric Research and Cape Grim Baseline Air
Toward the Future Finding effective ways of living peace- Pollution Station, Australian Antarctic Division and Australian Bureau of
Meteorology as appears in Understanding Science,
fully, healthfully, and sustainably on our diverse and complex www.understandingscience.org, UC Berkeley, Museum of Paleontology
planet will require a thorough scientific understanding of both
natural and social systems. Environmental science helps us understand
our intricate relationship with the environment and informs our attempts
to solve and prevent environmental problems. The work involving CFCs, Figure 27 A Positive Decline Since
the late 1990s, scientists have
for example, is a success story for environmental science. Since the ban measured a steady decline in the
of CFCs, chlorine levels in the atmosphere have fallen dramatically, as chlorine concentration in the
shown in Figure 27. Scientists predict that the ozone hole should be fully stratosphere. The trend suggests
that efforts to prevent ozone-
repaired sometime this century. destroying chemicals from entering
It is important to keep in mind that identifying a problem is the first the atmosphere have been successful.
step in devising a solution to it. Many of the trends detailed in this book The Live Earth concerts of 2007 raised
may cause us worry, but others give us reason to hope. One often-heard money for international environmental
programs like the Montreal Protocol.
criticism of environmental science courses and textbooks is that too Interpret Graphs In what year was
often they emphasize the negative. In this book, we attempt to balance chlorine concentration highest?
the discussion of environmental problems with a corresponding focus on
solutions. Solving environmental problems can move us toward health,
longevity, peace, and prosperity. Science in general, and environmental
science in particular, can aid us in our efforts to develop balanced and
workable solutions to the many environmental dilemmas we face today
and to create a better world for ourselves and our children.

3
1. Apply Concepts Your doctor recommends that 3. Suppose you are the
someone in your family start taking a new drug to head of a major funding agency that gives money
lower cholesterol. Where would you recommend to researchers investigating environmental science
looking for information: articles published in peer- issues. Describe how you would decide what types
reviewed journals or materials published by the of projects to fund.
drug company? Explain.
2. Explain Explain how although science itself is
objective, it can be affected by subjective influences
such as worldview and culture.

An Introduction to Environmental Science 27