Unit-3

SYLLABUS
Protective Relays: Principle of operation of Electromagnetic Relays and
Classification. Over current relays - Non-directional and directional over current
relays, IDMT and Directional characteristics. Differential relays – Principle of
operation, percentage differential relay and its characteristics. Distance relays-
Impedance relay, Reactance relay, Mho relay. Buchholz relay, Negative Sequence
relay.

Block schematic approach of microprocessor based relays- Over current Protection,

Directional Relay scheme, Impedance Relay scheme, Numerical Protection system

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PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION OF ELECTROMAGNETIC
RELAYS AND CLASSIFICATION

Definition: Electromagnetic relays are those relay which operates on the principle of
electromagnetic attraction. It is a type of a magnetic switch which uses the magnet for
creating a magnetic field. The magnetic field then uses for opening and closing the
switch and for performing the mechanical operation.

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TYPES OF AN ELECTROMAGNETIC RELAY

By their working principle, the electromagnetic relay is mainly classified into two types.
These are

• Electromagnetic Attraction Relay

• Electromagnetic Induction Relay

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1. ELECTROMAGNETIC ATTRACTION RELAY
In this relay, the armature is attracted to the pole of a magnet. The electromagnetic force exerted on
the moving element is proportional to the square of the current flow through the coil. This relay
responds to both the alternating and direct current.

The above equation shows that the electromagnetic relay

consists two components, one constant independent of
time and another dependent upon time and pulsating at
double supply frequency. This double supply frequency
produces noise and hence damage the relay contacts.

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1. ELECTROMAGNETIC ATTRACTION RELAY

The difficulty of a double frequency supply is overcome by splitting the flux developing
in the electromagnetic relay. These fluxes were acting simultaneously but differ in
time phase. Thus the resulting deflecting force is always positive and constant. The
splitting of fluxes is achieved by using the electromagnet having a phase shifting
networks or by putting shading rings on the poles of an electromagnet.

The electromagnetic attraction relay is the simplest type of relay which includes a
plunger (or solenoid), hinged armature, rotating armature (or balanced) and moving
iron polarised relay. All these relays are shown below.

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1. ELECTROMAGNETIC ATTRACTION RELAY
a. Balanced Beam Relay – In such type of relay two quantities are compared because the
electromagnetic force developed varies as the square of the ampere-turn. The ratio of an
operating current for such relay is low. If the relay is set for fast operation, then it will tend to
overreach on a fast operation.

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1. ELECTROMAGNETIC ATTRACTION RELAY
b. Hinged armature relay – The sensitivity of the relay can be increased for DC operation by
adding the permanent magnet. This relay is also known as the polarised moving relay.

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ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION RELAY
The electromagnetic relay operates on the principle of a split-phase induction motor.
The initial force is developed on the moving element that may be disc or another form
of the rotor of the non-magnetic moving element. The force is developed by the
interaction of electromagnetic fluxes with eddy current, that is induced in the rotor by
these fluxes.

a. Shaded pole structure

b. Watt-hour meter or double winding structure
c. Induction cup structure.

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 A. SHADED POLE STRUCTURE
This coil is usually energised by current flowing in the single coil wound on a magnetic structure
containing an air gap. The air-gap fluxes produce by the initializing current is split into two flux
displace in time-space and by a shaded ring. The shaded ring is made up of the copper ring that
encircles the part of the pole face of each pole.

• The disc is made up of aluminium. The inertia of the

aluminium disc is very less..
• Hence they need less deflecting torque for its
movement.
• The two rings have the current induced in them by the
alternating flux of the electromagnetic.

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B. WATT-HOUR METER STRUCTURE
This structure consists E shape electromagnet and a U shape electromagnet with a disc-free to
rotate in between them. The phase displacement between the fluxes produced by the
electromagnet is obtained by the flux generated by the two magnets having different resistance
and inductance for the two circuits.

The primary winding carries relay current I1 while the secondary

current induces the emf in the secondary and so circulate the
current I2 in it. The flux φ1 induces in the E shed magnet, and
the flux φ induces in the U-shaped magnet. These fluxes
induced in the upper and lower magnetic differs in phase by
angle θ which will develop a driving torque on the disc
proportional to φ1φ sinθ.

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C. INDUCTION CUP RELAY
The relay which works on the principle of electromagnetic induction is known as the
induction cup relay. The relay has two or more electromagnet which is energized by the
relay coil. The static iron core is placed between the electromagnet as shown in the
figure below.

The coil which is wound on the electromagnet generates the

rotating magnetic field. Because of the rotating magnetic field,
the current induces inside the cup. Thus, the cup starts rotating.
The direction of rotation of the cup is same as that of the
current.

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OVERCURRENT RELAY
Definition: The overcurrent relay is defined as the relay, which operates only when the
value of the current is greater than the relay setting time. It protects the equipment of the
power system from the fault current.

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OVERCURRENT RELAY-WORKING PRINCIPLE

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OVERCURRENT RELAY-WORKING PRINCIPLE

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OVERCURRENT RELAY-WORKING PRINCIPLE
• In an over current relay, there would be essentially a current coil. When normal current flows
through this coil, the magnetic effect generated by the coil is not sufficient to move the
moving element of the relay, as in this condition the restraining force is greater than
deflecting force.
• But when the current through the coil increases, the magnetic effect increases, and after a
certain level of current, the deflecting force generated by the magnetic effect of the coil,
crosses the restraining force. As a result, the moving element starts moving to change the
contact position in the relay. Although there are different types of overcurrent relays but
basic working principle of overcurrent relay is more or less same for all.

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OVERCURRENT RELAY-WORKING PRINCIPLE

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NON-DIRECTIONAL-O.C RELAY
• This type of relay works on the induction principle and initiates corrective measures when current
in the circuit exceeds the predetermined value.
• The actuating source is a current in the circuit supplied to the relay from a current transformer.
These relays are used on a.c. circuits only and can operate for fault current flow in either
direction.

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NON-DIRECTIONAL-O.C RELAY
• It consists of a metallic (aluminium) disc which is free to rotate in between the poles of two electro
magnets. The upper electro magnet has a primary and a secondary winding. The primary is
connected to the secondary of a C.T. in the line to be protected and is tapped at intervals. The
tappings are connected to a plug-setting bridge by which the number of active turns on the relay
operating coil can be varied, there by giving the desired current setting.
• The secondary winding is energized by induction from primary and is connected in series with the
winding on the lower magnet. The controlling torque is provided by a spiral spring.
• The spindle of the disc carries a moving contact which bridges two fixed contacts (connected to
trip circuit) when the disc rotates through a pre-set angle.

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OPERATION
• The driving torque on the aluminium disc is set up due to the induction principle. This torque is
opposed by the restraining torque provided by the spring.
• Under normal operating conditions, restraining torque is greater than the driving torque produced
by the relay coil current. Therefore, the aluminium disc remains stationary.
• If the current in the protected circuit exceeds the pre-set value, the driving torque becomes greater
than the restraining torque. Consequently, the disc rotates and the moving contact bridges the
fixed contacts when the disc has rotated through a pre-set angle. The trip circuit operates the
circuit breaker which isolates the faulty section.

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DIRECTIONAL OVER CURRENT RELAYS
• Directional over current relays operate in either forward or reverse directions with over
current protection.
• If the directional relay set in Forward direction means if a fault occurs in forward zone
then only relay operates. Conversely, if the relay set in Reverse direction means if a
fault occurs in reverse zone then only relay operates.
• Conventionally denotes that forward direction refers to power flow away from the busbar
(towards the protected zone), while reverse direction refers to power flowing towards
the busbar.

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DIRECTIONAL RELAY CHARACTERISTICS:
• The directional relays identify the zone of operation with the help of polarising voltage
and characteristic angle.

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DIRECTIONAL RELAY CHARACTERISTICS:
Polarising Voltage:
• Directional relays needed reference voltage to identify the direction of currents.
• This is the voltage taken from Potential Transformers. The reference voltage is called polarising
voltage. The relay operates for the defined direction when the fault current is in the same direction and
exceeds the over current setting value.

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DIRECTIONAL RELAY CHARACTERISTICS:
Relay Characteristic Angle: RCA
• The characteristic angle is the phase angle by which reference or polarising voltage is adjusted such
that the directional relay operates with maximum sensitivity.
• Characteristic Angle is also called Directional angle as it decides the direction of operation of the relay.

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DIRECTIONAL RELAY CHARACTERISTICS:
Maximum Torque Angle: MTA
• Maximum torque angle is the angle made by fault current with respect to its phase voltage. This is
expected fault angle, and completely predictable.
• This angle is different for phase faults and earth faults.

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DIRECTIONAL RELAY CHARACTERISTICS:
•Forward Zone:
Forward zone is+/- 85° either side of the Maximum Torque line or Centre of forward zone line.

•Reverse Zone:
Reverse operate zone is the mirror image of the forward zone.

Zero Torque Line:

It is the boundary line which separates the plane into Operate and Inhibit regions.

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IDMT CHARACTERISTICS:
• The operating time of all Overcurrent Relay Characteristics tends to become asymptotic to a
definite minimum value with increase in the value of current. This is inherent in electromagnetic
relays due to saturation of the magnetic circuit.
• The torque of these relays as shown earlier is proportional to Φ1Φ2 sin α where Φ1 and Φ2 are
the two fluxes cutting the disc or cup and α is the angle between them. Where both fluxes are
produced by the same quantity, as in current or voltage operated relays, then below saturation
the torque is proportional to I^2, the coil current, or T = KI^2.

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IDMT CHARACTERISTICS:
• The operating time of an overcurrent relay can be moved up (made slower) by adjusting the ‘time dial
setting’. The lowest time dial setting (fastest operating time) is generally 0.5 and the slowest is 10.

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DIFFERENTIAL RELAYS
• The relays used in power system protection are of different types. Among them differential
relay is very commonly used relay for protecting transformers and generators from localised
faults.
• Differential relays are very sensitive to the faults occurred within the zone of protection but they
are least sensitive to the faults that occur outside the protected zone. Most of the relays
operate when any quantity exceeds beyond a predetermined value for example over current
relay operates when current through it exceeds predetermined value. But the principle of
differential relay is somewhat different. It operates depending upon the difference between two
or more similar electrical quantities.

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DIFFERENTIAL RELAYS

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DEFINITION OF DIFFERENTIAL RELAY
• The differential relay is one that operates when there is a difference between two or more similar
electrical quantities exceeds a predetermined value.
• In the differential relay scheme circuit, there are two currents come from two parts of an electrical power
circuit. These two currents meet at a junction point where a relay coil is connected.
• According to Kirchhoff Current Law, the resultant current flowing through the relay coil is nothing but the
summation of two currents, coming from two different parts of the electrical power circuit.
• If the polarity and amplitude of both the currents are so adjusted that the phasor sum of these two
currents, is zero at normal operating condition.
• Thereby there will be no current flowing through the relay coil at normal operating conditions. But due
to any abnormality in the power circuit, if this balance is broken, that means the phasor sum of these
two currents no longer remains zero and there will be non-zero current flowing through the relay coil
thereby relay being operated.
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DEFINITION OF DIFFERENTIAL RELAY
• In the current differential scheme, there are two sets of current transformer each connected
to either side of the equipment protected by differential relay. The ratio of the current
transformers are so chosen, the secondary currents of both current transformers matches
each other in magnitude.
• The polarities of current transformers are such that the secondary current of these CTs
opposes each other. From the circuit is clear that only if any nonzero difference is created
between this to secondary currents, then only this differential current will flow through the
operating coil of the relay. If this difference is more than the peak up value of the relay, it will
operate to open the circuit breakers to isolate the protected equipment from the system.

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PERCENTAGE DIFFERENTIAL RELAY

• This is designed to response to the differential current in the term of its fractional relation to the
current flowing through the protected section.
• In this type of relay, there are restraining coils in addition to the operating coil of the relay.
• The restraining coils produce torque opposite to the operating torque. Under normal and through
fault conditions, restraining torque is greater than operating torque. Thereby relay remains
inactive. When internal fault occurs, the operating force exceeds the bias force and hence the
relay is operated. This bias force can be adjusted by varying the number of turns on the
restraining coils.

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PERCENTAGE DIFFERENTIAL RELAY
if I1 is the secondary current of CT1 and I2 is the secondary current of CT2 then current through the
operating coil is I1 – I2 and current through the restraining coil is (I1 + I2)/2. In normal and through fault
condition, torque produced by restraining coils due to current (I1+ I2)/2 is greater than torque produced
by operating coil due to current I1– I2 but in internal faulty condition these become opposite. And the
bias setting is defined as the ratio of (I1– I2) to (I1+ I2)/2.

It is clear from the above explanation, greater the current flowing through the restraining coils, higher the
value of the current required for operating coil to be operated. The relay is called percentage relay because
the operating current required to trip can be expressed as a percentage of through current.

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CT RATIO AND CONNECTION FOR DIFFERENTIAL RELAY

• This simple thumb rule is that the current transformers on any star winding should be connected in delta
and the current transformers on any delta winding should be connected in star. This is so done to
eliminate zero sequence current in the relay circuit.
• If the CTs are connected in star, the CT ratio will be In/1 or 5 A
• CTs to be connected in delta, the CT ratio will be In/0.5775 or 5×0.5775 A

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DIFFERENTIAL RELAY CHARACTERISTICS

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IMPEDANCE TYPE DISTANCE RELAY

• Definition: The relay whose working depends on the distance between the impedance of the
faulty section and the position on which relay installed is known as the impedance relay or
distance relay. It is a voltage controlled equipment.
• The relay measures the impedance of the faulty point, if the impedance is less than the
impedance of the relay setting, it gives the tripping command to the circuit breaker for closing
their contacts. The impedance relay continuously monitors the line current and voltage flows
through the CT and PT respectively. If the ratio of voltage and current is less than the relay
starts operating then the relay starts operating.

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IMPEDANCE TYPE DISTANCE RELAY

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PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION OF IMPEDANCE RELAY
• In the normal operating condition, the value of the line voltage is more than the current. But when
the fault occurs on the line the magnitude of the current rises and the voltage becomes less. The
line current is inversely proportional to the impedance of the transmission line. Thus, the
impedance decreases because of which the impedance relay starts operating.
• Consider the impedance relay is placed on the transmission line for the protection of the line AB.
The Z is the impedance of the line in normal operating condition. If the impedances of the line fall
below the impedance Z then the relay starts working.
• Let, the fault F1 occur in the line AB. This fault decreases the impedance of the line below the
relay setting impedance. The relay starts operating, and its send the tripping command to the
circuit breaker. If the fault reached beyond the protective zone, the contacts of the relay remain
unclosed.

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PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION OF IMPEDANCE RELAY

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OPERATING CHARACTERISTIC OF AN IMPEDANCE RELAY
• The voltage and the current operating elements are the two important component of the
impedance relay. The current operating element generates the deflecting torque while the voltage
storage element generates the restoring torque.

• The -K3 is the spring effect of the relay. The V and I are the value of the voltage and current.
When the relay is in normal operating condition, then the net torque of the relay becomes zero.

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OPERATING CHARACTERISTIC OF AN IMPEDANCE RELAY

If the spring control effect becomes neglected, the equation becomes

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REACTANCE RELAY
• The reactance relay is a high-speed relay. This relay consists of two elements an overcurrent
element and a current-voltage directional element. The current element developed positive
torque and a current-voltage developed directional element which opposes the current element
depending on the phase angle between current and voltage.
• Reactance relay is an overcurrent relay with directional limitation. The directional element is
arranged to develop maximum negative torque when its current lag behinds its voltage by 90°.
The induction cup or double induction loop structures are best suited for actuating reactance
type distance relays.

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CONSTRUCTION OF REACTANCE RELAY
A typical reactance relay using the induction cup structure
is shown in the figure below. It has a four-pole structure
carrying operating, polarizing, and restraining coils, as
shown in the figure below. The operating torque is
developed by the interaction of fluxes due to current
carrying coils, i.e., the interaction of fluxes of 2, 3 and 4
and the restraining torque is produced by the interaction
of fluxes due to poles 1, 2 and 4.

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CONSTRUCTION OF REACTANCE RELAY
• The operating torque will be proportional to the square of the current while the restraining torque
will be proportional to VI cos (Θ – 90°).
• The desired maximum torque angle is obtained with the help of resistance-capacitance circuits,
as illustrated in the figure. If the control effect is indicated by –k3, the torque equation becomes

where Θ, is defined as positive when I lag behind V. At the balance point net torque is zero,

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CONSTRUCTION OF REACTANCE RELAY

The spring control effect is neglected in the above equation, i.e., K3 = 0.

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 OPERATING CHARACTERISTIC OF REACTANCE RELAY
• The operating characteristic of a reactance relay is
shown in the figure. X is the reactance of the protected
line between the relay location and the fault point, and
R is the resistance component of the impedance.
• The characteristic shows that the resistance
component of the impedance has no consequence on
the working of the relay, the relay reacts solely to the
reactance component. The point below the operating
characteristic is called the positive torque region.

Therefore the reactance type distance relay needs a directional unit that is inoperative under
load conditions. Reactance type relay is very suitable as a ground relay for ground fault
because its reach is not affected by fault impedance.
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MHO RELAY
• Mho relay is referred to as voltage-controlled directional relay or admittance relay or high-
speed relay.
• The operating torque can be determined by the V-I (voltage-ampere) element and the
voltage element develops the controlling element.
• These types of relays are used to detect phase faults for long transmission lines, and at
the point where there is an occurrence of synchronizing power surges.
• The mho relay is more sensitive and reliable because it is a combined unit of both
distance measurement and direction.

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PRINCIPLE OF MHO RELAY
• The working principle of the Mho relay depends on the
impedance and the directional element. If the impedance
measurement is less than the final point impedance, then it
is considered as a fault that exists on the line between the
relay and the final point.
• The interaction of fluxes due to poles 2, 3, and 4 produces
operating torque. Due to 1, 2, and 4 poles controlling or
restraining torque is obtained. A series capacitor is
connected to provide memory action.

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PRINCIPLE OF MHO RELAY
Since operating torque is due to the V-I element and controlling torque is due to voltage element.
So, the mho relay is also called a directional relay with voltage control.

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OPERATING CHARACTERISTICS OF MHO RELAY

Practically, the diameter of the circle is independent of

voltage and current. But when a spring effect is taken into

account at low voltage and current magnitudes, the

diameter of the circle leads to a decrease.

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APPLICATIONS

• It is used in the protection of UHV/EHV transmission lines

• It is used to protect long transmission lines because of its power swings.
• It is used to protect series compensated and uncompensated transmission lines to
determine the location of the faults.
• It is used to determine impedance with a directional element based on the type of
fault.

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COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS

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BUCHHOLZ RELAY
• The Buchholz relay protects the transformer from internal faults.
• It is the gas actuated relay.
• The Buchholz relay is placed between the main tank and the conservator. Such type of relay is
used in the transformer having the rating higher than 500KVA.
• It is not used in small transformer because of economic consideration.

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WORKING PRINCIPLE OF BUCHHOLZ RELAY
• When the fault occurs inside the transformer, the temperature of the oil increases.
• The oil evaporates in the form of the gas.
• The generation of the gas depends on the magnitude of the fault occurs inside the
transformer. The internal failure occurs in the transformer either because of the insulation
breakdown between the winding or the winding have the weak initial contact.

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 CONSTRUCTION OF BUCHHOLZ RELAY
• The Buchholz relay has two hinged which is placed in
the metallic chamber. This metallic chamber is
connected through the pipe between the conservator
and main tank.
• The one of the hinged is placed in the upper portion of
the metallic chamber along with the mercury switch.
This mercury switch is used for activating the alarm.
The other float is placed in the lower portion of the
metallic chamber along with the mercury switch. The
mercury switch is used for actuating the tripping circuit.

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LIMITATIONS OF BUCHHOLZ RELAY
• The relay is used only in oil immersed transformer.
• It can only detect the fault below oil level.
• This relay does not protect the connecting cables. Hence separate protection is used for the
cables.
• The response time of the relay is high.

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NEGATIVE SEQUENCE RELAY.
• A relay which protects the electrical system from negative sequence component is called
a negative sequence relay or unbalance phase relay. The negative sequence relay
protects the generator and motor from the unbalanced load which mainly occurs because
of the phase-to-phase faults.

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CONSTRUCTION -NEGATIVE SEQUENCE RELAY.
• The Z1, Z2, Z3, and Z4 are the four impedance of the
circuit which is connected in the form of the bridge. The
impedance is energized by the current transformers.

• The Z1 and Z3 are purely resistive and the Z2 and

Z4 are both resistive and inductive in nature. The
impedance Z2 and Z4 are adjusted in such a manner
that the current flowing through them is always lagging
by an angle of 60º than those current which is flowing
through Z1 and Z3.

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CONSTRUCTION -NEGATIVE SEQUENCE RELAY.

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MICROPROCESSOR BASED - OVER CURRENT PROTECTION

Microprocessor Based Over Current Relay

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MICROPROCESSOR BASED - OVER CURRENT PROTECTION
• Current is taken from C.T. and given to I to V converter because many electronics circuit require
voltage signal for operation.
• The A.C. voltage is converted into D.C. voltage by using rectifier.
• This D.C. voltage is proportional to load current only.
• The output of rectifier is given to Multiplexer.
• The Multiplexer gives output to A/D Converter where Analog DC voltage is converted to Digital
form (in form of O and 1 i.e. binary form).

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MICROPROCESSOR BASED - OVER CURRENT PROTECTION
• Microprocessor understands only codes in 0 and 1 form.
• HP (Microprocessor) gives S/C (start of conversion) signal to A/D converter (I.e. analog to digital
conversion is started and HP gives permission to A/D convertor for this by sending S/C)
• When converting from analog to digital is over (finish) then A/D converter sends E/C signal to HP
(E/C – End of Conversion).
• When work of A/D is over then up compare the magnitude of this incoming current with required
current value (I.e. set value or reference value).

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NUMERICAL PROTECTION SYSTEM

• Numerical protection relays protect power transformers and distribution systems from various
types of faults.
• Numerical protection relays are digital systems in constant communication with substation
automation systems through menu-driven interfaces. They have configurable binary inputs,
outputs, and programmable logic. They monitor, measure, and record electrical values, fault and
disturbances, and events. Numerical protection relays feature high-speed operation and multi-
functionality, offering improved selectivity and stability.
• Numerical protection relays have a multiple microprocessor design. Each microprocessor within
the relay performs software functions such as executing protection algorithms and scheme logic,
processing signals from sensors, controlling output relays, and handling the human interface.

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NUMERICAL PROTECTION SYSTEM

• Three types of communication ports are available on a typical numerical protection relay-an
RS232C port for locally connecting to a PC, an RS485 port for connecting to a remote PC, and an
IRIC-B port for connecting an external clock.

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TYPES OF NUMERICAL RELAY
Based on Logic

• Over Current/ Earth Fault: It will cause the circuit breaker when excessive current flows through a
device. Used for protection against transformers and feeders.
• Directional overcurrent: When the fault forces the power to flow in a specific direction, it is controlled
(Opposite to the specified direction). Used for the safety of transformers, generators, and bus bars.
• Differential: When the phase difference of two or more equivalent electric quantities exceeds the
stated value, the differential relay is set to trip. It can protect transformers from localized faults and
generators.
• Distance: The function of this type of relay is dependent on the distance between the fault impedance
and the location of the relay. They are primarily used to safeguard transmission lines

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TYPES OF NUMERICAL RELAY
Based on Characteristics

• Instantaneous relay: If the trigger is triggered directly after a fault occurs, no time delay will occur.

• Definite Time Relay: Only activated if the fault stays in place after a certain time.

• Definite Minimum Time (IDMT) Inverse Time Relays: These relays are often used on transmission
lines. When the line current is higher than the safe value, the circuit breaker is triggered.

• Voltage restraint over current relay: The relay is only triggered if the conditions of both under-voltage
and over-current arise at the same time.

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TYPES OF NUMERICAL RELAY
Based on Actuating Parameters

• Current relays

• Voltage relays

• Frequency relays

• Power relays Etc

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TYPES OF NUMERICAL RELAY
Based on Application

• Primary relay

• Backup relay

• The entire network could crash if the security system fails, so they use the backup relay. And if the
primary relay goes wrong, doing this would help us secure the machine.

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ARCHITECTURE OF NUMERICAL RELAY
Input Module

• The power system uses analog parameters to operate. With existing transformers and future
transformers, the high-powered analog signals are stepped down. Using lowpass filters, it is fed to the
numeric relay. Owing to the corona or induction effect from a nearby high voltage line, the low pass
filter is used to remove the noisy signal in the device.

CPU
• The central processing unit (CPU) is the system's brain, which processes and filters all data protection
algorithms and digital inputs.

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ARCHITECTURE OF NUMERICAL RELAY
Memory

• There are two memories, RAM and ROM, in the numerical relay. Random Access Memory (RAM) is
responsible for the retention and processing of input data to the relay during compilation.

• Read-Only Memory (ROM) is the relay's storage unit. It stores the required software and other data
related to events and disturbances. The Storage Unit is a must because it allows during the occurrence
of a fault to evaluate and troubleshoot any incident.
Multiplexer and Analog to digital converter
Only digital data can be processed by the CPU, but the feedback from the current transformer and future
transformer is analog. The Analog to Digital converter is then used to translate the signal to digital data. A
multiplexer is used to select the necessary analog input for conversion if multiple analog signals need to
be converted.

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ARCHITECTURE OF NUMERICAL RELAY
Output Module

The digital contacts that are actuated when a trip command is provided by the CPU are the output module.
Pulses that are produced as a response signal are these digital contacts. According to the application of the
relay, the response time may be modified.

Digital input/Communication module

As with a computer, a relay also has serial and parallel ports to link the relay to the substation's control and
communication systems. To extend the tripping command, the Auxiliary relays can be attached to the
digital output contacts.

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THANK YOU..

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