IMPORTANT FACTS & FORMULAE
1. Calculus
(a) Existence of limiting value—If L. H. S.
R.H.S. limit ie.
lim fla~h) =
ret
Of) =
limit
lim fla+h)
no
or lim- lim +0,fx)
then we have lim f(x). Its value may be obtained.
(b) Algebra of limits—If lim fix) = 1, and
a
lim (x) = J, then we have—
ha) + O00]
fix) + lim (x), Le., limits of sum is
=lth
equal to the sum of limits of functions.
Gi) Tim Yo) +9001 =F
= tim Ro.
equal to the product of limits of functions.
1
(iii) lim Sole !
= lim fay
equal to the fraction of limits of functions.
(2), ée., limits of product is
limits of fraction is
(a), is
© Important formulae—
oat
(lim =n
vow Xa
tad
@ Im y-1
ii) lim
rox
(iv)
sin O
in "a
(vi) lim cos 0=1
ay i tan O
(vii) lim, 07 1.
(c) Differentiation—Let y = fx), there is a
function in variable x, if a small inereasement in.«
is dx, then dy is increased in the respective value
of y. In this case :
mm A+ 8) =f) |
lity a
» a " teet
; z on fix) is called differentiation
(differential coefficient) with respect to y and x
where
re
respectively and is denoted by 2
dy 8 fla +83) x)
* dx = Pear “<=, &
dy i, ee = AY
Tae = lim,
© Important formutae—
@ Aotyeme!
w a(s)*
a
Gi) 0
. a(t)
™ aoe
() 4 (c)=0, where c is a constant
ft (6) =0, where c isa constant. 4. Physical Sciences (B + C)
4 net
wi Flee
a tl
(vi) flog. = 5
a 7
(iit) J (Sin 2) = c08 x
(0) A teosn=-s
0) Lean) =see?x
wo feo
tail) (see) =seex.tane
Cait) 4 (eosee x) =-c0s x.c0t x
(xiv) 4 Gin m=
to Storie Th
ww) Aart y =i
twvity 4 (ort =p ts
doceipe —!
bwin Gelert) =
tam) Lowen ==
“ ret
(4) Rote’ Theorem :Statemen—H sates
thas emo) ee she
(bjt conimons a ear poi of dosed
interval [a,b].
Ui) ay be obtained a cah point of
‘open interval Ja, b{ and
Vide) = fb) ten we havea simu
cae of Ca henyyedomnecee ce
(e) Lagrange’s M¢ Value Theorem ;
sentation oes
=
Wf) coinsus acc pit of ele
ince
Maybe chai teach of pen
interval Ja, b[, then we have a minimum value ¢
a
£0) fe)
Hence, = Fle). where a
2
(1x543%6) (1x7434)(1x943%0 ia
Qtelats Geataxmenssaco| Ansan = [19 ]ar
9
46 18
() Adjoint matrices—Let A, = (-1),, , then
co-product of a, element of square matrix A is
called adjoint matrix. It is denoted by M,,
Any Aa Aw
An An Aw
Ay A,
(6 Orthogonal matrices—A square matrix A
is called an orthogonal matrix, if the product of
the matrix A and its transpose is an identity
matrix iif AAT =I
Ferinane. te mari A= [9] onto”
sonal, for the protuct.
a pl 7
o1
o1] pio
vol [iol =[o1] =: .
So, the orthogonality condition of two square
matrices is |AAT I= 1,
(g) Unitary matrix—A square matrix A is
said 10 be unitary. if AA® = I where A” is the
Hermitian conjugate of A and I the unit matrix.
AAT=
WA=
’
non-zero so the rank of A i, (A)
(hy Trace of a matrix —The trace of a matrix
is the sum of the diagonal elements of a matrix.
‘The trace of the matrix is given as
354
az=lo24
371
is 6 since 3+2+1=6.
The trace of the product of two matrices A
and B is independent of the order of multiplica-
‘T(BA) and this propery can be
rather easily verified,
(® Rank of a matrix—It is the largest order
(oF any non-vanishing minor of the m
123
234
345
1A =. But there is atleast,
‘ shose det
$ J whose determinant is
“The rank of a non-singular square matrix
of order m is m and that of a singular
square matrix of order m is less than
“The rank of anull-matrix is zero.
‘The rank of the transfpose of a matrix is
the same as the original matrix.
6) Derivative and integral of a matrix —
© Derivative—The derivative of a given
ratein with respect to a variable « i equal to the
matrix ofthe derivative of each element separately
So. ifthe prodict ofthe matrix and its Hermitian With respect 0
conjugate is an identity matrix, it is @ unitary stad samaixen = [4c]
is given as: MAn[sd bomets,tee 7" La 0. 10 | Physical Sciences (B +)
ae 0 ae
[ise
It can be readily shown that
a aB
Gq IALIBL = AC
roreame [355° 2]
lor et
0 6}
da
+80
© Integral—The integral of a matrix with
respect to a variable x is equal to the matrix of the
integral of each element separately with respect
tox
IFA = [ay] is matrix, then the integral of A
defined as
fra = Uaydr).
For example
«2x $2
Sf ese
ey tte Set
_ [ta Ste pte
"lle Be
c Setteg ates
«25
poe | foes
cde 10 eves
(k) Bigen values/Characteristie root :
Characteristic. matrix—For a given square
matrix A, the matrix A —Al is called the
characteristic matrix of A, where A is a scalar
parameter and I the unit mairix of the same order.
Example : Let the given square matrix be
622
is the required characteristic matrix.
© Characteristic equation—The equation
1A =211=0 is known as the characteristic equa-
tion of matrix A. So, the required characteristic
‘equation is given as
B+ 1202-362432 = 0.
It is due to solution of characteristic matrix
(6-1) (9-6+22-1)
+2(-6 +24 +2)+22-6 +2)
B+ 1203-3624 32
The root of the characteristic equation
1A-AL1=0 are known as eigen values!
characteristic roots of the matrix A.
Here, the characteristic equation is given as
B+ 1202362432 = 0
or, (h=2) (4-2) (.-8) =
- =2, 2,8 are the eigen values/characteris-
tic roots
() Eigen vectors/characteristic vectors—
Corresponding to each eigen value , we have a
‘non-zero vector X that satisfies the equation
IA-IX = 0.
The non-zero vector X is known as the eigen
vvectoricharacteristic vector. The eigen vector X is
thus not unique, but is of the form iX.
(m) Orthogonal. vectors—Two vectors X,
and X, are called orthogonal vectors if X,X2 =0.
A
I
They are orthogonal if xjx4 + 13%5 + 45% = 0.
The eigen vectors of a symmetric matrix
corresponding to the different eigen values are
‘orthogonal
(n) Normalized form of vectors—The
Let
crate tam oe y ig
each of the elements with Va?+P? +. For
2) p27
instance, the normalized form of |3]is ]3/7] .
617,
(0) Linear dependence and independence
of vectors —Vectors (matrices) Xj. X25 ..X_ are
considered independent if (a) all the vectors (row or column) are of the same order and (b) scalars
Dats Aas oes Au (not all zero) exist such that
DX) # PGK ta ByXy = 0
Otherwise, the vectors are said to be linearly
dependent.
5. Complex Analysis
(a) Important definitions —
() Set of points— Any collection of points in
4 complex plane, is called st of points
(id) Neighbourhood of a point—A neigh-
bourhood of point ~ ar”
(f) Laplace equations (Harmonic functions)
—The real and imaginary parts of a complex
funetion f(z) = w (x, y) + iv (x, y) that is analytic in
a domain D, have continuous second order partial
derivatives and are the solutions of Laplace's
equations, such as
eu
ae*
vu
A solution of Laplace’s equation having
continuous second order partial derivatives. is
called a harmonic function.
(g) Transformation of Laplace's equa-
tion —(i) The two-dimensional Laplace's equation
transforms in polar co-ordinates to the following
form given as,
Pu, Law, 1 au
ae tr art page=
where (r, 0) is the polar co-ordinates
(ii) The two-dimensional Lapalce’s equation
transforms in cylindrical co-ordinate system to the
following form given as
Pulau Lae, ee
ae rant Paw * az
where (r,0,2) is cylindrical three co-
ordinates,
ii) The two-dimensional Laplace's equation
transforms in spherical polar form given as
au, 2ou , 1 au cot du
art rat Pet Pw
Law
+ int oa! ="*
where (r, 8,4) is the spherical polar co-
ordinates.
(h) Applications of Fourier Series—
(i) Sawtooth wave—Expansion of fix) = x,
for -x <.x = x. The Fourier expansion is given by
$e) = Say +E, (a,cos mx by sin ne]
2 5 cet ainas
(i) Square wave— Expansion of
0, for-m
fare the separation constants
(k) Separation of Helmholtz Equation in
Cylindrical Co-ordinates
In the cylindrical co-ordinate system (p..@, 2)
the Helmholtz equation is given as
Lee Ds
pap (Pap) * geeaget at] wr) =0.
(43)
Assume the following form for u(.) :
Wr) = RO)BOZ) 4)
where, R is a function of the variable p only, is
4 function of @, and Z. is a function of z alone.
Going through the usual procedure of substitution
in the equation, division by R(p) () Z(z) and.
rearrangement, one fal obtains
| eo
ta
pap (Pap) "phage °F
Lee
1. as ‘As argued earlier, both sides must be equal to
‘a constant. Let this separation constant be written
as -¢?. This leads o the following two equations :
£2 (46)
(47)
on (47) can now be further separated by
multiplying throughout by p? and rearranging such
that the terms dependent on @ are on one side and
the rest of the terms, depending on p are on the
other side. Thus, from equation (47) one obtains
the following two equations
P® | ew =
£2 Wo = «as
APR Bayar gh pom R=0, 4)
where m? is the new separation constant.
(1) Laplace's Equation in Various Co-or-
By following procedures similar to those
outlined above, Laplace's equation can also be
separated in Cartesian, spherical polar and
cylindrical co-ordinate systems. Laplace's equa-
tion can be considered to be a special case of
Helmholtz equation with k = 0. For completeness
we quote the results
1. By writing 1F) = Xx) YO) 2
Laplace's equation V2u(r) = 0 in Cartesian co-
ordinates can be separated into
ex
a +2. = 0 (50)
P
ty a¥ = 0 51)
= 0, 482)
where, 2y + hy + 2s = 0.
2. Assuming u(7) = R(r}@(0)(p), Laplace's
equation in spherical polar co-ordinates can be
separated into the following three equations :
eo
pt mb =
e 53)
de"
sino (ino ge) — i g O#2O=0 154)
thy a ape
= 5p R= B (55)
3. Putting u(r) = R(py0(@) Z(2) Laplace's
equation in cylindrical co-ordinates can be
separated into
(56)
oo emo = 0 (57)
and pS GRO pm R=0. (58)
‘The interesting thing to note is that the angu-
lar part of u(r) in spherical polar co-ordinates for
both Laplace’s and Helmholtz equations is given
by the same set of equations [equations (38), (41)
and (53), (S4)]. In fact, whenever the partial
differential equation involves the operator V? and
the other terms are spherically symmetric, the
angular part in spherical polar co-ordinated will be
governed by the same two equations as a result, be
encountered again and again and play a very
important role in Physics. Equation (54) can be
put in a more convenient form by putting yt = cos
8, With this substitution the equation takes the
a 1,40
ae Lee O
(am) Choice of Co-ordinate
Separability of a Partial Differential Equation
A given partial differential equation may not
be separable in one co-ordinate system but may be
separable in another.
Example :
(ER UT) +r) = 0 (60)
where, A? isa constant. Let us try to separate this
equation in spherical polar co-ordinate in w
the atin takes the form
Da : Drneaath) >
Pin? 0 ag?”
61) ‘The constant of proportionality K is found to
1 Lf
be equal to 5. Therefore. = 3) \/
() Find the dimensional formulae of : (a) the
charge Q. (b) the potential V, (c) the capacitance
Cand (d) the resistance R.
Solution : We know that Q= Ir, E= Vit. =
CV and V = RI, where Fis electric curren, ris the
time and E isthe energy.
@" i
= (ET) of (MOLeTT}
we vir
(MLT-2] = (VIN (T]
IML*r-*}
Me
= IMT,
wr cv
ur}= (cHiMer 31-4
ur)
(Ch inar=H
= IM“ L2rP
ws VeRI
v
Ray
oe (Meer)
RL
= (MET
(vi) If P represents, the radiation pressure,
represents the Velocity of light and q represents
the radiation energy per unit area per unit time,
then calculate non-zero integers x,y and z and
such that p'g'etis dimensionless
Solution : Dimension of P = [ML~'T-2},
Energy
dimension of q = .UNTY = [ML°T-) and
dimension of ¢ = [LT-"] or [M°LT-"
pegs [ML 2p (MLO 3p
[MeLT-'y
Imes Loree 2 inq,
Now p"g° c will be dimensionless if s+
and = 2x~3y=2=0
Physical Sciences (B+) | 27
y and x
Solving these above equation, we have x = 1,
== Hand <= 1 so that p* g'c*is dimensionless.
8. Tensors
If the medium is isotropic, the relation
between current density vector J and the electric
field vector Eis given by vector equation
J= oF,
where, 0 is electrical condu
For such a medium the con
for the X-component, we wri
J, = 0B}.
However, if the medium is anisotropic as in
many crystals, the current density in x-direction
depends on the electric fields in the y- and =
directions as well as on the field in x-direction.
‘Assuming a linear relationship, We write the
above equation
Jy = OE, +0;2 Ey + os Es
and in general Jy = J oa Ey.
k
‘Thus ordering three dimensional space, the
scalar quantity @ must be replaced by a more
general quantity 0, to effect the required change
indirection and magnitude,
of the medium
tivity is scalar and
This general quantity
elements) is called a tensor.
© The fundamental laws of physics must possess
the same form in all co-ordinate systems.
© The study of this accepted fact, known as
invariant formulation of physical laws is
embodied in tensor analysis. Its a general
sation of vector analysis,
© A curve in n-dimensional space (V,) is
defined asthe collection of points which
satisfy the equation
aH AM) (HE N23, ccc
where w is a parameter and x (u) aren
functions of u, which satisfy certain
‘continuity equations,
© A zero order or zero rank tensor will have N°
= I component in every coordinate system.
‘Thus, scalars are tensors of zero rank,
64 (array of nine 102 | Physical Sciences (B +C)
Let E and V be the total and potential
energies of the particle respectively, then its
Ae ery {mis gen
Lie
jim? = E- Ve which gives
mst = 2mE -V),
Substituting tis in equation (vi
ame. vw:
which is called Schroedinger time independent
‘wave equation.
Let a
wy
‘Then the Schroedinger time independent
ave uation my be writen as
+H E-v=0.
7. Schroedinger Equation for a Free
Particle
Schroedinger equation for a free panicle is
vey + iy = 0.
Because for free particle V =0.
Time Dependent Schroedinger
Equation
‘Time dependent Schroedinger equation may
be obtained by eliminating E from Time
independent Schroedinger equation
Differentiating the equation
Wr = Wine
with respect 10, we get
ay fut
We iow ie
= - iain et
x i
a= a i
whic nes By =n
Subsitaing the vale of By om tine
wri inne
eys2t [inva] 20
oe wy 2 [nt vy]
which is called time dependent Schroedinger
equation,
“The above equation maybe writen x
a
= ine
(Zoe) vent,
e
act ase
tonian and is represented by H. while operator
which describe the motion of a non-relativistic
particles.
9. Schroedinger Wave Function (1)
In the beginning it was considered that the
wave function w is merely an auxiliary mathema-
tical quantity employed to facilitate computations
relative to experimental results. Schroedinger
himself attempted the physical interpretation of
1 in terms of charge density. As the beams of
electrons exhibit diffraction phenomenon like X-
‘ay. one might use the optical analogy to arrive at
the physical significance of y. If y is the ampli-
tude of the matler wave at any point in space then
the number of material panicles per unit volume
‘must be proportional to 2. Thus. the square of
absolute value of y i. y is a measure of the
fen instead of
where Wis the complex conjugate of.
Accotding to Max-Born and afer that Dirac,
I? represents
particle density. Usually yop is wt
Tyr