CIVIL ENGINEERING

INTRODUCTION
Civil engineering is a broad field of engineering that focuses on the design, construction, and
maintenance of infrastructure and the built environment. It encompasses a wide range of
disciplines and applications, including structural engineering, geotechnical engineering,
transportation engineering, environmental engineering, and construction management

It is one of the oldest engineering professions, and ancient engineering achievements due to civil
engineering include the pyramids of Egypt and road systems developed by the Romans.

American society of civil engineering defines civil engineering as the profession in which a
knowledge of the mathematical and physical sciences gained by study, experience and practice is
applied with judgement to develop ways to utilize economically the materials and forces of the
nature for the progressive well being of man

Overall, civil engineering plays a crucial role in shaping the built environment and supporting
economic development, social progress, and environmental sustainability. Civil engineers apply
scientific principles, technological innovations, and interdisciplinary approaches to address
complex challenges and improve the quality of life for communities around the world

ROLES OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

i. Plan new townships and extension of existing towns.
ii. Providing shelter to people in the form of low cost houses to high rise apartments.
iii. Laying ordinary village roads to express highways.
iv. Constructing irrigation tanks, multipurpose dams & canals for supplying water to
agricultural fields.
v. Supplying safe and potable water for public & industrial uses.
vi. Protecting our environment by adopting sewage treatment & solid waste disposal
techniques.
vii. Constructing hydro-electric & thermal-power plants for generating electricity.
viii. Providing other means of transportation such as railways, harbor & airports.
ix. Constructing bridges across streams, rivers and also across seas.
x. Tunneling across mountains & also under water to connect places easily & reduce
distance

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 FEW CIVIL ENGINEERING STRUCTURES ACROSS THE WORLD

Banda Worli Sea Link Statue of Unity

Chenab Bridge Colosseum

Palm Island Leaning tower of Pisa

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 DIFFERENT BRANCHES OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

1. Surveying

Surveying is an art and science of measuring the object on , above and below the earth. It's a
fundamental aspect of civil engineering, construction, land development, and many other fields.

Here's an overview of surveying:

i. Land Surveying: Land surveying involves measuring and mapping the Earth's surface,
including natural and man-made features such as mountains, rivers, roads, and property
boundaries. Land surveyors use various instruments such as total stations, GPS receivers,
and drones to collect accurate measurements of distances, angles, and elevations.
ii. Types of Surveys: There are different types of land surveys, including boundary surveys,
topographic surveys, construction surveys, and geodetic surveys. Boundary surveys
determine property lines and legal boundaries, while topographic surveys map the terrain
and features of a site. Construction surveys help guide the construction process by
providing precise measurements and layout information.
iii. Surveying Instruments: Surveyors use a range of instruments and technologies to
collect data accurately and efficiently. Traditional instruments include theodolites, levels,
and measuring tapes, while modern techniques utilize GPS, laser scanning, and drones
for remote sensing and data capture.
iv. Data Processing and Analysis: Once data is collected in the field, surveyors process and
analyze it to create maps, plans, and digital models of the surveyed area. This may
involve using specialized software for data processing, CAD (Computer-Aided Design)
software for drafting, and GIS (Geographic Information Systems) for spatial analysis.
v. Applications: Surveying has diverse applications across various industries. In civil
engineering and construction, surveys are essential for site planning, design, and layout.
In land development, surveys help determine property boundaries, assess terrain, and plan
infrastructure projects. Surveying is also used in environmental monitoring, resource
management, archaeology, and urban planning

Surveying using Total station Surveying using Auto level

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 2. Structural Engineering

Introduction
Structural engineering is primarily concerned with designing and constructing buildings and
structures that are safe and capable of withstanding the elements to which they will be exposed,
as well as improving the structural integrity of existing buildings. Structural engineering depends
upon a detailed knowledge of applied mechanics, materials science, and applied mathematics to
understand and predict how structures support and resist self-weight and imposed loads.
History
Historically, Structural Engineering, though intuitive, can be traced back in parallel with Civil
Engineering. There are numerous examples of outstanding structures, such as the monumental
structures including the Taj Mahal in India, and, many Roman structures, throughout this early
period of non-formal engineering. It is of interest to see how this early engineering evolved to
enable the construction of the modern day bridges and buildings of imposing dimensions, such as
the Burj Khalifa, Dubai, and the recently opened 1915 Çanakkale Bridge in Turkey, known as
Burj Bridge. This is the world’s longest suspension bridge span and would perhaps have been
unthinkable even a hundred years ago.

Different types of structures

Civil structural engineering includes all structural engineering related to the built environment. It
includes: Bridges, Dams, Earthworks Foundations, Offshore structures ,Pipelines ,Power
stations ,Railways ,Retaining structures and walls, Roads ,Tunnels, Waterways ,Reservoirs,
Water and wastewater infrastructure

Key aspects of structural engineering:

1. Design: Structural engineers use principles of physics and mathematics to design

structures that can withstand loads such as gravity, wind, snow, earthquakes, and soil
pressure. They consider factors such as materials, shape, and geometry to optimize the
performance and efficiency of the structure.
2. Analysis: Before construction begins, structural engineers perform detailed analyses to
predict how a structure will behave under various conditions. This involves using
computer simulations and mathematical models to assess factors such as stress, strain,
and deflection.
3. Materials: Structural engineers work with a variety of materials including concrete,
steel, wood, and composites. They select materials based on factors such as strength,
stiffness, cost, and environmental impact.
4. Construction: Structural engineers collaborate closely with architects, contractors, and
other professionals during the construction phase to ensure that the design is implemented
correctly and that the structure meets all safety and quality standards.
5. Maintenance and Inspection: After construction is complete, structural engineers may
be involved in ongoing maintenance and inspection activities to ensure that the structure
remains safe and functional throughout its lifespan. This includes conducting periodic
inspections, assessing structural integrity, and recommending repairs or upgrades as
needed

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Different types of structures.

3. Building materials and Construction

Materials which are required for construction of buildings are referred as building materials.
Building materials are classified into three types

i. Natural Materials: - These are naturally occurring materials namely wood, stone, mud or
clay etc.
ii. Artificial materials: - These are man-made materials namely bricks, cement, glass &
steel.
iii. Composite materials: - These are combination of two or materials namely concrete,
plywood

Building materials are essential components of civil engineering, encompassing a diverse range
of materials utilized in construction projects worldwide. Concrete, a ubiquitous material in civil
engineering, is renowned for its compressive strength, versatility, and durability. Examples
include reinforced concrete, precast concrete, and high-strength concrete. Steel, prized for its
high tensile strength and ductility, is widely used in structural applications such as beams,
columns, and reinforcement. Wood, valued for its renewable nature and aesthetic appeal, finds
applications in framing, flooring, and siding. Masonry materials, including brick, concrete block,
and stone, offer durability and fire resistance, suitable for walls, facades, and structural elements.
Additionally, asphalt is utilized for road construction and roofing, providing a durable and
waterproof surface. Glass, prized for its transparency and aesthetic qualities, is used in windows,
doors, and curtain walls. Composite materials, such as fiberglass and carbon fiber, offer high
strength-to-weight ratios, corrosion resistance, and design flexibility, suitable for structural
components and architectural features. The selection of building materials depends on factors
such as project requirements, structural design, environmental considerations, and cost
constraints.

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 Different building materials

4. Geotechnical Engineering

Geotechnical engineering, also known as geotechnics, is the branch of civil engineering

concerned with the engineering behavior of earth materials. It uses the principles of soil
mechanics and rock mechanics to solve its engineering problems

This knowledge is applied to the design of foundations, retaining walls, earth dams, clay liners,
and geosynthetics for waste containment. The goals of geotechnical engineers could range from
the design of foundations and temporary excavation support, through route selection for railways
and highways, to the increasingly important areas of landfill disposal of wastes and groundwater
contamination. As such, the geotechnical engineer is involved in field and laboratory
investigations to determine the engineering properties of site soils and other geomaterials and
their subsequent use in the analytical study of the problem at hand.

Recent computational and computer advances are extending our ability to predict the behaviour
of soil and soil-water systems under a wide variety of conditions. In recent years, the activities of
geotechnical engineers have also involved geoenvironmental engineering. Geoenvironmental
engineers design strategies for the clean-up of contaminated soils and groundwater and develop
management systems for contaminated sites

Why Geotechnical Engineering is Important

Geotechnical engineering is important as it helps prevent damage to other buildings and

structures as a result of subsurface conditions. The calculations and tests undertaken by these
engineers help ensure safety and stability for structures and can mitigate against earthquakes,
slope stability shifts, ongoing earth settlement and more

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Excavation of soil for engineering purpose

5. Water resource and irrigation engineering

Irrigation and water resource engineering is a branch of civil engineering that focuses on the
management, distribution, and utilization of water resources for agricultural, industrial,
municipal, and environmental purposes.

Here's an overview of irrigation and water resource engineering:

1. Water Resources Management: Irrigation and water resource engineering involves the
planning, development, and management of water resources, including surface water
bodies such as rivers, lakes, and reservoirs, as well as groundwater aquifers. This
includes assessing water availability, conducting hydrological studies, and implementing
strategies to ensure sustainable use and conservation of water resources.
2. Irrigation Systems: One of the primary applications of water resource engineering is
irrigation, which involves the artificial application of water to agricultural crops to
supplement natural rainfall and meet crop water requirements. Irrigation systems vary in
complexity and scale, ranging from simple gravity-fed systems to advanced pressurized
irrigation systems such as drip irrigation and sprinkler irrigation.
3. Hydraulic Structures: Water resource engineers design and construct various hydraulic
structures to control and manage water flow, storage, and distribution. These structures
include dams, reservoirs, weirs, barrages, canals, channels, and drainage systems.
Hydraulic structures are essential for regulating water supply, flood control,
sedimentation management, and navigation.
4. Water Supply Systems: In addition to irrigation, water resource engineering
encompasses the design and management of water supply systems for domestic,
industrial, and municipal use. This includes sourcing water from natural surface and

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 groundwater sources, treatment processes to ensure water quality and safety, and
distribution networks to deliver water to end-users.
5. Flood Control and Management: Water resource engineers play a crucial role in
mitigating the impacts of floods by designing and implementing flood control measures
such as levees, floodwalls, embankments, and drainage systems. They also conduct flood
risk assessments, develop floodplain management plans, and provide early warning
systems to minimize flood damage and protect lives and property.

Storage of water in dam and supply water to crops

6. Transportation Engineering

Transportation engineering is a branch of civil engineering that focuses on the planning, design,
construction, operation, and maintenance of transportation infrastructure and systems. It
encompasses a wide range of modes of transportation, including roads, highways, railways,
airports, ports, and public transit systems. Here's an overview of transportation engineering:.

1. Public Transit Systems: Transportation engineers are involved in the planning, design,
and operation of public transit systems such as buses, trains, subways, and light rail
systems. They work to optimize routes, schedules, and service levels to provide efficient,
affordable, and accessible transportation options for urban and suburban communities.
2. Highway Engineering: Highway engineering focuses on the design, construction, and
maintenance of highways, expressways, and freeways. Transportation engineers design
roadways and pavements to accommodate various traffic volumes and loads while
ensuring safety and durability. This includes pavement design, materials selection,
geometric design, and roadside safety features.
3. Railway Engineering: Railway engineering involves the planning, design, construction,
and maintenance of railway infrastructure, including tracks, stations, signals, and rolling
stock. Transportation engineers work on projects ranging from high-speed rail systems to
urban commuter rail networks, ensuring efficient and safe rail transportation.

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 4. Airport Engineering: Airport engineering encompasses the planning, design,
construction, and operation of airports and aviation facilities. Transportation engineers
design airport runways, taxiways, aprons, terminals, and other facilities to accommodate
aircraft operations while ensuring safety, efficiency, and compliance with regulatory
requirements.

Different modes of transportation

7. Environmental engineering
Environmental engineering, the development of processes and infrastructure for the supply of
water, the disposal of waste, and the control of pollution of all kinds. These endeavours
protect public health by preventing disease transmission, and they preserve the quality of
the environment by averting the contamination and degradation of air, water, and land resources.

Environmental engineering is a field of broad scope that draws on

such disciplines as chemistry, ecology, geology, hydraulics, hydrology, microbiology, economics
, and mathematics. It was traditionally a specialized field within civil engineering and was called
sanitary engineering until the mid-1960s, when the more accurate name environmental
engineering was adopted.

Projects in environmental engineering involve the treatment and distribution of drinking water ;
the collection, treatment, and disposal of wastewater; the control of air pollution and noise
pollution; municipal solid-waste management and hazardous-waste management; the cleanup of
hazardous-waste sites; and the preparation of environmental assessments, audits, and impact
studies. Mathematical modeling and computer analysis are widely used to evaluate and design
the systems required for such tasks. Chemical and mechanical engineers may also be involved in
the process. Environmental engineering functions include applied research and teaching; project
planning and management; the design, construction, and operation of facilities; the sale and
marketing of environmental-control equipment; and the enforcement of environmental standards
and regulation

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 8. Town Planning and Architecture

Town planning is the process of managing land resources. It involves the control of existing and
new developments, as well as strategy preparation to ensure manage future requirements. It is a
dynamic process that changes in response to policy, development proposals and local needs.

Town planners must try and balance the demands of landowners and developers, with the needs
and concerns of the community and the policy framework. If planning is successful, it can
provide protection for the environment, can promote and faciltiate regeneration, can help create
and sustain communities, and can create new and exciting places.

9. Earthquake Engineering:

Earthquake engineering is an interdisciplinary branch of engineering that designs and analyses

structures, such as buildings and bridges, with earthquakes in mind. Its overall goal is to make
such structures more resistant to earthquakes

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EFFECT OF INFRASTRUCTURE FACILITIES ON SOCIO – ECONOMIC
DEVELOPMENT OF COUNTRY

Infrastructure is supposed to facilitate and increase economic growth by providing better

connectivity and enhancing productivity and efficiency.
The infrastructure and its facilities play a vital role in the socio-Economic development of a
country and are mentioned as follows:
i. Increase in food production
ii. Protection from famine
iii. Safe domestic and industrial water supply
iv. Improvement in communication and transportation
v. Generation of hydro-electric power ‘
vi. Improvement in per-capita income and standard of living
vii. Increase in prosperity of people

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 UNIT I
INTRODUCTION TO ENGINEERING
MECHANICS
1.1 Introduction
Mechanics is a science that describes and predicts the
conditions of rest or motion of bodies under the action of forces.
Mechanics can be broadly classified as mechanics of solids and
mechanics of fluids. Further divisions of mechanics are shown in
Fig. 1.1

Fig. 1.1 Branches of Mechanics

Engineering mechanics deals with mechanics of rigid
bodies which is further classified as statics and dynamics. Statics
treats the equilibrium of stationary bodies under the influence of
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various kinds of forces. Dynamics, on the other hand, includes

the motion of bodies and forces that causes it. Study of motion of
bodies without considering force causing the motion is called
Kinematics. On the other hand study of motion of bodies
considering the force causing the motion is called Kinetics.

If the internal stresses developed in a body are to be

studied, the deformation of the body should be considered. This
field of mechanics is called Mechanics of Deformable
Bodies/Strength of Materials/Solid Mechanics. This field may
be further divided into Theory of Elasticity and Theory of
Plasticity.
Liquids and gases deform continuously with application of very
small shear forces. Such materials are called Fluids. The
mechanics dealing with behaviour of fluids is called Fluid
Mechanics.

Mechanics of ideal fluids, mechanics of viscous fluid and

mechanics of incompressible fluids are further classification in
this area.

1.2 Idealization in Mechanics

A number of ideal conditions are assumed to exist while applying
the principles of mechanics to practical problems. In fact without

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such assumptions it is not possible to arrive at practical solutions.

The following idealizations are usually made in engineering
mechanics.
a) The body is rigid.
b) The body can be treated as continuum.
c) If the size of the body is small compared to other distances
involved in the problem, it may be treated as a particle.
d) If the area over which force is acting on a body is small
compared to the size of the body, it may be treated as a point
force.

Continuum
A body consists of several matters. It is a well known fact that
each particle can be subdivided into molecules, atoms and
electrons. It is not possible to solve any engineering problem by
treating a body as a conglomeration of such discrete particles.
The body is assumed to consist of a continuous distribution of
matter. In other words, the body is treated as continuum.

Rigid Body
A body is said to be rigid, if the relative positions of any two
particles in it do not change under the action of the forces.

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Particle
A particle may be defined as an object which has only mass and
no size. Such a body cannot exist theoretically. However in
dealing with problems involving distances considerably larger
compared to the size of the body, the body may be treated as
particle, without sacrificing accuracy.

1.3 Basic Principles of Mechanics

The following are the fundamental laws of mechanics:
i. Newton’s first law
ii. Newton’s second law
iii. Newton’s third law
iv. Newton’s law of gravitation
v. Law of transmissibility of forces, and
vi. Parallelogram law of forces

1.3.1 Newton’s First Law

It states that everybody continues in its state of rest or of uniform
motion in a straight line unless it is compelled by external agency
acting on it. This leads to the definition of force as the external
agency which changes or tends to change the state of rest or
uniform linear motion of the body.

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1.3.2 Newton’s Second Law

It states that the rate of change of momentum of a body is directly
proportional to the impressed force and it takes place in the
direction of the force acting on it. Thus Second law gives the
magnitude of force. ie., F= m . a where, F= resultant force, m=
mass of the particle, a = acceleration of the particle.

1.3.3 Newton’s Third Law

It states that for every action there is an equal and opposite
reaction. Consider the two bodies in contact with each other. Let
one body applies a force F on another. According to this law, the
second body develops a reactive force R which is equal in
magnitude to force F and acts in the line same as F but in the
opposite direction.

1.3.4 Newton’s Law of Gravitation

The force of attraction between any two bodies is directly
proportional to their masses and inversely proportional to the
square of the distance between them.

Where ‘G’ is the constant of proportionality and is known as

constant of gravitation.

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1.3.5 Law of Transmissibility of Force

According to this law the state of rest or motion of the rigid body
is unaltered if a force acting on the body is replaced by another
force of the same magnitude and direction but acting anywhere
on the body along the line of action of the replaced force
(Fig. 1.2) where, P= Force

Fig.1.2 Transmissibility of Forces

Principle of Physical Independence of Forces

It states that the action of forces on bodies are independent, in
other words the action of forces on a body is not influenced by
the action of any other force on the body.
Principle of Superposition of Forces
It states that net effect of a system of forces on a body is same as
the combined effect of individual forces acting on the body
(Fig. 1.3).
Where, P1 and P2 = Forces; a1 and a2 = Acceleration due to force
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Fig.1.3 Principle of Superposition

1.3.5 Parallelogram Law of Forces

This law states that "if two forces acting simultaneously on a
body at a point are represented in magnitude and direction by the
two adjacent sides of a parallelogram, their resultant is
represented in magnitude and direction by the diagonal of the
parallelogram which passes through the point of intersection of
the two sides representing the forces".

1.4 Concepts of force

Force: Force is the action exerted by one body upon another.
Force tends to change the state of rest or motion of a body to
which it is applied. Gravitational force, Push or Pull are the
examples of force.

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A force is characterized by its points of application, magnitude

and direction. A force is represented by vector. Mass is the
property of the body which measures the resistance of the body to
a change of motion.

1.5 Characteristics of a force

From Newton’s first law, we defined the force as the agency
which tries to change state of rest or uniform motion of the body.
From Newton’s second law, we arrived at practical definition of
force. Thus 1 Newton is the force required to produce an
acceleration of 1 m/sec2 in a body of 1 kg mass. It may be noted
that a force is completely defined only when the following four
characteristics are specified
i. Magnitude
ii. Point of application
iii. Line of action, and
iv. Direction

Fig. 1.4 Characteristics of a force

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In Fig. 1.4, AB is a ladder leaning against a wall. At point ‘C’, a

person weighing 600 N is standing. The force applied by the
person on the ladder has the following characters:
i. Magnitude is 600 N
ii. The point of application is at C which is 2 m from ‘A’
iii. The line of action is vertical, and
iv. The direction is downward.

1.6 System of Forces

When number of forces act simultaneously on a body, they are
called the system of forces.
Depending upon the orientation of the forces acting on a body,
the system of forces is classified as
i) Coplanar force system
ii) Non-coplanar force system.
Coplanar force system consists of a set of forces with their lines
of action lying in the same plane. Non-coplanar force system
consists of a set of forces whose lines of action do not lie in the
same plane. Further classifications are indicated in Fig. 1.5 and
Fig. 1.6 (a) and Fig. 1.6(b). The types of force system with their
characteristics and typical example is listed in Table 1.1(a), Table
1.1 (b) and Table 1.1 (c).

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Force System

Coplanar (Plane) Non-coplanar (space)

• Collinear • Concurrent
• Concurrent • Parallel
• Parallel • Non-concurrent,
• Non-concurrent, Non parallel
Non parallel

Fig.1.5 Classification of Forces

Coplanar Collinear Forces Non-coplanar Collinear Forces

Fig. 1.6 (a) Force Systems

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Coplanar Concurrent Forces Non-coplanar Concurrent Forces

Coplanar Parallel Forces Non-coplanar Parallel Forces

Coplanar Non-Parallel Forces Non-coplanar Non-Parallel Forces

Fig. 1.6 (b) Force Systems

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Table 1.1(a) Types of force systems

Force Characteristics Examples Illustration
System
Collinear Line of action of Forces on
forces all the forces act a rope in a
along the same tug of war
line
Coplanar All forces are System of
Parallel parallel to each forces
forces other and lie in a acting on a
single plane beam
subjected
to vertical
loads
Coplanar All forces are Weight of
like parallel to each a
Parallel other and lie in a stationary
forces single plane and train on a
act in the same rail when
direction the track is
straight

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Table 1.1(b) Types of force systems

Coplanar Line of Forces on
concurrent action of all a rod
forces forces pass resting
through a against a
single point wall at
and forces point of
lie in the contact
same plane
Coplanar All forces do Forces on
non not meet at a a ladder
concurrent point but lie resting
forces in a single against a
plane wall
when a
person
stands on
a rung
which is
not at its
centre of
gravity

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Table 1.1(c) Types of force systems

Non All the The
coplanar forces are weight of
parallel parallel to benches
forces each other in a class
but not in the room
same plane
Non All forces do A tripod
coplanar not lie in the carrying
concurrent same plane a camera
forces ,but their
lines of
action pass
through a
single point
Non All forces do Forces
coplanar not lie in the acting on
non same plane a moving
concurrent and their bus
forces lines of
action do not
pass through
a single
point
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1.7 Moment of a Force

A force applied on a body can create i) a tendency to translate
and /or ii) tendency to rotate about an axis or a point. The effect
of a force on a body to rotate it about a fixed point is called
Moment. Moment is measured as the product of force and
distance between point of rotation and line of action of force.
The point of rotation is called as Moment Centre and distance
between point of rotation and line of action measured
perpendicular to the force is called as Arm of force or Lever
Arm.
For example the force applied by a wrench to a nut can rotate the
nut (Fig. 1.7). Similarly the force applied at a door (to open or
close) allows it to rotate on its hinge. (Fig. 1.7).

Fig 1.7 Moment of a Force

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1.7.1 Moment about a point

The magnitude of moment or tendency of the force to rotate the
body about the axis O-O (Fig. 2.8) perpendicular to the plane of
the body is proportional to both the magnitude of the force and to
the moment arm d, therefore magnitude of the moment is defined
as the product of force and moment arm.
Moment = Force x moment arm
M = F×d

Fig. 1.8 Moment about a point

The moments are classified according to the direction in which
the force tends to rotate the body about a fixed point
i. Clockwise and
ii. Anticlockwise moment

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Clockwise Moment
When the force tends to rotate the body in the same direction in
which the hands of clock move is called clockwise moment.

Anticlockwise Moment
When the force tends to rotate the body in the opposite direction
in which the hands of clock move is called anti clockwise
moment.

Example 1.1
Find the moment of force F = 600N about A as shown in the
Fig. 1.9

Fig. 1.9
Solution:
Moment of the force can be obtained by resolving the given force
as shown in Fig. 1.10

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Fig. 1.10
MA = (600 Cos 30o) (0.2) – (600 Sin 30o) (0.3)
MA = 13.92 N-m (Anticlockwise Moment)

Example 1.2
A 200 N force acts on the bracket as shown in Fig. 1.11
Determine the moment of the force about point A.

Fig. 1.11

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Solution:
Moment about A = MA= Force x perpendicular distance
=200 x CB ( )
From triangle BCD CB= DB x cos 45 = 70.71 mm
MA= 200 x 70.71 = 14142 N-mm = 14.142 N-m
Alternatively:
The force at B is resolved into x and y components and the
moment about A is computed using Varignon’s theorem
+ve
MA=200 cos 45 x 100 – 200 sin 45 x 200
= -14.142 N-m ( )

1.8 Couple
Two parallel forces of same magnitude but opposite direction
separated by a distance‘d’ as shown in Fig 1.12 form couple.

Fig. 1.12 Couple of Force

As matter of fact a couple does not produce any straight-line
motion but produces rotation in the body on which it acts. So
couple can be defined as unlike parallel forces of same magnitude

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but opposite direction which produce rotation about a specific

direction and whose resultant is zero.

1.8.1 Moment of couple

The moment of the couple is the product of the force (one of the
force of the two equal and opposite parallel forces) and the arm
of the couple.
Magnitude of the couple is equal to the product of the force and
the distance between the parallel forces. M= F x d.
Moment of couple = force x arm of couple
Moment of couple = F x d

Moment of a couple about any point is same.

Let us find the moment of couple about a point ‘O’ on the couple
arm AB as shown in Fig. 1.13

Fig. 1.13 Moment of couple

Moment of Couple about ‘O’
= F  r1 + F  r2 = F (r1 + r2 ) = F  r ( Anticlockwise) .
Moment of Couple about ‘A’= F  r ( Anticlockwise) .
Moment of Couple about ‘B’=. F  r ( Anticlockwise)

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1.11 Composition of Forces

It is the process of combining a number of forces into a single force such that the net effect
produced by the single force is equal to the algebraic sum of the effects produced by the
individual forces. The single force in this case is called the resultant force which produces the
same effect on the body as that produced by the individual forces acting together.

Sign conventions:

Following sign conventions are used in determining the resultant force

1. Horizontal forces:

i. Left to Right + ve

i. Right to Left - ve

2. Vertical forces:

i. Upward + ve

ii. Downward – ve

1.12 Resultant of coplanar concurrent force system

The line of action of each forces in coplanar concurrent force system are on the same
plane. All of these forces meet at a common point, thus concurrent. In x-y plane, the
resultant can be found by the following formulas.

Resultant of a force system is a force or a couple that will have the same effect to the
body, both in translation and rotation, if all the forces are removed and replaced by the
resultant.

The equation involving the resultant of force system are the following
1. Rx=ΣFx=Fx1+Fx2+Fx3+
The x-component of the resultant is equal to the summation of forces in the x-direction.

2. Ry=ΣFy=Fy1+Fy2+Fy3+...
The y-component of the resultant is equal to the summation of forces in the y-direction.
21
Introduction to Engineering Mechanics Unit I

Rx=ΣFx

Ry=ΣFy

R= √ ΣFX2+ ΣFy2

tanθ= ΣFy
ΣFx

22
Introduction to Engineering Mechanics Unit I

But the Area of ΔACD = Area of ΔABD = Area of ΔAOB

Now Area of triangle AOD = Area of triangle AOC + Area of

triangle AOB

Moment of force R about O = Moment of force P about O +

Moment of force Q about O

1.14 Resultant of coplanar non-concurrent force

system
If two or more forces are acting in single plane, but not passing
through the single point, such a force system is known as
coplanar non-concurrent force system.
Consider a system of forces P1, P2, P3, … etc., acting on a rigid
body at the points A1, A2, A3, etc., located at a distance d1, d2, d3
…. etc., as shown in Fig.1.29 (a)
Each force is replaced by a force of same magnitude, direction
and a couple perpendicular to the force at ‘O’. Forces P 1, P2,
P3…etc acting at A1, A2, A3 ….etc., respectively are replaced by
respective force and corresponding couple as shown in Fig. 1.29
(b) At ‘O’ the forces are replaced by the resultant R and net
couple Mo. Further this couple Mo and resultant R at O can be
reduced to a single force R at the point B such that Mo=R x d.

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Introduction to Engineering Mechanics Unit I

(a) (b)
Fig. 1.29

Therefore, d =
M o
, where, R = R 2x + R 2y , Rx=Fx and
R
Ry=Fy. The x and y intercept of the resultant on x and y axes is
− Mo − M
computed using theorem of moments as x = and y = o .
Ry Rx

In coplanar non-concurrent force system, we can calculate the

magnitude, direction and position of the resultant force as
follows:
i) Magnitude of resultant using the formula

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Introduction to Engineering Mechanics Unit I

ii) Direction of the resultant using the formula

iii) Position of resultant

Position of the resultant means the calculation of d, or x and y
intercepts as shown in the figure
R x d = algebraic sum of moments of number of forces about that
point.
R x d = ΣMo

X- intercept:

Y- intercept:

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Introduction to Engineering Mechanics Unit I

Let x = Perpendicular distance between B and the line of action

of the resultant force.
Now taking moments of the resultant force about B and equating
the same,
1.732 P × x = 3P × 100 sin 60° = 3P × (100 × 0.866) = 259.8 P

1.15 Equilibrium of Forces

A body is said to be under equilibrium, under external forces,
when it continues to be at rest or under motion.
1.15.1 Equilibrium of Concurrent force systems:
For a body to be under equilibrium, the resultant of force system
should be zero. If a resultant exists, then the resultant of force
system should be zero. If a resultant exists, then the body can be
under equilibrium by applying a force of equal magnitude and
opposite. This force is called as equilibrant. For equilibrium

F +  Fy = 0 . To satisfy this condition sum of the

2 2
R= x

components along both directions taken separately should be

zero, ie., Fx=0 and Fy=0

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Equations of equilibrium for coplanar Concurrent force

systems:
Fx=0 and Fy=0 and,
Additionally, for the case of coplanar Non concurrent force
systems we have: Mz=0

1.16 Lami’s Theorem:

Fig 1.40
Statement: If a body is in equilibrium under action of three
forces, each force is proportional to the sine of the angle between
the other two forces. Referring to Fig 1.40
P Q R
P  sin ; Q  sin ; R  sin ; or = =
sin  sin  sin 
Note: In the above equation all the three forces are considered to
be of similar nature, ie., either all are acting away (Tensile) or

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Introduction to Engineering Mechanics Unit I

acting towards the point (Compressive). If any of the force is

unlike, then that force is considered as negative.
Proof: Applying sine rule to the triangle ABC in Fig. 1.40 the
following expression is evaluated
AB BC CA
= = ;
sin BCA sin CAB sin ABC
P Q R
= =
sin(180 − ) sin(180 −  ) sin(180 − )
P Q R
= =
sin  sin  sin 
Because sin (180-) = sin

1.17 Free Body Diagram (FBD)

In practice the problem is derived from actual physical situation.
A sketch showing the physical condition of the problem is known
as space diagram. In order to obtain solution for this problem,
the body under consideration and all the forces acting on the
body is considered. Free body diagram is a sketch of isolated
body which shows the external forces on the body and the
reactions exerted on it by the removed elements. Some examples
of writing free body diagram is shown in Fig. 1.41

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Fig. 1.41
Example 1.19
A sphere of weight 100 N is tied to a smooth wall by a string as
shown in Fig. 1.42 Find the tension T in the string and reaction of
the wall.

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 NUMERICAL ON COPLANAR CONCURRENT FORCE SYSTEM
1. Determine the resultant of the three forces acting on a hook shown in the Figure below?

Force x- component y- component

F1 =70 N 70 cos 50 = 45.00 70 sin 50 = 53.6 N

F2 = 80 N 80 cos 25 = 72.5 N 80 sin 25 = 33.8 N
F3 = 50 N 50 cos 45 = 35.4 N - 50 sin 45 = -35.4 N

ΣFx = 45.0 + 72,5 + 35.4 = 152.8 N

ΣFy = 53.6 + 33.8 - 35.4 = 52.1 N
R= √ 15282 +52.12 = 161.5 N
α = tan-1 52.1 = 18.83°

158.8

1
2. A system of four forces acting at a point on a body is as shown in Figure below. Determine the
resultant?

If θ1, is the inclination of 200 N force to x-axis, then

tan θ1 = 1/2 ∴ θ1= 26.565°
Similarly, inclination of 120 N force to x-axis is given by
tan θ2 = 4/3 i.e., θ2 = 53.13°.
ΣFx = 200 cos 26.565 - 120 cos 53.13 - 50 cos 60 + 100 sin 40 = 146.2 N
ΣFy = 200 sin 26.565 + 120 sin 53.13 - 50 sin 60 - 100 cos 40 = 65.5 N
R = √ 146.272 + 65.522 = 160.2 N
α = tan-1 = 65.5 = 24.1°

146.2

2
3. A system of forces acting on a body resting on an inclined plane is as shown in Fig below. Determine
the resultant force if θ = 60°, W = 1000 N, vertically downward, N = 500 Newton acting normal to the
plane, F = 100 N, acting down the plane and T = 1200 N, acting parallel to the plane.

In this this problem coordinates are taken parallel to and perpendicular to inclined plane, Since they are
more convenient. Noting that W makes an angle θ with y-axis.
ΣFx = T - F - W sin θ
= 1200 - 100 - 1000 sin 60
= 234.0 N
ΣFy = N - Wcos 60 = 500 - 1000 cos 60 = 0
∴ Resultant is a force of magnitude 234 N directed up the plane.

4. Two forces acting on a body are 500 N and 1000 N as shown in Figure below .Determine the third
force F such that the resultant of all the three forces is 1000 N, directed at 40° to x-axis.

3
 Let the third force F make an angle θ with the x-axis. Then,
R cos α = ΣFx gives
1000 cos 45 = 500 cos 30 + 1000 sin 30 + F cos θ
F cos θ = - 225.9 N
Similarly,
R sin 45 = ΣFy gives,
1000 sin 45 = 500 sin 30 + 1000 cos 30 + F sin θ
F sin θ = - 408.9 N
F = √225.92 + 408.92 = 467.2 N
and
tan θ = - 408.9 = 1.810
- 225.9
θ = 61.08° as shown in Figure

5. A truck is pulled along a straight rodd with the help of two ropes A and B shown in figure below the
resultant of two ropes is given by 12KN and angle b/w A and B is 60°. Find the force in rope A if rope B
exerts a force of 5KN and also find resultant Inclination.

By Parallelogram law.
R2 = P2 + Q2 + 2PQ cos α
(12)2 = A2 + (5)2 + 2A(5) cos 60°
144 = A2 + 25 + 10A cos 60°
A2 + 5A - 119 = 0 on solving
A = 8.69KN

4
Resultant 12KN Inclination with A = 8.69KN is given by
tan θ = Q sin α = 5 sin 60°
P + Qcos α 8.69 + 5 cos 60°

θ = 21.15°
6. Two cables attached at the top of tower carries a gay cable AB. Determine the tension in gay cable
such that the resultant of the forces in all three cables acts vertically down. Also find the resultant force.

Solution
Let AB be the guy cable, with that the angle of the cable force with Horizontal can be obtained by
drawing a vertical line form 'A' shown in figure.
∴ tan α = 20
15
[α = 53.13°]

Apply sing convention ↑+ve, ↓-ve

→+ve , ←-ve
∴ ΣFx = 350cos25° - 150cos10° - Tcos53.13° ……….(1)
ΣFy = - 350sin25° - 150sin10° - Tsin53.13° ……….(2)
The Resultant in three cables acts vertically down therefore
ΣFy = R and ΣFx = 0

5
Eqn. (1) and (2) will becomes
From Eqn. (1),
Tcos 53.13° = 169.48
[T = 282.47 KN]
From Eqn. (2),
R = - 350sin25° - 150sin 10° - 282.47sin53.13° [But, T = 282.47KN]
[R = 400KN]

6
 NUMERICAL ON NON CONCURRENT FORCE SYSTEM
1. Find the resultant of the force system shown in Fig. 68(a) acting on a lamina of equilateral
triangular shape.

Rx = ΣFx = 60 - 100 cos 60 - 120 cos 30

= -93.9 N = 93.9 N

Ry = ΣFy = -80 + 100 sin 60 - 120 sin 30

= -53.40 = 53.40 N ↓

∴ R = √93.922 + 53.402

i.e., R = 108.0 N

α = tan-1 Ry = tan-1 53.40 = -2

Rx 93.9

i.e., α = 29.60°, as shown in Fig. 1(b)

Let x be the intercept on x-axis from A. Then taking moment about A,

x =Σ MA = 80 x 100 cos 60 + 60 x 100 sin 60 + 120 sin 30 × 100

Ry 53.40

i.e., x = 284.6 mm, as shown in Fig. 1(a).

7
2. Find the resultant of the system of coplanar forces acting on a lamina as shown in Fig. 2(a).
Each square has a side of 10 mm.

if θ1 , θ2 & θ3 are the inclinations of forces 2 kN, 5 kN and 1.5 kN with respect to x-axis,
then

tan θ1 = 10 =1 ∴ θ1 = 45°
10
tan θ2= 30 ∴ θ2 = 36.87°
40
tan θ3= 10 ∴ θ3 = 26.565°
20
Rx = ΣFx = 2 cos 45 + 5 cos 36.87 - 1.5 cos 26.565
= 4.072 kN
Ry = ΣFy = 2 sin 45 - 5 sin 36.87 - 1.5 sin 26.565
= -2.257 kN
R = √4.0722 + (-2.257)2 = 4.655 kN
α = tan-1 2.257 = 29°, as shown in Fig. 2(b)
4.072
Resolving the forces into their x and y components at A, B and C as shown in Fig. 2(a) and
then finding their moment about 'O', we get,
ΣMo = 2 cos 45 x 30 + 5 sin 36.87 x 50 + 1.5 sin 26.565 x 10
= 199.13 kN-mm
∴ Distance d of the resultant from O is given by
d = 199.13 = 199.13 = 42.8 mm as shown in Fig. 2(b).
R 4.655

8
3. The system of forces acting on a bell crank is shown in Fig. 3(a). Determine the
magnitude, direction, and the point of application of the resultant.

Rx = ΣFx = 500 cos 60 - 700 = -450 N = 450 N

Ry = ΣFy = -500 sin 60 - 1000 - 1200 = -2633 N = 2633 N ↓

R =√ 4502 + 26332 = 2671.2 N

α = tan-1 2633 = 80.30°, as shown in Fig 3(b)

450

Let the point of application of the resultant be at a distance x from 'O' along the horizontal
arm. Then

x= ΣMo = - 500 sin 60 x 300 - 1000 x 150 + 1200 x 150 cos 60 - 700 x 300 sin 60

Ry 2633

∴ x = 141.2 mm as shown in Fig. 3(a)

9
4. Various forces to be considered for the stability analysis of a dam are shown in Fig.4. The
dam is safe if the resultant of forces passes through middle third of the base. Verify whether
the dam is safe.

Rx = ΣFx = 300 kN

Ry = ΣFy = 100 - 1200 - 400 = - 1500 kN = 1500 kN ↓

Let the resultant pass through the base at a distance x from 'O. Then

x = ΣMo = 300 × 3 - 1000 × 1 + 1200 × 2 + 400 × 5

Ry 1500

= 3.467 m.

The resultant lies in the middle third of the base (i.e.., x is between 7/3 and (2 x 7)/3).

Hence the dam is safe.

5. A bracket is subjected to three forces and a couple as shown in Fig. 5(a).Determine

magnitude, direction and the line of action of the resultant.

10
Rx = ΣFx = -400 cos 45 - 150 cos 30

= -412.7 N = 412.7 N

Ry = ΣFy = 200 + 400 sin 45 - 150 sin 30

= 407.8 N

R = √ (412.7)2 + (407.8)2 = 580.2 N

α = tan-1 (Ry /Rx ) = tan-1 407.8 = 44.66°, as shown in Fig. 5(b)

412.7

Let the resultant intersect arm AB at a distance x from A.

Now,

ΣMA = - 400 sin 45 x 3 - 400 cos 45 × 0.6 + 50 + 150 sin 30 x 6 + 150 cos 30 x 1

= -438.3 N-m

= 438.3 N-m, anticlockwise

x = MA = 438.3 = 1.074 m, as shown in Fig. 5(a)

Ry 407.8

11
 Lami’s Theorem
1. Find the forces developed in the wires, supporting an electric fixture as shown in the
Figure.

Let the forces developed in the wires BA and BC be T1 and T2 as shown in Figure above
Applying Lami's theorem to the system of forces, we get
T1 = T2 = 150
sin (90 + 60) sin (180 - 45) sin (45 + 30)

T1 = 77.6 N and T2 = 109.8 N

2. A 200 N sphere is resting in a trough as shown in Figure below. Determine the reactions
developed at contact surfaces. Assume all contact surfaces are smooth.

At contact point 1, the surface of contact is making 60° to horizontal. Hence the reaction R 1
which is normal to it makes 60° with the vertical. Similarly, the reaction R2 at contact point 2
makes 45° to the vertical. FBD is as shown in Figure 2(b).

12
Applying Lami's theorem to the system of forces, we get

R1 = R2 = 400
sin (180 - 45) sin (180 - 60) sin (60 + 45)
R, = 292.8 N and R2 = 358.6 N
3. A system of connected flexible cables shown in Fig, 3(a)is supports to vertical forces 200
N and 250 N at points B and D. Determine the forces in various segments of the cable.

Free body diagrams of points B and D are as shown in Figure 3(b). Le the forces in the
members be as shown in the figure.
Applying Lami's theorem to the system of forces at point D, we get
T1 = T2 = 250
sin (180 - 60) sin (90 + 45) sin (60 + 45)
∴ T, = 224.1 N and T, = 183 N
Now, consider the system of forces acting at B.
ΣFV = 0 →
T3 cos 30 – T2 cos 60 - 200 = 0
T3 cos 30 = T2 cos 60 + 200 = 183 cos 60 + 200 = 291.6
∴ T3 = 336.6 N
ΣFH= 0 →
- T, + T, sin 30 + T sin 60 = 0
∴ T4 = - 336.6 sin 30 + 183 sin 60 = 326.8 N

13
ADDITIONAL NUMERICAL
Introduction to Engineering Mechanics Unit I

Example 1.11
Four parallel forces 2 kN, F1, F2 and 10 kN have a downward
resultant of 5 kN that acts at a distance of 1.8m to the right of
2kN force as shown in Fig. 1.30. Determine F1 and F2.

Fig. 1.30
Solution
From Fig  Fy = −2 + F1 − F2 + 10 = −5 kN

F1 − F2 = −13 ---(1)
Summation of Moment of all forces about ’A’ is
 M A = − F1 + 3F2 − 40 ------(2)
Moment of the Resultant about ‘A’ is = 5X 1.8 ----(3)
According to varignon’s theorem, Moment of the Resultant is
equal to the sum of the moments of component forces.
Equating (2) and (3)
− F1 + 3F2 = 49 -------(4)

Solving (3) and (4)

F2=18kN F1=5kN

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Example 1.12
Determine the magnitude, direction and position of the resultant
force with respect to C as shown in Fig. 1.31.

Fig. 1.31
ΣFx = -135 cos 45+ 90 cos 63.43-105+120 cos 63.43-75 cos 45
ΣFx =-159.56 N
ΣFy = 135sin45+90sin 63.43- 120 cos 63.43+180-75sin45
ΣFy =249.25 N

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ΣMC = (105x200) - (75 sin 45x200) - (135cos 45x200) +

(135 sin 45x200) + (90cos 63.43x 200) + (90sin63.43x100)
ΣMC = 26494.13 N-mm.

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Example 1.13
Determine the resultant of the three forces acting on the dam
shown in Fig. 1.32 and locate its intersection with the base AB.
For a good design, this intersection should occur within the
middle third of the base. Comment whether it is a good design or
not.

Fig. 1.32
Solution:
+ve Fx 103.5 -62 cos 30=49.8 N
+veFy = -246- 62 sin 30 = -277N

F
F +  Fy =281.44N, tan  =
2 2
R= = 5.56  = 79.8
y

F
x
x

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− MA
x=
 Fy
MA=103.5x1.8+246x2.1-62xcos30x2.2sin60+62sin60x(5.7-
2.2cos60)=847.5 kN-m
− 847.5
x = = 3.05m . For safe design the resultant should act
277
within the middle third. For this the position should be in the
range of 1.9m and 3.8 m. Hence the given design is safe.

Example 1.14
Determine the magnitude and Y-intercept of the force system
acting on the lamina as shown in Fig. 1.33

Fig. 1.33

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Solution: The angle for the 600N force with horizontal is

tan-1 = 26.565°

RX = ∑FX = 400 + 600cos26.565

RX = 936.66N
Ry = ∑Fy = 200 – 600sin26.565
Ry= -68.33N
R= =
R = 939.15N
θ = tan-1 ( / ) = tan-1 (68.33/936.66)
θ = 4.17°
Plot the resultant on Y-axis at distance Y from O as
shown in Fig. 1.34 using Varignon’s theorem at ‘O’

Fig. 1.34

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Introduction to Engineering Mechanics Unit I

- (400) (400) – (600sin26.565) (400) = - (936.66) (Y)

Y = 285.41mm
Example 1.15
For the non-concurrent coplanar system shown in Fig. 1.35
determine the magnitude, direction and position of resultant force
with reference to ‘A’.

Fig. 1.35
Solution: RX = ∑FX =100 – 100 + 100 cos45 = 100N
Ry = ∑Fy = 200 - 100 sin45 = 100N
R=
R = 141.42N
θ = tan-1(100/100)
θ = 45°

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The perpendicular distance of the resultant from A can be

obtained using Varignon’s theorem at A
(200)(2) – (100)(4) – (100 sin45) (4) = (141.42)(d)
d = -2.828m
As the perpendicular distance is negative, the resultant produces
clockwise moment about A. The position of resultant with respect
to A is shown in Fig. 1.36

Fig. 1.36
Note the X-intercept will be = 4m to the left of A and

Y-intercept is also 4m above A.

Example 1.16
A rigid plate is subjected to the forces as shown in Fig. 1.37,
compute resultant of forces and position of resultant force with
respect to centroid point O of the plate.

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Fig. 1.37
Solution: For the 50kN force at A, the angle with horizontal is
tan-1(1.2/1.6) = 36.87°
RX = ∑FX = 40 – 50cos36.87 = 0
Ry = ∑Fy = 50– 20 - 50sin36.87 = 0
R=0
As the resultant force is zero, the resultant can be a
moment.
MO = - (40) (0.6) – (20) (0.8) +100
MO = 60kN-m
The resultant is a couple moment of 60kN-m . This
moment can act anywhere in the plane.

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Example 1.17
Determine the magnitude and direction of the resultant for the
system of coplanar forces shown in Fig. 1.38. Also determine the
position of resultant with respect to ‘O’

Fig. 1.38
Solution: Referring to the Fig 1.38
 Fx = 347.62 N
 Fy = 104.87 N
R = 363.01N
 M o = 373.69 N − m
R  d =  Mo

d = 1.02m
Example 1.18 Three forces of 2P, 3P and 4P act along the three
sides of an equilateral triangle of side 100 mm taken in order.
Find the magnitude and position of the resultant force.

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Example 1.20
A spherical ball of weight 75 N is attached to a string and is
suspended from the ceiling as shown in Fig. 1.43(a) Find the
tension in the string, if a horizontal F is applied to the ball as
shown in Fig. 1.43(b) Determine the angle the string makes with
the vertical and also the tension in the string if F=150 N.

Fig. 1.43(a) Fig. 1.43 (b)

Solution:
i) When the ball is hanging from the ceiling, the tension
in the string is equal to the weight of the ball i.e.,
T=W=75 N.
ii) Free body diagram of ball is shown in Fig. 2.4(b)
when a horizontal force F is applied. Magnitude of
tensile force and inclination  of string with vertical

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can be computed using the method of components and

equilibrium condition.
+ve Fx =0; -T sin + 150 =0 --(1)

+ve Fy =0; T cos - 75 =0 --(2)

Equations (1) and (2) can be simplified as T sin = 150;

T cos  = 75
Dividing first equation by the second equation;
T sin 
= 2; tan = 2 and  = tan -1 2 = 63.43
T cos 
Substituting value of  in (1) the value of T is computed as
T=167.7N
Alternatively, using Lami’s theorem, the solution can also be
obtained as
T 75 150
= =
sin 90 sin(90 + ) sin(180 − )

T sin (90+) =75 or T cos  = 75 and T sin(180-) = 150 or

T sin  = 150
These two equations are similar to equations (2) and (1) and
hence the solution leads to the same result ie  = 63.43 and
T = 167.7 N
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Example 1.21
Determine the reactions at contact points for the system shown in
Fig. 1.44

Fig. 1.44
Solution:
The free body diagram of ball 1 and 2 is shown in Fig. 1.44.
From triangle ABC the inclination of AB with AC (), is

computed as cos  = AC , where AC= 90-20-30 = 40mm. and

AB
AB = 50 mm.  = 36.87
Equations of equilibrium is applied to Free Body Diagram of
Ball1 as
+ve Fx =0; RR –RQ cos =0 -- (1)
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Introduction to Engineering Mechanics Unit I

+veFy =0; RS-100- RQ sin =0 --(2)

Equations of equilibrium is also applied to Free Body Diagram of
Ball 2 as
+ve Fx =0; RQ cos - RP =0 --(3)
+veFy =0; RQ sin-300=0 --(4)

300
From equation (4) RQ = = 500 substituting this in
sin 36.87
equation (3), the value of RD is computed as
RP = 500 cos 36.87 = 400 N
Substituting the value of RQ in (1) and (2);
RR = 500 cos36.87 = 400 N;
RS = 100+ 500 sin 36.87 =400 N

Example 1.22
Two identical cylinders each weighing 2kN are supported by
vertical and inclined plane ash shown in Fig.1.45. Assuming
smooth surfaces determine the reactions at A, B and C.

Department of Civil Engineering, RVCE Page 61

 BRICKS

What are bricks ?

Bricks are a type of building material typically made of concrete, sand, lime, or clay. They are
generally used to construct walls, pavements, and other types of architecture. Bricks can be
produced in a variety of shapes and types depending on the materials used to make them and the
use for which they are intended. It is because of their sturdiness, strength, and fire resistance, that
they continue to be a popular building material

On the basis of quality, Bricks are of the following kinds:

1. First Class Brick: The size is standard. The color of these bricks is uniform yellow or
red. It is well burnt, regular texture, uniform shape. The absorption capacity is less than
10%, crushing strength is, 280kg/cm2 (mean) where it is 245 kg/cm2 (minimum).
2. Second Class Brick: The size is standard, color is uniform yellow or red. It is well burnt,
slightly over burnt is acceptable. It has a regular shape; efflorescence is not appreciable.
The absorption capacity is more than 10% but less than 15%. Crushing strength is
175kg/cm2(mean) where the minimum is 154 kg/cm2
3. Third Class Brick: The shape and size are not regular. The color is soft and light red
colored. It is under burnt, slightly over burnt is acceptable. It has extensive efflorescence.
The texture is non-uniform. The absorption capacity is more than 15% but less than 20%.
4. Fourth class bricks :These are over-burnt or under-burnt and have poor quality. They
are unsuitable for any construction purposes as they may have cracks, distortions, and
other defects.

Reference- Ultratech website

Properties of brick

i. The color of bricks should be bright and uniform.

ii. They should be well burned and having smooth surfaces and sharp edges.
iii. Thermal conductivity of bricks should be less and they should be sound proof.
iv. They shouldn’t absorb more than 20% by weight when we placed it in water.
v. When we struck two bricks together, ringing sound should be delivered.
vi. Structure of bricks should be homogeneous and uniform.
vii. The bricks should not break when we dropped it form 1m height.
viii. There should not be any scratch left on the brick when we scratched with finger nail.
ix. There should not be any white deposits on brick, when we soaked it in water for 24 hrs.

First Class Brick Fourth Class Brick

The standard brick size in India is 190 mm x 90 mm x 90 mm, as per the BIS guidelines. When
the mortar is thick, the bricks' dimensions shift to 200 mm x 100 mm x 100 mm, which is
sometimes referred to as the nominal size of the modular brick.
 CEMENT
Cement – Definition

Cement is defined as a binding agent that is used to bind various construction materials. Given
its adhesive and cohesive properties, it is an essential ingredient of concrete and mortar. Cement
is mixed with water to form a paste that binds aggregates like sand or crushed rocks. Calcium,
silicon, iron and aluminium compounds are closely ground to form a fine powdered product –
cement.

The usage of cement in various forms has been advent through the years. In the ancient times,
crushed pottery, volcanic ashes, and other items were used as cement. In 1824, Joseph Aspdin
created the precursor to modern-day cement – Portland cement

Types of Cement

Cement is mainly classified into two categories depending on the hardening and setting
mechanism. These are-

1. Hydraulic Cement
2. Non-hydraulic Cement

Along with these main types, depending on the composition and characteristics there are many
types of cement. Followings are the other cement types:

1. Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC)

2. Portland Pozzolana Cement (PPC)
3. Rapid Hardening Cement
4. Quick Setting Cement
5. Low Heat Cement
6. Sulphate Resisting Cement
7. Blast Furnace Cement
8. High Alumina Cement
9. White Cement
10. Colored Cement

Hydraulic cement is formed by the reaction of powdered cement with water. You can use it
for all types of construction, including underwater construction projects. Non-hydraulic
cement sets and becomes adhesive due to carbonation. You can use it for various
construction projects, except underwater construction projects.
Hydraulic cement is the most commonly used cement. Portland cement is a type of hydraulic
cement that’s been a preferred choice for architects, engineers, and constructors. The primary
reason behind its popularity is its ability to harden quickly.

Per the Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS)2, predominately we use OPC 53 grade cement for
construction purpose:

Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC)3

When Portland cement clinker is mixed with gypsum, it forms OPC. OPC 53:OPC with a
compressive strength of 53MPa at 28 days is termed as OPC 53. OPC 53 is mostly used for
precast concrete, prestressed concrete, long span structures like bridges, tall buildings

PROPERTIES OF CEMENT
 WALL

What is a Wall?
A wall is a vertical structure, usually made of brick, concrete, or stone, that serves as a physical
barrier or divider between spaces. Walls can be found in various settings, including residential,
commercial, and industrial buildings, and outdoor environments, such as gardens and parks. In
addition to providing a physical barrier, walls can offer security, privacy, and insulation from
noise and weather.

Types of Wall Used in Construction:

1. Load Bearing Wall: A load-bearing wall also called a bearing wall supports the roof and
upper floors above it. The building would collapse without these walls, which distribute weight
to the base. Load-bearing walls usually contain concrete, masonry, or heavy-duty wood framing

2. Non-Load Bearing Wall:

A non-load-bearing inner wall does not support the building above it. It is called a partition wall
because it divides a building rather than supporting it. Walls of plasterboard, plaster, or wood
framing can be relocated or removed without impacting the building’s stability. Non-load-
bearing walls can be customized to divide a space into rooms, offices, or storage areas.

Load bearing wall Non load bearing/partition wall

 STAIRCASE

What Is Stair?

Stairs are the most important components in a building. They are used to access various floors.
There are different types of stairs such as spiral stairs, dog legged stairs, open newel stairs, etc,
used in commercial, residential buildings, and industrial buildings.

Stairs is a set of steps which give access from floor to floor.  The room or enclosure of the
building, in which stair is located is known as staircase.  Staircase provide access &
communication between floors in multi-storey buildings and are a path by which fire can spread
from one floor to another.  Therefore it must be enclosed by fire resisting walls, floors, ceilings
and doors.  It must be designed to carry certain loads, which are similar to those used for design
of the floors.  Stairs may be constructed of Timber, Bricks, Stone, Steel or Reinforced Cement
Concrete.

TECHNICAL TERMS

STEP:- It is a portion of stair which permits ascent or descent. A stair is composed of a set of
steps. 
TREAD:- It is a upper horizontal portion of a step upon which foot is placed while ascending or
descending. 
RISER:- It is a vertical portion of a step providing support to the tread. 
LANDING:- It is level platform at the top or bottom of a flight between the floors. 
FLIGHT:- This is an unbroken series of steps between landing.
RISE:-
It is a vertical distance between two successive tread faces. 
GOING:- It is a horizontal distance between two successive riser faces. 
NOSING:- It is the projecting part of the tread beyond the face of riser.  S
COTIA:- It is a moulding provided under the nosing to provide strength to nosing. 
SOFFIT:- it is the underside of a stair. 
PITCH OR SLOPE:- It is the angle which the line of nosing of the stair makes with the
horizontal.
Depending upon the various arrangement of steps, stairs can be classified into the following
types:

 Straight Stair,
 Dogged-legged Stair,
 Open Newel Stair,
 Geometrical Stair,
 Circular Stair,
 Spiral Stair,
 Quarter-turn Stair,
 Bifurcated Stair.
1. Straight Stair:

In these types of stairs, all the steps are arranged continuously along in one direction. One flight
may be split into one or more than one flight by interposing a landing. This stair can be used
where narrow and long space is available for a staircase such as entrance, porch etc.
2. Dog-legged Stair:

This stair types consist of two straight flights of steps with direct turns between them. Dog-
legged stair is very useful where the total width of the stair is just twice the width of the steps.
 3. Open Newel Stair:

This type of stairs consists of two or more flights arranging a well or opening between the
backward and forward flights.

When all the steps are difficult to arrange in two flights, a short third flight of 3 to 6 steps may be
provided along the direction perpendicular to the hall. Open newel stair is mostly adopted in the
lift.

4. Geometrical Stair:

This is another type of open newel stair where the open well between the forward and the
backward flight is curved. This stair may contain different geometrical shapes. Here the change
in direction is achieved by using winders.
6. Spiral Stair:

The spiral stair is very similar to a circular stair. It consists of individual steps or treads,
connecting to a center column. The overall diameter of the stair may range from 1 to 2.5 m. Such
stairs are provided where space available for stairs is very much limited.  Figure shows a typical
spiral stair. Cast iron, steel or R.C.C. is used for building these stairs

7. Quarter-turn Stair:
REQUIREMENTS OF GOOD STAIRCASE
LOCATION
(a)They should be located near the main entrance to the building.
(b)There should be easy access from all the rooms without disturbing the privacy of the rooms.
(c)There should be spacious approach.
(d)Good light and ventilation should be available.
WIDTH OF STAIR
(a)It should be wide enough to carry the user without much crowd on inconvenience.
(b)In Residential building, a 90 cm wide stair is sufficient while in public 1.5 to 1.8 m width may
required.  LENGTH OF FLIGHT
(a)The number of steps should not be more than 12 & less than 3 from comfort point of view.
STEP DIMENSION
(a)The rise and going should be of such dimensions as to provide comfort to users.
(b)The going should not be less than 25 cm, though 30 cm going is quite comfortable.
(c)The rise should be between 10 to 15 cm.
(d)The width of landing should not be less than width of stair.
MASONRY
Masonry
• Masonry may be defined as the construction of
building units bonded together with mortar.

• The building units may be stones, bricks, or precast blocks of

concrete.
• Masonry is normally used for the construction of
foundations, walls and other similar structural components of
the buildings.
• Masonry has got the highest importance in building industry.

• It performs variety of functions, such as:

(i) supporting loads (ii) subdividing space
(iii) providing thermal and acoustic insulation.
(iv) affording fire and weather protection, Etc.,.
Definition of terms used in Masonry
1. Course: A course is a
horizontal layer of masonry
units. Thus, in stone masonry ,
the thickness of course will be
equal to the height of the
stones plus thickness of one
mortar joint.

2.Header: A header is a full

stone unit or brick which is laid
that its length is perpendicular
to the face of the wall. Thus ,
the longest length of a header
lies at right angles to the face of
the work.

3. Stretcher: A stretcher is a
full stone unit or brick which is
so laid that its length is along or
parallel to the face of the wall.
Thus, the longest length of
stretcher lies parallel to the
face of the work.
4.Natural Bed: Stones are
obtained from rocks which have
distinct planes of divisions along
which the stones can easily be
split. This plane is known as
natural bed.

5. Through stone: A through

stone is a stone header. Through
stones are placed across the wall
at regular interval

6. Sill: The bottom surface of a

door or window opening is
known as Sill.

7. Lintel: It is a horizontal
member of stone, brick , wood,
steel or reinforced concrete, used
to support the masonry and the
super-imposed load above an
opening.
 LINTEL
What is Lintel?
A lintel is a beam placed across the openings like doors, windows etc. in buildings to support the
load from the structure above. Lintel is provided above the door and window to transfer the
upward wall load to the surrounding wall. Lintel is generally made up of Reinforced concrete or
cement mortar. The width of lintel beam is equal to the width of wall, and the ends of it is built
into the wall. Lintels are classified based on their material of construction.

Types of Lintel used in Building Construction

1. Timber Lintel
In olden days of construction, Timber lintels were mostly used. But now a days they are replaced
by several modern techniques, however in hilly areas these are using. The main disadvantages
with timber are more cost and less durable and vulnerable to fire.

If the length of opening is more, then it is provided by joining multiple number of wooden pieces
with the help of steel bolts which was shown in fig (a). In case of wider walls, it is composed of
two wooden pieces kept at a distance with the help of packing pieces made of wood. Sometimes,
these are strengthened by the provision of mild steel plates at their top and bottom, called as
flitched lintels
2. Stone Lintel
These are the most common type, especially where stone is abundantly available. The thickness
of these are most important factor of its design. These are also provided over the openings in
brick walls. Stone lintel is provided in the form of either one single piece or more than one piece.

The depth of this type is kept equal to 10 cm / meter of span, with a minimum value of 15 cm.
They are used up to spans of 2 meters. In the structure is subjected to vibratory loads, cracks are
formed in the stone lintel because of its weak tensile nature. Hence caution is needed.

3. Brick Lintel
These are used when the opening is less than 1m and lesser loads are acting. Its depth varies
from 10 cm to 20 cm, depending up on the span.

4. Reinforced Brick Lintel

These are used when loads are heavy and span is greater than 1m. The depth of reinforced brick
lintel should be equal to 10 cm or 15 cm or multiple of 10 cm. the bricks are so arranged that 2 to
3 cm wide space is left length wise between adjacent bricks for the insertion of mild steel bars as
reinforcement. 1:3 cement mortar is used to fill up the gaps.

Vertical stirrups of 6 mm diameter are provided in every 3rd vertical joint. Main reinforcement is
provided at the bottom consists 8 to 10 mm diameter bars, which are cranked up at the ends
5. Steel Lintel
These are used when the superimposed loads are heavy and openings are large. These consist of
channel sections or rolled steel joists. We can use one single section or in combinations
depending up on the requirement.

6. Reinforced Cement Concrete Lintel

t present, the lintel made of reinforced concrete are widely used to span the openings for doors,
windows, etc. in a structure because of their strength, rigidity, fire resistance, economy and ease
in construction. These are suitable for all the loads and for any span. The width is equal to width
of wall and depth depends on length of span and magnitude of loading.
 Plinth Level | Sill Level
Plinth Level:-
The level at which Substructure ends and superstructure starts is called Plinth level. It is the part
of the superstructure between natural ground level and Finished floor level. the plinth is provided
to restrict the seepage of stormwater and rainwater into the building.
The plinth height is in between 300mm – 450 mm from ground level.
It is recommended that the minimum plinth height of 150 mm is adopted from the top of the
road.

Damp proof course (DPC) is laid on Plinth level. The purpose of applying DPC is to restrict the
movement of moisture through walls and floors.

In Simple when you climb 3-4 steps to reach the building ground level is called Plinth height.

Sill level or Window Sill level:-

The level between the base portion of the window and portion of the floor above ground level
(upwards) is called Sill level. Mortar bed or concrete bed is laid at the base of the window.
The height of sill level depends upon the type of room for bedroom & bathroom the height may
kept around minimum 1100mm due to privacy concrens and in the living room the window sill
level is kept at minimum 600-650mm from the floor level.

It is recommended that the minimum sill level height of 44 inches

 Cement Mortar: Its Proportion, Preparation, and Uses

Mortar is a homogenous mixture of cement, sand and water. Different types of mortars are
used in masonry construction based on their applications, binding materials, strength,
bulk density and their purposes.

According to ‘Frederick S. Merritt’, (Author of Building Design and Construction

Handbook), mortars are composed of a cementitious material, fine aggregate, sand, and
specific amount of water. Mortar can be used for a number of purposes such as plastering
over bricks or other forms of masonry, for flooring etc., and with the addition of coarse
aggregate, it can also be used to make concrete.
Cement mortar also provides a superior medium to create a smooth surface on walls made
from bricks or other forms of masonry.

Proportion of Cement Mortar

The Proportion means the relative quantity of different components to be mixed to make
good mortar, or simply the ratio between different materials.
 Following are the proportions of cement mortar which is commonly recommended for
different works:

01. Masonry Construction:

 For ordinary masonry work with brick/ stone as a structural unit. – 1:3 to 1:6

 Forreinforced brick work – 1:2 to 1:3.

 For all work in moist situations – 1:3

 For Architectural work – 1:6

 For Load Bearing structures – 1:3 or 1:4

02. Plaster Work:
 For External Plaster and Ceiling Plaster – 1:4

 Internal Plaster (If sand is not fine i.e. Fineness Modulus> 3) – 1:5

 For Internal Plaster (if fine sand is available) – 1:6

Curing of Cement Mortar

Cement gains strength with hydration. So, it is necessary to see that the mortar remains wet
until hydration occurs. After placing the mortar/concrete, the process of ensuring sufficient
moisture for hydration is called curing. Curing is ensured by spraying water. Generally,
curing begins 6–24 hours after using mortar. Initially, more water is required for hydration,
which can be reduced gradually. Curing for cement mortar is recommended for 7 days.
 PLAIN CEMENT CONCRETE
Plain cement concrete is the mixture of cement, fine aggregate(sand) and coarse aggregate
without steel. PCC is an important component of a building which is laid on the soil surface to
avoid direct contact of reinforcement of concrete with soil and water.

Material Used in Plain Cement Concrete

1. Coarse Aggregate
Coarse aggregate used in the PCC must be of hard broken stone of granite or similar stone, free
from dust, dirt and other foreign matter. The stone shall be 20 mm in size and smaller. All the
coarse material should be retained in a 5mm square mesh and should be well graded so that the
voids do not exceed 42%.

2. Fine Aggregate
Fine aggregate shall be of coarse sand consisting of hard, sharp and angular grains and shall pass
through a screen of 5 mm square mesh. Sand shall be of standard specifications, clean and free
from dust, dirt and organic matter.

3. Cement
Portland Pozzolana cement (P.P.C) is normally used for plain cement concrete. It should
conform to the specifications and shall have the required tensile and compressive stresses and
fineness.

4. Water
Water used shall be clean and reasonably free from injurious quantities of deleterious materials
such as oils, acids, alkalis, salts and vegetable growth. Generally, potable water shall be used
having a pH value not less than 6.

Proportioning of Plain Cement Concrete

1. The proportioning is done based on the requirement or given specification. Generally

1:2:4 or 1:3:6 mix is used.
 Reinforced Cement Concrete
Reinforced cement concrete (R.C.C) is the combination of ordinary concrete with the steel
reinforcement to increase its compressive and tensile strength to a great extent.
Nature of Reinforced Cement Concrete:
The main principle in the preparation of the reinforced cement concrete is to make a structural
material in which

(i) Steel serves the purpose of bearing the main tensile stresses;
(ii) concrete bears the main compressive forces, both acting in complete unison;
Some common types of reinforcement are:

(i) Mild Steel Bars:

This steel bar used as reinforcement can be commonly bent easily without cracking at the bends.
(ii) Hot Rolled Bars and Cold Worked Bars:
Hot Rolled Bars has a characteristic strength in tension which is almost double than that of mild
steel bars.
They can be bent by heating (up to 100°C) without developing any defects.
Similarly, the cold worked steel bars come in twisted or stretched forms having elongated ribs or
such structures along their length.
(iii) Steel Fabric:
This is made from a variety of bars and wires.

These may include plain round wires, indented and deformed wires, deformed steel bars of cold-
worked type.

PRECAST CONCRETE
The form of construction where concrete is cast in a reusable mould and then cured in a
controlled environment (precast plant) is called precast concrete. The casted structural member
is then transported to the construction site and then erected. Structural members such as concrete
frames, concrete walls, and concrete floors, etc. can be constructed using precast concrete.

Advantages of Precast Concrete

There are many precast concrete advantages. They are discussed below.

1. Saves Construction Time:.

2. Quality Assurance:
3. Cost-effective:.
4. Durability:
5. Aesthetics:
6. Safe Construction Platform
Photograph of precast concrete

Photograph of constructing precast building

 STRUCTURAL STEEL

Structural Steel is a special kind of Steel. It is used for construction purposes. Due to its rigidity
and high strength-to-weight ratio, structural Steel is mainly employed in buildings. Structural
Steel is used in houses, warehouses, airplane hangars, educational facilities, bridges, stadiums,
etc.

Structural Steel is Steel that contains carbon, not more than 2.1%. These are also called Carbon
Steel, and structural Steel typically has a carbon content of less than 0.6%.

Properties of Structural Steel

 Density: The density of Structural Steel is 7750 to 8100 kg/m3.

 Young's Modulus of Elasticity: Typical values for structural steel range from 190-210
GPa
 Poisson's ratio: For structural Steel, the acceptable value ranges from 0.27 to 0.3.
 Tensile strength: Structural Steel has high tensile strength, so it is preferred over other
construction materials.
 Yield strength: The yield strength, also known as the yield point, is the stress at which
an object permanently deforms. When stress is removed, it does not revert to its former
shape. Carbon structural steel has a yield strength ranging from 187 to 758 MPa. The
values of structural Steel constructed of alloys range from 366 to 1793 MPa.
 Shear strength: The shear strength of steel structure is specified at the failure under
shear stress, and it is about 0.57 times the yield stress of structural Steel.
 Hardness: The resistance of an object to shape change when force is applied is referred
to as hardness. There are three different types of hardness tests. Scratch, indentation, and
rebound are all terms used to describe the process of scratching and indenting, and the
hardness of structural Steel manufactured with alloys ranges from 149 to 627 kg. Carbon
structural steels have a weight range of 86 to 388 kg.

Types of Structural Steel

 Carbon steel: Steel in which the carbon content is upto 2% is known as carbon steel. The
Specified ultimate tensile strength is 410 to 440 MPa, and the yield strength is 350 to 400
MPa.
 High-strength carbon steel: These steels are used in structures such as transmission
lines and microwave towers. The specified ultimate tensile strength is 480 to 550 MPa,
and the yield strength is 350 to 400 MPa.
 Medium and high strength micro-alloyed steel: Alloys such as chromium, nickel,
molybdenum, etc., are used to increase the strength while retaining the desired ductility.
The specified ultimate tensile strength is 440 to 590 MPa, and the yield strength is 300 to
450 MPa.
 High strength quenched and tempered Steel: Heat treatment increases strength
in this type of Steel. The specified ultimate tensile strength is 440 to 590 MPa; the yield
strength is 300 to 450 MPa.
  Weathering Steel: These are corrosion-resistant Steel and are often not Painted. The
specified ultimate tensile strength is 480 MPa, and the yield strength is 350 MPa.
 Fire-resistant Steel: These steels are also known as thermo mechanically treated (TMT)
steel and are used where the structures are more prone to fire.

Types of Steel Sections

Structural steel members are fabricated in factories according to their intended use. Continuous
casting molds are used to cast rolled steel parts with no joints. The following sections describe
the various shapes and forms of rolled steel sections.

1. Rolled Steel I-sections (Beam sections).

2. Rolled Steel Channel Sections.
3. Rolled Steel Tee Sections.
4. Rolled Steel Angles Sections.
5. Rolled Steel Bars.
6. Rolled Steel Tubes.
7. Rolled Steel Flats.
8. Rolled Steel Sheets

Photograph of different types of steel sections

Different Types of Construction Chemicals

Construction chemicals have always been playing important roles in virtually all sorts of
construction projects, be it industrial projects, residential building projects, commercial
building projects and so on. These chemicals are often used in various elements of projects in
order to achieve various important qualities such as workability, durability etc. Construction
chemicals exist in many varieties from a large number of manufacturers worldwide.

Concrete curing compounds

Concrete curing compound consists essentially of waxes, natural and synthetic resins, and
solvents of high volatility at atmospheric temperatures. The compound forms a moisture
retentive film shortly after being applied on a fresh concrete surface.

Polymer bonding agents

Polymer Bonding Agent is an aqueous emulsion of a polymer and chemical admixtures. It is
designed for use as a bonding agent with concrete and cement-based products in interior or
exterior applications.

Mould releasing agents

Mould release agents come in handy when you have materials that are shaped and
constructed in moulds. Without the releasing agent, your mould may become damaged or
even break when it is time to remove it.

Form release agents

These compounds are applied on the inner surfaces of forms, not only facilitate stripping of
formwork but also render concrete surfaces smoother. They also help enhance the life-span of
the forms. Form releasing agents can be oil based, resin based, water based, organic chemical
based etc.
Concrete floor hardeners
These are chemicals added in floor concrete in order to render it denser and more durable.
They also usually enhance chemical resistance, impact & abrasion resistance, waterproofing
capability etc. besides reducing dusting.

Tile fixing
Tile fixers and tile adhesives form the backbone of your home. A quality tile fixer connects
all your tiles together, to create a beautiful canvas from individual pieces. Tile fixing products
are used for floorings, bathtubs, washbasins, kitchen tops and any other area where two
surfaces need to stick together.
Waterproofing chemicals
These chemicals can be quite useful when a structure’s waterproofing capability is to be
given a boost which is especially required for structures constantly dealing with liquids.
There are many varieties.
Adhesives
These construction chemicals are readily used in all sorts of projects, be it commercial,
residential, industrial etc. construction projects. Adhesives are expected to have strong
bonding capacity besides good waterproofing, weatherproofing etc. qualities.
 COLUMNS
The most commonly encountered compression member in building constructions is a column. A
column is a compression member that transfers load from beam and slab to the structure's
foundation. The IS code refers to the column as a compression member, with an effective length
3 times the least lateral dimension.

What are the Different Types of Columns?

There are many distinct kinds of columns that are utilised in various portions of construction. A
column is a vertical structural component that primarily supports compression loads. It may
distribute the weight from a beam to a floor or foundations, or from a ceiling, floor slab, roof
slab, or other slabs. The bending moments about one or both of the cross-section axes are
frequently present in columns. The different types of columns based on several factors are listed
below.

 Based on shape
 Based on the type of reinforcement
 Based on the type of loading
 Based on the slenderness ratio
 Based on the type of material

Types of Columns Based on Shape

 Square/Rectangular columns- These are generally used in building constructions. Due

to the ease of shuttering and reinforcement placement, these types of columns are both
cost-effective and simple to construct.
 Circular columns- Circular columns are commonly used in piling and elevation of
buildings. It is also used as bridge pillars. They provide better bending resistance than
square or rectangular column
 L-type columns- These types of columns are commonly used at the corners of boundary
walls.
 T-type columns- These types of columns are quite commonly used in bridge
construction.
 Y-type columns- They are used in bridge and flyover construction

Types of Columns Based on the Type of Reinforcement

Tied Columns- These are the types of columns in which the main longitudinal bars are enclosed
within closely and uniformly spaced lateral ties. These are the most commonly used types of
reinforced columns
 Spiral Columns- In these types of columns, the main longitudinal bars are confined
within continuously wound spiral reinforcement. The spiral reinforcements provide
lateral support and delay failure due to axial load.

 Composite Columns- These are the types of columns where the reinforcement is in the
form of structural steel sections or pipes with or without longitudinal bars.
Types of Columns Based on the Slenderness Ratio

The slenderness ratio of a compression member is defined as the ratio of its effective length to its
lateral dimensions. It provides a measure of the column’s susceptibility to buckling failure.
Columns can be divided into two types of columns based on the slenderness ratio.

 Short column- The column is referred to as a short column if the ratio of the effective
length of the column to the least lateral dimension is less than 12. The failure of a short
column is due to crushing (pure compression failure).
 Long columns- A long column is defined as one in which the ratio of the effective length
of the column to the least lateral dimension is more than 12. Bending or buckling is how
a long column fails.

SLABS

What is a concrete slab?

A concrete slab is one of the structural members of buildings or infrastructure. The slab is
constructed generally in uniform thickness, but it may vary in some cases. The slab is usually
constructed with concrete ingredients. It consists of coarse aggregate, fine aggregate, cement
material and structural steel. Steel-reinforced slabs, typically between 100 and 500 mm thick, are
most often used to construct floors and ceilings

Why is a concrete slab constructed?

The concrete slab is constructed the supporting the walls, beams and columns of the structures. It
plays an important role in the structures. It is usually constructed with uniform thickness, but it
may be constructed with varying thicknesses.
Classification of slabs

Slabs are generally classified into one-way slab and two-way slab. The former is supported on
two sides and the ratio of long to short span is greater than two. However, the latter is supported
on four sides and the ratio of long to short span is smaller than two.

PLINTH AREA AND CARPET AREA

How do you calculate plinth area?

Plinth area = building carpet area + wall area (both internal and exterior walls) + parasitic
area + elevator openings, etc. The plinth area is the space between the building's exterior and
outer bounds or its walls. The carpet area is the sum of the actual areas of the rooms that you can
carpet.

Plinth area and carpet area of a building is measured for estimation and calculation of building
cost. It is also a measure of usable space of building. Plinth area is the covered built-up area
measured at the floor level of any storey or at the floor level of the basement. Plinth area is also
called as built-up area and is the entire area occupied by the building including internal and
external walls. Plinth area is generally 10-20% more than carpet area.
Carpet area the covered area of the usable spaces of rooms at any floor. It is measured between
walls to walls within the building and is the sum of the actual areas of the rooms where you can
carpet

.
BEAMS

A beam is a structural element or member that largely transfers loads placed along its axis to its
supports, such as walls, columns, foundations, and so on, with bending being the primary way of
deflections

TYPES OF BEAM

1.SimplySupportedBeam:

Fig1:SimplySupportedBeam

It is one of the most basic structural elements because both ends are supported, but it can rotate
freely. There are pinned support at one end, and at the other, there is roller support. It can
withstand shearing and bend depending on the strain.

2.CantileverBeam:

Fig2:CantileverBeam

A cantilever beam is defined as a fastened beam at one end and set to be free at the other. The
load is distributed back to the support, subjected to moment and shear stress. Bay windows,
balconies, and some bridges are all possible using cantilever beams.
3.FixedBeam:

Fig 3: Fixed Beam

This type of beam has fixed ends on both ends. In addition, the fixed beam’s rotating movement
is controlled. The fixed beam’s end cannot be rotated because it is fixed at both ends. The fixed
beam is positioned to withstand high pressure. There is no reaction from this type of beam. It is
employed in the construction of high-rise buildings and industrial structures.

4.OverhangingBeam:

Fig4:OverhangingBeam

A simple supporting beam-like structure is commonly used for this sort of beam. In an
overhanging beam, however, one end extends beyond the support. The beam is often delivered at
each end of the column to transfer the load. A column supports one end of an overhanging beam,
while the other is overhung away from the support. In residential buildings, overhanging beams
are typically employed to create shade or balconies. Both ends of the Double Overhanging Beam
overhang somewhat away from the support.

5.ContinuousBeam:
Fig5:ContinuousBeam

A continuous beam contains more than two or more supports. It’s similar to a supported beam.
When a beam is maintained at both ends with intermediate support, it is referred to as a
continuous beam. There are multiple spans in these types of beams. In bridge construction, a
continuous beam is most usually employed. This sort of beam has more than two supports
running its length.
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UNIT III
Environmental Engineering: Water Supply and Sanitary systems, Water quality and Security.
Urban air pollution -causes and remedial measures, Solid waste management- types, sources,
collection and disposal methods, Urban flood- types, causes and control.
Built-Environment: Energy efficient buildings, recycling, Temperature and Sound control in
buildings, Security systems, Smart buildings.

ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
3.1 WATER SUPPLY
Water supply is the provision of safe drinking water to a community or population. This
includes the collection, treatment, and distribution of water to meet the needs of households,
businesses, and institutions. source of water supply can vary depending on geographic location
and availability. Common sources of water include surface water from rivers, lakes, and
reservoirs, as well as groundwater from wells and aquifers.

Water treatment is a critical step in the water supply process to ensure that water is safe for
consumption. Treatment may include physical, chemical, and biological processes to remove
contaminants and pathogens.

Water distribution involves the transportation of treated water to homes and businesses
through a network of pipes and storage tanks. Water distribution systems are often complex
and require regular maintenance to ensure that water quality is maintained and water loss is
minimized.
Water supply systems face numerous challenges, including increasing demand, aging
infrastructure, and climate change impacts. Effective management of water supply systems
requires a comprehensive approach that integrates water conservation, infrastructure
investment, and community engagement. Access to safe and reliable water supply is critical
for human health, economic development, and environmental sustainability. However, many
communities around the world still lack access to safe drinking water, particularly in
developing countries and in areas affected by conflict and natural disaster.

3.1.1. SOURCES OF WATER

1. Surface water: This includes water from rivers, lakes, and reservoirs. Surface water is often
used for municipal water supply, irrigation, and industrial purpose.

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2. Groundwater: This includes water stored in aquifers beneath the ground surface.
Groundwater is often used for drinking water supply, irrigation, and industrial purposes

3. Desalination: This involves the removal of salt and other minerals from seawater or
brackish water to produce fresh water. Desalination is often used in areas with limited
freshwater resources, such as coastal region.

4. Rainwater harvesting: This involves the collection and storage of rainwater for future use.
Rainwater harvesting can be used for irrigation, toilet flushing, and other non-potable uses.

5. Reuse of treated wastewater: This involves the treatment of wastewater to remove

contaminants and pathogens, and then using the treated water for non-potable purposes
such as irrigation or toilet flushing.

6. Springs: This includes water that emerges from the ground naturally as a result of
underground water movement.

3.1.2. IMPORTANCE AND NECESSITY OF WATER SUPPLY SCHEME

1. Human health: Access to safe drinking water is essential for human health. Waterborne
diseases such as cholera, typhoid, and diarrhoea can be transmitted through contaminated
water, and can lead to illness and even death

2. Economic development: Reliable access to water is critical for economic development.

Water is essential for agriculture, manufacturing, and other industries, and can help drive
economic growth and create job

3. Environmental sustainability: Sustainable water supply schemes can help protect and
conserve water resources, ensuring that they are available for future generations. This
includes measures such as water conservation, watershed management, and water reuse

4. Disaster management: Water supply schemes can play a critical role in disaster
management, providing emergency water supply to communities affected by natural
disasters such as droughts, floods, and earthquake

5. Social equity: Access to safe and reliable water supply is a basic human right, and water
supply schemes can help promote social equity by ensuring that all members of a
community have equal access to water.

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3.1.2 WATER DEMAND

Water demand refers to the amount of water needed by a community, industry, or other user
over a given period of time. Total quantity of water required for town depends on rate of
demand, population & design period.
Water demand can vary depending on a number of factors, including population growth,
economic activity, climate, and water use efficiency. The key factors that influence water
demand are: Size of city, Climatic condition, Living standard of people, Habits and activities,
Industrial & Commercial activities, Quality of water supply, Pressure in the distribution
system, System of sanitation, Cost of water and policy of metering, System of supply.

Quantity of water required by per person per day in liters- 270 LPCD & 335 LPCD.
Types of demand:
1. Domestic or residential demand- 135 LPCD
2. Commercial & Industrial demand - 40
3. Demand for public use - 25
4. Compensate losses demand -55
5. Fire demand -15
Total water Demand 270 lpcd without full flushing system (LIG)
Total water Demand 335 lpcd with full flushing system (HIG).

Domestic Water Demand for Indian Cities:-

It includes quantity of water required in the houses for drinking, cooking, bathing, washing,
etc. It mainly depends on the habits, social status, climatic condition, & custom of people.
1. Drinking 5 lpcd
2. Cooking 5 lpcd
3. Bathing 55 lpcd
4. Washing 40 lpcd
5. Flushing of latrines 30 lpcd
Total Domestic water demand = 135 lpcd as per IS 1172 – 1993 (R 2012).

3.1.3. WATER TREATMENT PROCESS

The various components of water treatment plant and the process of water treatment is shown
in Fig. 3.1. Water treatment process includes the following steps:
1. Screening: Raw water is first screened to remove large debris such as leaves, branches, and
other large particles.

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2. Pre-Chlorination: Pre-chlorination involves the addition of a small amount of chlorine to

disinfect the water and kill any bacteria or viruses.

3. Coagulation/Flocculation: Coagulation involves the addition of chemicals such as alum and

ferric chloride to the water. This helps to bind the fine particles and colloids in the water
together to form larger particles called flocs.

Fig. 3.1 Various components of water treatment plant

4. Sedimentation: The flocs settle to the bottom of the sedimentation tank due to gravity, and the
clear water is decanted from the top.

5. Filtration: The clear water is then passed through a series of filters to remove any remaining
particles and impurities.

6. Disinfection: Disinfection involves the addition of chlorine or other disinfectants to kill any
remaining bacteria or viruses in the water.

7. pH Adjustment: The pH of the water is adjusted to a suitable level using lime or other
chemicals.

8. Fluoridation: Fluoride is added to the water to prevent tooth decay.

9. Storage: The treated water is stored in a clear water tank before being distributed to consumers.

10. Distribution: The treated water is distributed through a network of pipes to homes, businesses,
and other consumers.

3.2. WASTE WATER/SANITARY WATER SYSTEM

Wastewater refers to any water that has been contaminated by human or industrial activity and
is no longer suitable for its intended use. This can include water that has been used for washing,

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bathing, flushing toilets, and other domestic or industrial processes. Wastewater must be treated
before it can be safely released back into the environment or reused for other purposes.
The necessity of wastewater treatment is to protect public health and the environment.
Untreated wastewater can contain harmful pathogens, chemicals, and pollutants that can cause
illness or damage ecosystems. In addition, wastewater can be a valuable resource that can be
recycled for agricultural or industrial use. Properly treated wastewater can also help to maintain
the water cycle, replenishing groundwater and surface water sources
Wastewater treatment involves a series of processes that remove contaminants from the water.
These processes can include physical, chemical, and biological methods. Common wastewater
treatment processes include screening, sedimentation, filtration, and disinfection. After
treatment, the water can be safely discharged back into the environment or reused for other
purposes.

3.2.1. SOURCES
1. Domestic Wastewater: Domestic wastewater is generated from households and includes
water from toilets, sinks, showers, and washing machine.
2. Industrial Wastewater: Industrial wastewater is generated from manufacturing processes
and can contain various pollutants such as chemicals, heavy metals, and oils.
3. Agricultural Wastewater: Agricultural wastewater is generated from agricultural practices
such as irrigation, animal feeding, and washing.
4. Stormwater: Stormwater is generated from rainfall and can contain pollutants from urban
areas such as oils, chemicals, and debris.
5. Groundwater: Groundwater can become contaminated with pollutants from human and
animal waste, agricultural practices, and industrial activities.
6. Construction Wastewater: Construction wastewater is generated from construction sites
and can contain pollutants such as sediment, oils, and chemical.

3.2.2. WASTE WATER TREATMENT

Wastewater treatment involves a series of processes that remove contaminants from the water
to make it safe for release into the environment or for reuse. Fig. 3.2 shows the various
components of water treatment plant and the processes involved. The treatment process
typically includes the following steps
1. Preliminary Treatment: The wastewater is screened to remove large objects such as plastic
bags, sticks, and rocks. The water then flows through a grit chamber to remove sand, gravel,
and other heavy materials.

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2. Primary Treatment: The wastewater is then sent to a settling tank where the heavy solids
settle to the bottom and the lighter materials such as grease and oil rise to the surface. These
solids are removed and sent to a landfill or incinerated.
3. Secondary Treatment: The remaining wastewater is then sent to a biological reactor where
microorganisms are added to break down organic matter. The water is aerated to provide

Fig. 3.2 Various components of Waste water treatment plant

oxygen for the microorganisms to thrive. The water is then sent to a settling tank where the
microorganisms and other solids settle to the bottom.
4. Tertiary Treatment: The final step involves removing any remaining contaminants through
a series of filtration and disinfection processes. The water is filtered through sand, activated
carbon, or other materials to remove any remaining solids. Chlorine or other disinfectants
are added to kill any remaining bacteria or viruses.
5. Sludge Treatment: Any solids that are removed during the treatment process are treated
separately. The sludge can be treated through anaerobic digestion, composting, or
incineration.
6. Discharge or Reuse: The treated water can be discharged into a river or ocean, or it can be
reused for irrigation, industrial processes, or other non-potable purposes.

3.3. AIR POLLUTION

Air pollution is the presence of harmful substances in the air that we breathe. These substances
can be gases, particulates, or biological molecules that can cause harm to human health or the
environment.

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3.3.1. Sources of air pollution

Sources of air pollution include both natural and human-made sources. Natural sources include
wildfires, volcanic eruptions, and dust storms. However, human-made sources of air pollution
are the main contributors to air pollution. These sources include
1. Transportation: Cars, trucks, and other vehicles emit pollutants such as nitrogen oxides,
carbon monoxide, and particulate matter.

2. Industry: Power plants, factories, and other industrial processes can emit a wide range of
pollutants into the air, including sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, and particulate matter.

3. Agriculture: Agricultural practices such as livestock production and the use of fertilizers
can emit ammonia, methane, and other pollutants into the air.

4. Household activities: Burning of fuels for cooking and heating can produce harmful
pollutants such as carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide, and particulate matter.

5. Waste management: Improper disposal of waste can lead to the release of methane and
other pollutants into the air.

3.3.2. Remedial measures

Remedial measures for air pollution includes:
1. Regulation and enforcement: Governments can regulate emissions from industries,
vehicles, and other sources, and enforce these regulations through fines and penalties.

2. Technological solutions: Advanced technologies such as catalytic converters and

scrubbers can reduce emissions from industrial processes and vehicles.

3. Energy efficiency: Improving energy efficiency can reduce the amount of energy needed
for transportation, industry, and other activities, thereby reducing emissions.

4. Alternative energy sources: Use of renewable energy sources such as solar and wind
power can reduce reliance on fossil fuels and reduce emissions.

5. Public education: Raising public awareness of air pollution and its effects can encourage
individuals to take steps to reduce their own contributions to air pollution.

3.4. SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT

Solid waste management refers to the process of collecting, treating, disposing, and recycling
solid waste, including municipal, commercial, and industrial waste. It involves the proper
handling, transportation, and disposal of solid waste in a way that protects public health and
the environment. Solid waste can include various types of materials, such as household waste,

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yard waste, construction and demolition debris, hazardous waste, and electronic waste. The
goal of solid waste management is to minimize the amount of waste that ends up in landfills
and promote the reduction, reuse, and recycling of waste to conserve resources and reduce
environmental impacts. Effective solid waste management also involves public education and
engagement to encourage individuals and communities to adopt sustainable waste management
practice.

3.4.1. SOURCES OF SOLID WASTE

Following are the sources of solid waste:
1. Residential waste: This includes waste generated from households, such as food waste,
paper, plastic, glass, and metal.
2. Commercial waste: This includes waste generated from businesses, such as offices,
restaurants, and stores.
3. Industrial waste: This includes waste generated from industrial processes, such as
manufacturing and construction.
4. Construction and demolition waste: This includes waste generated from building
construction and demolition activities, such as concrete, wood, and steel.
5. Electronic waste: This includes waste generated from electronic devices, such as
computers, cell phones, and television.
6. Hazardous waste: This includes waste that is dangerous or potentially harmful to human
health or the environment, such as chemicals, batteries, and medical waste.
7. Agricultural waste: This includes waste generated from farming activities, such as animal
manure, crop residues, and pesticide.

3.4.2. TYPES OF SOLID WASTE

1. Municipal solid waste (MSW): This is household waste generated by households,
commercial establishments, and institutions. MSW can include food waste, paper, plastic,
glass, metal, textiles, and other material.
2. Hazardous waste: This includes waste that is dangerous or potentially harmful to human
health or the environment, such as chemicals, batteries, electronic waste, medical waste,
and radioactive waste
3. Industrial waste: This includes waste generated by industries, such as manufacturing and
construction. Industrial waste can include chemicals, metals, construction and demolition
waste, and other material.

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4. Biomedical waste: This includes waste generated by healthcare facilities, such as hospitals,
clinics, and laboratories. Biomedical waste can include used needles, syringes, surgical
gloves, and other materials contaminated with blood or bodily fluid.
5. Electronic waste (e-waste): This includes waste generated by electronic devices, such as
computers, cell phones, and televisions. E-waste can contain hazardous materials such as
lead, mercury, and cadmium.
6. Agricultural waste: This includes waste generated by farming activities, such as animal
manure, crop residues, and pesticide.
7. Construction and demolition waste: This includes waste generated by building construction
and demolition activities, such as concrete, wood, and steel.

3.4.3. PROCESS OF SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT

The collection of solid waste involves the process of collecting and transporting waste materials
from their point of generation to a designated disposal or processing facility. The steps involved
in the collection and disposal of solid waste is shown in Fig.3.3.

Fig. 3.3 Solid Waste Management Process

1. Waste generation: The first step in the solid waste collection process is the generation of
waste by households, commercial establishments, and institution.
2. Waste segregation: After waste is generated, it is important to segregate different types of
waste such as paper, plastic, glass, metal, and hazardous waste to facilitate their proper
disposal.
3. Waste storage: Once waste is segregated, it is stored in designated containers such as bins,
bags, or dumpsters, depending on the type of waste and the location of the waste generator.

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4. Waste collection: After waste is stored, it is collected by waste collection vehicles such as
garbage trucks or specialized waste collection vehicles. The frequency of collection
depends on the type of waste, its volume, and the location.
5. Transportation: After waste is collected, it is transported to a designated disposal or
processing facility. The transportation process should be carried out in a way that
minimizes environmental impacts, such as air pollution, and prevents the spread of disease.
6. Disposal or processing: Finally, the waste is disposed off or processed at a designated
facility. The type of facility depends on the type of waste and the goals of the solid waste
management strategy. Facilities can include landfills, incinerators, recycling centres, or
composting facilities.

3.4.4. METHODS OF SOILD WASTE DISPOSAL

The choice of particular method of disposal depends upon the local factors Like cost and
availability of land and labours. Following are the types of are the methods of solid waste
disposal:
1. Landfill: This involves burying waste in a designated landfill site, where it is compacted
and covered with soil to prevent odors, vermin, and other problems. This is the most
common method of solid waste disposal, but it has significant environmental impacts.
2. Incineration: This involves burning waste at high temperatures to convert it into ash and
gas. It can be a useful method for reducing the volume of waste and generating energy, but
it can also release harmful pollutants into the air.
3. Recycling: This involves collecting and processing waste materials such as paper, plastic,
and metal to produce new products. Recycling reduces the amount of waste that ends up in
landfills and conserves resource.
4. Composting: This involves breaking down organic waste materials such as food and yard
waste into a nutrient-rich soil amendment. Composting is a sustainable method of waste
management that can reduce the volume of waste and improve soil health.
5. Waste-to-energy: This involves using waste as a fuel source to generate electricity or heat.
This can be an effective method for reducing the volume of waste and generating energy,
but it requires specialized technology and infrastructure.
6. Source reduction: This involves reducing the amount of waste generated at the source by
implementing practices such as reducing packaging, using reusable products, and
composting food waste.

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3.5. URBAN FLOODS

Flood is overflow of water that submerges land which are normally dry. Urban floods are floods
that occur in densely populated areas or urban environments.

3.5.1. TYPES OF URBAN FLOOD

Following are the types of urban flood:
1. Surface Water Floods: These floods occur when heavy rainfall exceeds the capacity of
urban drainage systems, causing water to overflow onto roads and pavement.
2. Flash Floods: These floods occur when intense rainfall over a short period of time causes
a sudden and rapid rise in water levels, overwhelming drainage systems and causing floods
in low-lying areas.
3. Riverine Floods: These floods occur when rivers and other water bodies that run through
urban areas overflow their banks, causing water to spill into surrounding area.
4. Coastal Floods: These floods occur in urban areas along the coastlines due to the combined
effects of high tide, storm surges, and sea level rise.
5. Sewer Floods: These floods occur when heavy rainfall or other factors overwhelm the
capacity of urban sewer systems, causing raw sewage to overflow into streets, buildings,
and other public area.
6. Groundwater Floods: These floods occur when the water table in urban areas rises due to
heavy rainfall or other factors, causing water to seep into basements, underground car
parks, and other subterranean structure.

3.5.2. CAUSES FOR URBAN FLOOD

Following are the causes for urban flood:
1. Heavy rainfall: Intense and prolonged rainfall can overwhelm urban drainage systems and
lead to flooding.
2. Insufficient drainage systems: Poorly designed or inadequate drainage systems can be
overwhelmed by heavy rainfall or high volumes of water, leading to flooding.
3. Land-use changes: Urbanization often involves replacing natural landscapes with
impervious surfaces like concrete and asphalt, which can increase runoff and reduce the
amount of water that can be absorbed into the ground, leading to more frequent and severe
flooding.
4. Climate change: Climate change can cause more frequent and intense rainfall events, sea
level rise, and storm surges, all of which can increase the risk of urban flooding.

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5. Poor maintenance: Neglected or poorly maintained drainage systems can become blocked,
reducing their capacity and increasing the risk of flooding.
6. Topography: Urban areas located in low-lying areas or near water bodies are more
susceptible to flooding.

3.5.3. REMEDIAL MEASURES

1. Improving drainage systems: Developing and maintaining efficient drainage systems that
can handle heavy rainfall can help reduce the risk of urban flooding.
2. Implementing green infrastructure: Implementing green infrastructure, such as rain
gardens, green roofs, and permeable pavements, can help reduce runoff and increase the
amount of water that can be absorbed into the ground.
3. Enhancing flood warning systems: Developing and implementing effective flood warning
systems can provide residents with timely information and help them take appropriate
measures to protect themselves and their property.
4. Land-use planning: Proper land-use planning can help reduce the risk of flooding by
avoiding development in flood-prone areas or implementing appropriate measures such as
elevating buildings, building floodwalls or barriers, and creating flood storage area.
5. Stormwater management: Implementing effective stormwater management practices, such
as rainwater harvesting and retention ponds, can help reduce runoff and the risk of flooding.
6. Public education: Educating the public on the risks of flooding, the importance of
preparedness, and the proper disposal of waste and litter can help reduce the risk of urban
flooding.

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BUILT-ENVIRONMENT

3.6 ENERGY EFFICIENT BUILDINGS/GREEN BUILDINGS

World Green Building Council defines A green ‘building is a building that, in its design,
construction or operation, reduces or eliminates negative impacts, and can create positive
impacts, on our climate and natural environment.
Green buildings preserve precious natural resources and improve our quality of life. Green
building is the practice of creating structures and using processes that are environmentally
responsible and resource-efficient throughout a building's life-cycle from siting to design,
construction, operation, maintenance, renovation and deconstruction and also concerns of
economy, utility, durability, and comfort. Green building is also known as a sustainable/ high
performance building.
Indian Green Building Council (IGBC) defined Green Building as follows "A green building
is one which uses less water, optimises energy efficiency, conserves natural resources,
generates less waste and provides healthier spaces for occupants, as compared to a conventional
building."

3.6.1. Factors Affecting the Site Selection for Green Building Construction
1. Impact on the Environment: how the construction affects functional requirements and
whole ecosystem.
2. Connection with the Community: construction of a particular project must contribute some
positive development for the surrounding community under consideration.
3. New Development is Limited: avoid the construction of a new project on a new land and
utilize the land that are already abandoned.
4. Transportation: site to be within a quarter of a mile walking distance for a minimum of 1
or 2 stops for transportation.
5. Public Amenities and Availability: commercial green building also provide space for
workers for changing rooms, storage lockers, showers and other essential utilities.
6. Utilizing Open spaces: open space in an office environment help to preserve the natural
environment and the improvement of overall working atmosphere.
7. Heat Land Reduction: use of shading, use of vegetated roofs or a roof that is painted in light
color help a lot in avoiding heat absorption.
8. Storm Water Control: the incorporation of irrigation techniques, permeable pavements etc-
storm water and the runoff is controlled and prevented adequately.

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3.6.2. DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

The following are considered in designing green building
1. Design an energy-efficient building: Use high levels of insulation, high-performance
windows, etc. In southern climates, choose glazing’s with low solar heat gain.
2. Design buildings to use renewable energy: Passive solar heating, day lighting, and natural
cooling can be incorporated. Also consider solar water heating and photovoltaic-or design
buildings for future solar installations.
3. Optimize material use: Minimize waste by designing for standard ceiling heights and
building dimensions. Avoid waste from structural over-design. Simplify building
geometry.
4. Design water-efficient, low-maintenance landscaping: Conventional lawns have a high
impact because of water use, pesticide use, and pollution generated from mowing.
Landscape with drought-resistant native plants and perennial groundcovers.
5. Make it easy for occupants to recycle waste: Make provisions for storage and processing
of recyclables—recycling bins near the kitchen, under sink compost receptacles etc. Water
from sinks, showers, or clothes washers (grey water) can be recycled for irrigation in some
areas. If current codes prevent grey-water recycling, consider designing the plumbing for
easy future adaptation.
6. Design for durability: To spread the environmental impacts –the structure must be durable.
A building with a durable style will be more likely to realize a long life.
7. Design for future reuse and adaptability: Choose materials and components that can be
reused or recycled.
8. Avoid potential health hazards—radon, Mold, pesticides: Follow recommended practices
to minimize radon entry into the building and provide for future mitigation if necessary.
Provide detailing to avoid moisture problems, which could cause Mold growth.
9. Renovate older buildings: Renovating existing buildings is the most sustainable
construction.
10. Create community Development patterns can either inhibit or contribute to the
establishment of strong communities and neighbourhoods. Creation of cohesive
communities should be a high priority.
11. Encourage in-fill and mixed –use development Mixed-use development, in which
residential and commercial uses are intermingled, can reduce automobile use and help to
create healthy communities.

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3.6.3. THE IMPORTANCE OF ENERGY-EFFICIENT BUILDINGS FOR SUSTAINABLE

DEVELOPMENT
Energy-efficient buildings play a crucial role in sustainable development. They help to reduce
energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions, which are major contributors to climate
change. The importance of energy-efficient buildings in sustainable development can be seen
from the following perspectives
1. Environmental Benefits: Energy-efficient buildings reduce the consumption of energy and
water, thereby reducing greenhouse gas emissions and other pollutants. This helps to reduce
the carbon footprint associated with building operations and contributes to mitigating
climate change.
2. Economic Benefits: Energy-efficient buildings can significantly reduce energy costs
associated with building operations. This can result in lower operating costs and long-term
savings on energy bills. Energy-efficient buildings can also increase property values, attract
tenants, and enhance the marketability of the building.
3. Social Benefits: Energy-efficient buildings create a healthier and more comfortable indoor
environment. Improved air quality, lighting, and thermal comfort can improve occupant
health and well-being, thereby increasing productivity and reducing absenteeism.

3.6.4. CHALLENGES
In designing and constructing energy-efficient buildings come with certain challenges, including
1. High initial cost: The initial cost of designing and constructing energy-efficient buildings is
often higher than conventional buildings. This may deter some developers or building owners
from investing in energy-efficient technologies.

2. Lack of awareness: Many people are not aware of the benefits of energy-efficient buildings,
and therefore, there is a lack of demand for such buildings. This lack of demand may limit the
availability of energy-efficient buildings in the market.

3. Technical complexity: Designing and constructing energy-efficient buildings require a high

level of technical expertise. Building professionals may require additional training and
education to implement energy-efficient technologies successfully.

Model question
Analyze the importance of energy-efficient buildings for sustainable development.
Evaluate the benefits and challenges of designing and constructing energy-efficient
buildings.

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3.7. SMART BUILDINGS

Smart buildings are structures that leverage technology to optimize energy efficiency, occupant
comfort, and convenience. A smart building integrates various systems, such as lighting,
heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC), security, and other building infrastructure,
to create an interconnected system that can communicate with and control each other.

One of the key features of smart buildings is automation. For instance, a smart building can use
sensors to detect the occupancy level of a room and automatically adjust the lighting and
temperature to optimize energy efficiency and occupant comfort. Smart buildings can also use
machine learning and artificial intelligence (AI) to learn occupant preferences and adjust
systems to meet those preferences automatically.

Smart buildings can improve energy efficiency by reducing waste through optimized heating,
cooling, and lighting systems. By using automation and data analysis, smart buildings can also
reduce the carbon footprint associated with building operations

In addition to energy efficiency, smart buildings can also improve occupant comfort and
productivity. For example, smart buildings can adjust lighting levels to optimize the circadian
rhythms of occupants and improve sleep quality. Smart buildings can also improve air quality
and reduce noise levels to create a more comfortable and healthier indoor environment.

Smart buildings can also enhance security by integrating various systems, such as access
control, surveillance, and alarm systems. By using AI and machine learning, smart buildings
can detect and respond to security threats automatically.

3.7.1. DESIGNING A SMART BUILDING

Designing a smart building involves a holistic approach that considers location, building type,
and occupant needs. Here is a general plan that can be followed to design a smart building
based on these parameters
1. Conduct a site analysis: The first step is to conduct a site analysis to understand the
location's climatic conditions, natural light, and wind patterns. This information can help
determine the building orientation and design features to maximize energy efficiency and
comfort.
2. Determine the building type: The next step is to determine the building type and use, such
as residential, commercial, or industrial. This information will inform the design

Department of Civil Engineering, RVCE, Bengaluru 16

Elements of Civil Engineering – CV113ATB/CV123ATB

requirements for the building's infrastructure, including heating, cooling, lighting, and
ventilation systems.
3. Assess occupant needs: It is essential to understand the occupant needs and preferences to
design a building that meets their needs. For instance, a smart building designed for a
hospital will have different requirements than one designed for a university or office
building.
4. Select smart technologies: Based on the analysis and design requirements, select smart
technologies that can optimize building performance and provide occupants with comfort
and convenience. Examples include automated lighting and shading systems, smart
thermostats, energy-efficient HVAC systems, and smart security system.
5. Integration and testing: Integrate the selected smart technologies into the building's
infrastructure and test them to ensure that they operate effectively and efficiently. Conduct
regular maintenance and updates to ensure that the smart building continues to operate
optimally over time.
6. Monitoring and analysis: Implement a monitoring system to track building performance,
including energy consumption, indoor air quality, and occupant comfort. Analyze the data
to identify areas for improvement and optimize building performance continually.
Model Question: Formulate a plan for designing a smart building based on given parameters
such as location, building type, and occupant needs.

3.8 TEMPERATURE AND SOUND CONTROL SYSTEM IN BUILDINGS

Temperature and sound control systems are important aspects of building design and
construction, as they directly affect the comfort and well-being of occupants. Here is an outline
of the temperature and sound control systems in building.

3.8.1. TEMPERATURE CONTROL SYSTEM

1. Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning (HVAC) System: HVAC system is a
combination of technologies that provide heating, cooling, and ventilation to maintain
indoor temperature and air quality.

2. Insulation: Insulation materials such as fiberglass, cellulose, and foam are installed in walls,
roofs, and floors to prevent heat transfer between the indoor and outdoor environment.

3. Windows: Energy-efficient windows with low-e coatings and insulated frames are used to
reduce heat transfer through the building envelope.

Department of Civil Engineering, RVCE, Bengaluru 17

Elements of Civil Engineering – CV113ATB/CV123ATB

4. Building Automation System: A building automation system (BAS) can control HVAC
systems, lighting, and other building systems to optimize energy efficiency and indoor
comfort.
3.8.2. SOUND CONTROL SYSTEM
1. Acoustic Insulation: Acoustic insulation materials such as fiberglass, cellulose, and foam
are installed in walls, floors, and ceilings to absorb sound and prevent sound transmission
between rooms.

2. Soundproofing: Soundproofing materials such as mass-loaded vinyl, acoustic curtains, and

acoustic panels can be installed to block sound transmission from outside the building or
adjacent rooms.

3. Double Glazed Windows: Double-glazed windows with insulated frames can be used to reduce
sound transmission through windows.

Department of Civil Engineering, RVCE, Bengaluru 18

UNIT 4
 ROADS/HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

Basic Definition
A facility consisting of the means and equipment necessary for the movement of passengers or goods. At
its most basic, the term “Transportation System” is used to refer to the equipment and logistics of
transporting passengers and goods.

Importance of Transportation
The evolution and advancements in transportation facilities have been closely linked with the development
of human beings throughout the history of the world. Role of Transportation Transportation plays a vital role
in economic development of any region of any country, since every commodity produced, whether it may
be agricultural or industrial products they need to be transported at various stages from production to
distribution. At production stage for carrying raw materials and at distribution stage for transportation from
farms and factories to marketing centers to retailers to consumers. Inadequate transportation facilities
retard the process of socio-economic and cultural development. Development of transportation facilities in a
country indicates its economic growth and progress in social development. The main objective of a good
transportation system is to provide a safe, economical and efficient transportation facility for passengers
and goods.

Economic Activity and Transport

These are the processes in which the products are utilized to satisfy human needs. Two important factors
well known in economic activity are 1) Production or supply 2) Consumption for human needs or demands

Social Effects of Transportation

The progress of a nation depends on transportation facilities. The population usually settles along the
transportation routes such as road sides, river shores and railway stations. However, in the present concept
of road network planning the above said kind of ribbon development is discouraged for the sake of high
speed travel and safety. Attempts are being made to decentralize the population away from main
transportation routes. To avoid congestion on major cities, suburbs and satellite towns are being developed
and are linked to the major cities with mass rapid transit system. The various social effects of transportation
are a) Sectionalism and transportation b) Concentration of population in urban area c) Aspect of safety, law
and order a) Sectionalism and Transportation 1) Improved transportation has important implication in
reducing sectionalism within the country and also with other countries in the world 2) The living conditions
and facilities of under developed colonies and tribes get improved since the distances are apparently
reduced with reduction in travel time. 3) Frequent travel to the other parts of the country and outside the
country tend to increase knowledge of the people by learning from other sections of society which results in
improved trade and cultural exchanges. 4) International understanding for the better peace and order also
improves with efficient network of transportation.
DIFFERENT MODES OF TRANSPORTATION
Transportation has developed along three basic modes of transport a) Land b) Water c) Air Land has given
scope for development of transportation by road and rail transport. Water and air media have developed
waterways and airways respectively. The roads or the highways not only include modern highway system
but also includes the urban arterials, city streets, feeder roads and village roads catering for a wide variety
of vehicles and pedestrians. Railways have been developed both for long distance travel and also urban
travel. Waterways include transportation by oceans, rivers, canals and lakes for the movement of ships and
boats. The airways help in faster transportation by aircrafts and carriers. Apart from these major modes of
transportation, other modes include pipelines, elevators, belt conveyors, cable cars, aerial ropeways and
monorails. Pipe lines are used for the transportation of water, other fluids and even solid particles The four
major modes of transportation are: a) Roadways or highways for road transportation b) Railways for rail
transportation c) Waterways for water transportation d) Airways for air transportation.

ROADWAYS
The transportation by road is the only mode which could give maximum service to one and all. Road
transport mode has the maximum flexibility for travel with reference to choice of the route, direction, time
and speed of travel. This is only mode which caters for the movement of passengers and goods
independently right from the place of origin up to the destination of any trip along the route. The other three
modes (railways; water ways; airways) have to depend on transportation by road for the service to and from
their respective terminals. Therefore, the roadway essentially serves as a feeder network. It is possible to
provide door to door service by road transport. Ultimately, road network is therefore needed not only to
serve as feeder system for other modes of transportation and to supplement them, but also to provide
independent facility for road travel by a well-planned network of roads throughout the country

Advantages:
1) Flexibility: It offers complete freedom to the road users. 2) It requires relatively smaller investments and
cheaper in construction with respect to other modes. 3) It serves the whole community alike the other
modes. 4) For short distance travel, it saves time. 5) The road network is used by various types of vehicles.
Disadvantages: 1) Speed is related to accidents and more accidents results due to higher speed and is
usually not suitable for long distance travel 2) Power required per tonne is more.

CLASSIFICATION OF ROADS
Types of Roads Basically, different types of roads can be classified into two categories namely,

a) All-weather roads and

b) Fair-weather roads.
All-weather roads: These roads are negotiable during all weather, except at major river crossings
where interruption of traffic is permissible up to a certain limit extent, the road pavement should be
negotiable during all weathers. Fair-weather roads: On these roads, the traffic may be interrupted during
monsoon season at causeways where streams may overflow across the roads.

Based on location and Function:

1) Expressways: Expressways are the highest class roads in India. These are the highways with six to
eight lane controlled access road network. Basically, expressways are of high quality consisting of modern
features like access ramps, grade separation, lane dividers and elevated section.

2) National Highways (NH): The NH connects the capital cities of the states and the capital cities to the
port. The roads connecting the neighboring countries are also called as NH. The NH are at least 2 lanes of
traffic about 7.5m d wide. The NH are having concrete or bituminous surfacing.

3) State Highways (SH): SH are the main roads within the state and connect important towns and cities of
state. The width of state highways is generally 7.5m.

4) Major District Roads (MDR): These roads connect the areas of production and markets with either a
SH or railway. The MDR should have at least metaled single lane carriage way (i.e., 3.8m) wide. The roads
carry mixed traffic.

5) Other District Roads (ODR): These roads connect the village to other village or the nearest district
road, with ghat, river etc. these roads have a single lane and carry mixed traffic.

6) Village Roads (VR): these roads, like other district roads, connect the village or village or nearby district
road. The roads carry mixed traffic.

Classification of Urban Roads

The road system within urban areas are classified as Urban Roads and will form a separate category of
roads taken care by respective urban authorities.
a) Arterial roads
b) Sub-arterial roads
c) Collector Streets
d) Local Streets Arterial and Sub-arterial roads are primarily for through traffic on a continuous route, but
sub-arterials have a lower level of traffic mobility than the arterials. Collector streets provide access to
arterial streets and they collect and distribute traffic from and to local streets which provide access to
abutting property
HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

A highway pavement is a structure consisting of superimposed layers of processed materials above the
natural soil sub-grade, whose primary function is to distribute the applied vehicle loads to the sub-grade.
The pavement structure should be able to provide a surface of acceptable riding quality, adequate skid
resistance, favorable light reflecting characteristics, and low noise pollution. The ultimate aim is to ensure
that the transmitted stresses due to wheel load are sufficiently reduced, so that they will not exceed bearing
capacity of the sub-grade. Two types of pavements are generally recognized as serving this purpose,
namely flexible pavements and rigid pavements. This chapter gives an overview of pavement types, layers,
and their functions, and pavement failures. Improper design of pavements leads to early failure of
pavements affecting the riding quality.

Requirements of a pavement

An ideal pavement should meet the following requirements:

 Sufficient thickness to distribute the wheel load stresses to a safe value on the sub-grade soil,
 Structurally strong to withstand all types of stresses imposed upon it,
 Adequate coefficient of friction to prevent skidding of vehicles,
 Smooth surface to provide comfort to road users even at high speed,
 Produce least noise from moving vehicles,
 Dust proof surface so that traffic safety is not impaired by reducing visibility,
 Impervious surface, so that sub-grade soil is well protected, and
 Long design life with low maintenance cost

Types of Pavements

i.Flexible Pavement- Bituminous road( Tar road in layman term)

ii. Rigid Pavement- Concrete roads

In flexible pavements, wheel loads are transferred by grain-to-grain contact of the aggregate through the
granular structure. The flexible pavement, having less flexural strength, acts like a flexible sheet (e.g.
bituminous road). On the contrary, in rigid pavements, wheel loads are transferred to sub-grade soil by
flexural strength of the pavement and the pavement acts like a rigid plate (e.g. cement concrete roads).

Flexible Pavement

A pavement layer comprising a mixture of aggregates and bitumen, heated and mixed correctly and
then laid and compacted on a bed of granular layer, is called flexible pavement.

The load transfer mechanism is depicted in fig 1.

Components of Flexible pavement

A typical cross-section of a flexible pavement consists of the following layers:

Sub-grade:

The sub-grade is the lowermost layer of the flexible pavement and usually consists of a compacted layer of
natural soil. Its primary function is to bear all the imposed stresses from the upper layers. Acts as a
foundation layer.

Sub-base Course:The sub-base course is the layer beneath the base course that provides additional
structural support and boosts sub-surface drainage.It is usually an optional layer and may not be
constructed if the base course comprises superior quality materials. Its thickness ranges from 100 mm to
300 mm.

Base Course:

Mainly, hard crushed aggregates are used in the construction of this layer.The base course is the backbone
of flexible pavement.Its thickness ranges from 100 mm to 300 mm.

Binder Course:

The binder course is the intermediate layer between the surface course and the base course and duly
transmits the wheel load from the surface to the base course.It is a bitumen-bound aggregate ( nominal
size ) layer.This course is also called a levelling course.

Surface Course:

The surface course is the topmost layer of the flexible pavement and is generally the layer of the best
quality as it has to withstand maximum stress and wear and tear.It is primarily designed to resist the
imposed loads, prevent water ingress to the underlying layers, and ensure a skid-resistant riding surface
 Rigid pavements

Rigid pavements have sufficient flexural strength to transmit the wheel load stresses to a wider area below.
A typical cross section of the rigid pavement is shown in Figure 3. Compared to flexible pavement, rigid
pavements are placed either directly on the prepared sub-grade or on a single layer of granular or
stabilized material. Since there is only one layer of material between the concrete and the sub-grade, this
layer can be called as base or sub-base course.

Figure 3: Typical Cross section of Rigid pavement

5.1 Types of Rigid Pavements

Rigid pavements can be classified into four types:

 Jointed plain concrete pavement (JPCP),

 Jointed reinforced concrete pavement (JRCP),
 Continuous reinforced concrete pavement (CRCP), and
 Pre-stressed concrete pavement (PCP).

Jointed Plain Concrete Pavement: are plain cement concrete pavements constructed with closely spaced
contraction joints. Dowel bars or aggregate interlocks are normally used for load transfer across joints.
They normally has a joint spacing of 5 to 10m.

Jointed Reinforced Concrete Pavement: Although reinforcements do not improve the structural capacity
significantly, they can drastically increase the joint spacing to 10 to 30m. Dowel bars are required for load
transfer. Reinforcements help to keep the slab together even after cracks.

Continuous Reinforced Concrete Pavement: Complete elimination of joints are achieved by

reinforcement.
 MULTIMODAL TRANSPORT SYSTEM

CONCEPT

The concept of multi-modal transportation refers to a system that integrates multiple modes of
transportation, such as trains, buses, automobiles, and bicycles, to provide more flexible, efficient, and
convenient mobility options to passengers. The goal of multi-modal transportation is to create a seamless
connection between different modes of transportation, allowing passengers to switch from one mode to
another with minimal hassle. This can help reduce travel time, increase accessibility, and improve the
overall transportation experience for passengers.

Multi-modal transportation systems also have environmental benefits, as they can help reduce emissions
by encouraging people to shift from single-occupancy vehicles to more sustainable modes of
transportation. Additionally, they can help reduce traffic congestion and promote urban development by
making it easier for people to reach their destinations.

Overall, the concept of multi-modal transportation aims to create a more integrated, comprehensive, and
user-friendly transportation network that meets the needs of a variety of travelers, whether they are
commuting to work, running errands, or going on a trip.

Integrating multiple modes of transportation refers to the coordination and integration of various
transportation options (e.g. buses, trains, bikes, ride-hailing services, etc.) into a seamless and efficient
system. This involves the development of infrastructure, policies, and technology that allow for easy
transfer between modes and provide an integrated experience for users.

Some key benefits of multi-modal transportation integration include:

1. Increased accessibility: By offering a variety of transportation options, users have more options to reach
their destinations and can choose the most convenient and efficient mode for their needs.
2. Improved mobility: Integration can lead to reduced congestion and improved travel times, making it easier
for people to get where they need to go.
3. Reduced emissions: Encouraging the use of low-carbon transportation options such as public transit,
cycling, and walking can help to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and improve air quality.
4. Economic benefits: Multi-modal transportation can support local economic development by improving
access to jobs, goods, and services and reducing transportation costs for individuals and businesses.
5. Improved public health: Encouraging the use of active transportation options such as walking and cycling
can improve public health by increasing physical activity and reducing air pollution.

To achieve successful integration, it is important to consider the interplay between various transportation
modes, as well as factors such as land use patterns, population density, and funding. It may also involve
collaboration between various levels of government, transportation providers, and private sector
organizations
 Integrating a multi-modal transport system involves several steps, which are as
follows:

1. Assessment of current transport system: To integrate multi-modal transport, it is important to have an

understanding of the current transport system. This includes identifying the strengths and weaknesses of
each mode of transport, and the challenges they face.
2. Identification of transport nodes: Multi-modal transport requires the identification of key transport nodes,
such as bus and train stations, airports, and ferry terminals. These nodes serve as hubs for different modes
of transport, making it easier for passengers to switch between them.
3. Development of a common ticketing system: To integrate multi-modal transport, it is important to have a
common ticketing system that allows passengers to use the same ticket for different modes of transport.
This helps to simplify the process of switching between modes and reduces the time and effort required for
ticket purchasing.
4. Planning for intermodal connections: To effectively integrate multi-modal transport, intermodal
connections between different modes of transport need to be planned and developed. This includes the
provision of pedestrian walkways, bike lanes, and park-and-ride facilities.
5. Investment in public transport infrastructure: Integration of multi-modal transport requires significant
investment in public transport infrastructure, including the development of new transport nodes, upgrading
existing ones, and the provision of new intermodal connections.
6. Development of information and communication systems: Effective integration of multi-modal transport
requires the development of information and communication systems, such as real-time information
displays and smartphone applications. These systems provide passengers with up-to-date information on
transport schedules, delays, and service disruptions.
7. Collaboration between different transport operators: To effectively integrate multi-modal transport, it is
important for different transport operators to collaborate and coordinate their services. This can be
achieved through the development of agreements between operators, the sharing of information and
resources, and the establishment of joint marketing and ticketing initiatives.
8. User-friendly and accessible transport systems: To ensure the success of a multi-modal transport
system, it is important to make the transport system user-friendly and accessible for all users, including
people with disabilities. This includes the provision of ramps, elevators, and accessible toilets, as well as
clear signage and information displays.
RAILWAY ENGINEERING..
1
RAILWAY TRACK
• COMPONENT PARTS OF A RAILWAY TRACK

2
Section of Permanent Way
• A permanent way is the combination of rails, fitted on
sleepers and resting on ballast and subgrade.
• The following are the component parts of a permanent
way:
a) Formation of sub-grade. b) Ballast. c) Sleepers. d)
Rail. e) Fixtures and fastenings.

4
5 Major Cross Sectional Elements of a
Railway Track
1. Right of Way
The area of land acquired and reserved for construction and
development of railway track along its alignment is called
right of way or permanent land. The width of the right of way
is called permanent land width.
2. Formation
The prepared and finished surface of earthwork(in
embankment or in cutting) on which a railway track is laid
is called the formation of subgrade. Formation serves the
following functions.
1. It provides a firm foundation bed to the track.
2. It provides a smooth and graded surface to the track.
3. It provides effective drainage of the track.

5
3. Formation width
• The top width of a railway embankment or bottom width of
formation of cutting excluding the side drain is called formation
width. The formation width of a railway track depends upon its
gauge, number of tracks to be laid and space required between them.
4. Side Slopes
• The slopes given to the sides of the earthwork of a track in cutting or
embankment for stability are called side slopes. Side slopes should
be such that the earthwork becomes stable ever adverse climatic
conditions.
• It depends upon various factors such as the nature of the soil,
climatic conditions, method of drainage, and method of protection
of side slope from erosion, height of embankment and depth of
cutting. Usually, 2:1 side slope for track embankment and 1:1 side
slopes for cutting is recommended.

6
 5. Side Drains
• The drains provided on either side of railway tracks are
known as side drains. Side drains are generally
trapezoidal in section with 1.8 m top width and 0.9 m
bottom width of a track embankment. In case of track in
cutting, the top width of the side drain is usually kept as
1.22 m.

7
Requirements of Permanent Way
1. The gauge should be correct and uniform
2. The rail should be at a proper level. In the straight track,
two rails must be at the same level. On curves, the outer
rail should have proper superelevation
3. The alignment should be correct.
4. The gradient should be uniform. Any change of
gradient should be followed by a smooth vertical curve.
5. The tractive resistance of the track should be minimum.

8
The track should possess sufficient elasticity.
7. The track should be sufficiently strong against lateral forces.
8. The radius and superelevation on curves should be properly designed and
maintained.
9. The drainage system of the track should be perfect.
10. It should be free from excessive rail joints. All joints including points and
crossing should be properly designed and maintained.
11. All the components of track should fully satisfy the requirements for which they
have been provided.
12. There should be adequate provision for easy renewals and repairs of any portion
of the track.
13. The track structure should be strong.
14. The initial cost of construction, as well as the maintenance cost of the track,
should be as minimum as possible

9
RAIL GAUGE
The clear horizontal distance between the inner faces of the
two rails forming a track is known as a Railway Gauge.
 Dimension of gauges
1. Broad Gauge(BG) 1676mm

2. Standard Gauge(SG) 1435mm

3. Meter Gauge(MG) 1000mm

4. Narrow Gauge(NG) 762mm

5. Light Gauge 610mm

RAILS

15
 RAILS
• The rolled steel sections laid end to end in
two parallel lines over sleepers to form a
railway track as known as rails

• Made up of high carbon steel to withstand

wear and tear

• Flat footed rails are mostly used in

railway track
16
FUNCTIONS OF RAILS
• Rails provide hard, smooth and unchanging surface for
passage of heavy moving loads with minimum friction
between steel rail and steel wheel

• Rails bear the stresses developed due to heavy vertical

loads, lateral and braking forces and thermal stresses

• The rail material used is such that it gives minimum wear

to avoid replacement charges and failure due to wear

• Rails transmit the loads to sleepers and consequently

reduce pressure on ballast and formation below
17
REQUIREMENTS OF RAILS

• Rails should be designed for optimum nominal weight to

provide for the most efficient distribution of metal in its
various components
18
REQUIREMENTS (cntd..)
• The vertical stiffness should be high enough to transmit
load to sleepers. The height of the rail should be adequate

• Rails should be capable of withstanding lateral forces.

Large width of head and foot provides the rail with high
lateral stiffness

• The depth of head of rail should be sufficient to allow for

adequate margin of vertical wear. The wearing surface
should be hard

• The web of rails should be sufficiently thick to bear the load

coming to it and should provide adequate flexural rigidity
in horizontal plane
19
REQUIREMENTS (cntd..)
• Foot should be wide enough so that the rails are stable
against overturning especially on curves

• Bottom of the head and top of foot should be so as to

enable the fish plates to transmit the vertical load
efficiently from the head to the foot at rail joint

• The centre of gravity of rail section must lie

approximately at mid height so that maximum tensile
and compressive stresses are equal

20
REQUIREMENTS (cntd..)
• Tensile strength of rail shouldn’t be less than 72 kg/m2

• To bring down the contact stresses to minimum level, the

contact area between the rail and wheel should be as
large as possible

21
Ballast

• Ballast is the granular material placed and packed below

and around the sleepers to transfer load from sleepers to
the formation. Ballast in railway track performs the
following function:

43
44
• It provides a suitable foundation for the sleepers.
• It transfers and distributes loads from the sleepers over a
larger area of the foundation.
• It holds the sleepers in the correct position and prevents
their lateral and longitudinal movement due to dynamic
loads.
• It helps in maintaining the correct levels and alignment
of a track.
• It acts as an elastic medium and thereby increases the
elasticity of the track.
• It protects the top surface of the formation.
• It improves the drainage facility of the track.

45
Size of Ballast

• The size of the ballast used in railway track varies

from 1.9 cm to 5.1 cm. The stone of size larger than 5.1
cm is not preferable due to poor interlocking property.
• The best-recommended ballast is that which
contains stones ranging in size from 1.9 cm to 5.1 cm.

46
47
 What Is Tunnel?
• An Underground Passage For The Transport Of
Passengers, Water, Sewage, Minerals, Gas Etc.
• A tunnel is relatively long and narrow; the
length is often much greater than twice
the diameter, although similar shorter
excavations can be constructed, such as cross
passages between tunnels
 Necessity/Advantages of a Tunnel
• (a) A tunnel may be required to eliminate the need for a long and circuitous route for
reaching the other side of a hill, as it would considerably reduce the length of the railway
line and may also prove to be economical.
• (b) It may be economical to provide a tunnel instead of a cutting, particularly in a rocky
terrain. Depending upon various factors, a rough calculation would indicate that for a small
stretch of land the cost of constructing a tunnel is equal to the cost of a cutting in a rocky
terrain.
• (c) In hills with soft rocks, a tunnel is cheaper than a cutting.
• (d) In metropolitan towns and other large cities, tunnels are constructed to accommodate
underground railway systems in order to provide a rapid and unobstructed means of
transport.
• (e) A tunnel constructed under a river bed may sometimes prove to be more economical
and convenient than a bridge.
• (f) In the case of aerial warfare transportation through tunnels provides better safety and
security to rail users compared to a bridge or deep cutting.
• (g) The maintenance cost of a tunnel is considerably lower than that of a bridge or deep
cutting. However, the construction of tunnels is also disadvantageous in certain ways, as
enumerated here. (a) The construction of a tunnel is costly as it requires special
construction machinery and equipment.
• (b) The construction of a tunnel involves the use of sophisticated technology and requires
experienced and skilled staff.
• (c) It is a time-consuming process.
 Classification of Tunnel
1) Classification of Tunnels According To
Alignment
2) Classification of Tunnels According To Shape
3) Classification of Tunnels According To Type
of Materials
Classification Of Tunnels According To
Alignment
A) Spiral Tunnels:-
• Spiral Tunnel Provided To Increase The Length
Of The Tunnel To Avoid Steep Slops In Narrow
Valleys.
• Tunnels Provided In Narrow Valley In The Form
Of Loops In The Interior Of Mountain So As To
Increase Length Of Tunnel To Avoid Steep
Slopes.
Spiral Tunnel
 B) Off-Spur Tunnels
Off Spur Tunnels Are Constructed To Short-Cut
Minor Obstacles Is Very High Projections On
The Way, Which Can Not Be Followed With
Permitted Curves.
 C) Saddle Tunnels
Saddle Tunnels Constructed In Valley Along Natural
Slope, This Tunnels Mainly Used For Transportation
Purpose. Or Tunnels Constructed In The Valley Along
The Natural Slope Till Slope Does Not Exceed Ruling
Gradient
 D) Slope Tunnels
• Tunnel Constructed In Steep Hills For Economic And
Safe Operations Of Roads And Railways Non As
Sloping Tunnels, This Type Of Tunnel Also Used For
Transportation Purpose Mainly
Classification of Tunnels According To
Shape
• Rectangular shape
• Circular Shape
• Elliptical Shape
• Horseshoe Shape
 Circular shape
• This Type Of Tunnels Strong In Order To Resistance To External
Pressure Caused By Water, Soil and Ground.
• Circular Shape Tunnels Not Suitable For Railways, And
Highway Transportation Mainly Used For Sewage Lines.
 Rectangular shape
Rectangular Tunnels Suitable For Hard Rock Sites And
Mainly Uses For Pedestrian Passage, But This Type Of
Tunnels Are Costly.
 Horse Shoe Tunnels
• Horse Shoe Tunnels Can With Stand Internal And
External Pressures, Having Semi-Circular Rood With
arch Sides, Commonly Uses For Railway And
Roadways.
 Elliptical Tunnels
• Elliptical shape tunnels have the advantages
for the transportation of sewer. The smaller
cross section at the bottom maintains the flow
at the required self cleaning velocity. However,
due to the difficulty in construction, circular
shape ones are more common.
Classification of Tunnels According To
Type Of Materials
Tunnels In Hard Rock
Tunneling Through Hard Rock Almost Always
Involves Blasting.
 Tunnels In Soft Ground
• A Tunnel Built In Soft Ground Such As Clay,
Silt, Sand, Gravel, Or Mud Requires Specialized
Techniques Compared To Hard Rock.
HARBORS’ AND PORTS
 DEFINITION
Harbour: It is partly enclosed area which
provides safe and suitable accommodation for
supplies, refueling, repair, loading and
unloading cargo
 DEFINITION
• A port is a harbour or area that can provide shelter to
numerous boats and vessels (transferring people or
cargo) and allow constant or periodic shipment
transactions.
• In layman’s language, a port is a place to facilitate the
loading as well as unloading of vessels. Technically
speaking, it is a convergence point between freight
circulation domains.
• Port = Harbour + Storage Facility + Communication
Facility + Other Terminal Facility.
• From above, It can be stated that a port includes a
harbour i.e. every port is a harbour.
 Requirements of Good Harbour
• It should be connected with roadway and railway.
• Surrounding land should be fertile and densely populated.
• Ship channels must have sufficient depth for draft or
vessel.
• Breakwaters must be provided to protect against
destructive wave action.
• The bottom should furnished secure anchorage to hold
ships against the wind force.
• Numbers of quay, piers and wharfs should be sufficient for
loading and unloading cargo.
• It should have facilities like fuel, repair and etc. for ships.
• Harbour area should be sufficiently large.
 Classification in Ports
• Inland Ports
• Fishing Ports
• Warm water Ports
• Dry Ports
• Sea Ports
 Types of Ports
Inland Ports
• Inland ports are built on smaller water bodies such as
rivers or lakes. They can either be for cargo purposes or
passengers or both. Conventionally Inland Ports are
constructed or naturally maintained ports at the
coastline of small waterways like lakes, rivers or
estuaries and are also rarely seen at sea coasts.
• Some of these inland ports can have access to the sea
with the help of a canal system. As such, ports are built
on inland waterways. They usually behave like normal
seaports but cannot allow deep draft ship traffic
 Fishing Ports
• Fishing ports are mainly related to the
commercial sphere as they participate in
fishing. Fishing activities can also be treated as
a mode of recreation. The existence of a
fishing port entirely relies upon the availability
of fish in that region of the ocean. A fishing
port can be an inland port or a seaport.
 Warm Water Ports
• These are the ports in which the water is
maintained at warmer temperatures. The
biggest advantage where a warm water port is
concerned is that the water does not freeze
during the frosty winters. Therefore, it is free
to operate all year round without a temporary
shutdown during the freezing time. Such ports
help to a great extent to boost the economy of
the nation.
 Dry Ports
• As the name suggests, a dry port is a port that is
away from the sea. It is more inland and
connected to a seaport with either a paved road
or railway. Dry ports are terminals where cargo
brought over on ships is transshipped
• These are specifically employed for the
transhipment of cargo to inland destinations. It is
a trans-shipment port connected to a seaport and
manages intermittent billing and coordination
between importers and exporters.
 Sea Ports
• Seaports are the most common types of ports
worldwide used for commercial shipping
activities. These ports are built on a sea
location and enable the accommodation of
small and large vessels.
 Types of Harbors
• Natural Harbour: Harbour protected by storms and
waves by natural land contours, rocky out crops, or
island that is called Natural Contour. (Eg. Kandla port,
Cochin port & Mumbai Harbour)
 Semi - Natural harbour
A semi – natural harbour is protected on the
sides by the contours of land and requires
manmade protection only to the entrance.
(Eg. Mandvi, veraval & visakhapatnam port)
 Artificial Harbour
An artificial harbour is one which is manmade
and protected from storms and waves by
engineering works. (Eg. Chennai Harbour)
Components of Harbors
Dry dock
Wet dock
Airport engineering

1
Introduction
 Fastest mode

 Speed more than 300

kmph

 Modern speed-
3 x speed of sound

2
 Advantages  Disadvantages

• No artificial track • Flight rules

• Time saving • Operating expense
• emergency • Safety
• Weather cond.

3
International Civil aviation
organization (ICAO)
 Set up on April 4, 1947
 Head quarters in Canada
 151 Sovereign state are members
 Objective are safe growth, new aircraft
design and development of airways

4
International Airport Transport
Association (IATA)
 More than 100 members
 To promote interest of civil aviation
 Provides forum for industry views

5
Air Transport In India
 First flight by Frenchmen Henry carrying mail
from Allahabad to Naini in 1911
 Regular service Karachi to Delhi on December
30, 1929
 Internal service by Tata on Oct. 15, 1932 which
later changed as Air India Limited.
 Govt. established Air India International limited in
1948
 Air trp corp. bill was passed in 1953 and two
corporation were established for domestic and
international service each as “Indian Airlines
Corporation” & Air India International
Corporation resp.

6
Present Status
 In India there are :
1. More than 335 domestic airport
2. More than 20 International airport

7
Airport Authorities of India (AAI)
 The Airport Authority of India is the body
that manages both the International Airports
in India as well as the Domestic Airports in
India.
 Airports Authority of India (AAI) manages a
total of 137 Airports, which includes 103
Domestic Airports, 24 International Airports,
and 10 Customs Airports.AAI is responsible
for creating, maintaining, upgrading, and
managing civil aviation infrastructure in India
and works under the Ministry of Civil
Aviation.

8
Classification of Airport in India

Asir Khan (M.Tech-Transportation

Engineering & Planning) Lecturer UCOE-
Kaman 9
INTERNATIONAL AIRPORT
An international airport is
an airport with customs and border
control facilities enabling passengers to travel
between countries around the world.
International airports are usually larger
than domestic airports and they must feature
longer runways and have facilities to
accommodate the heavier aircraft such as
the Boeing 747 commonly used for international
and intercontinental travel. International airports
often also host domestic flights, which often help
feed both passengers and cargo into international
ones (and vice versa).
Domestic Airport
 A domestic airport is an airport that
handles only domestic flights within the
same country. Domestic airports do not
have customs and immigration facilities
and so cannot handle flights to or from a
foreign airport.
Custom Airports
 These airports have custom and
immigration facilities for limited
international operations by national
carriers and for foreign tourist and cargo
charter flights. These include Gaya, Patna,
Madurai, Pune, Bagdogra, Chandigarh and
Visakhapatnam
Civil enclaves in Defence airports
 A joint-use airport is an aerodrome
that is used for both military
aviation and civil aviation. They typically
contain facilities of both a civil airport and
a military air base.
Airport Classification as per ICAO

14
Airport Site Selection
 Meteorological and Atmospheric condition
 Avail. Of land for expansion
 Availabilities of Utilities
 Development of Surrounding areas
 Economy of construction
 Ground accessibility
 Presence of other airport
 Regional Plan
 Soil Characteristics
 Surrounding obstruction
 Topography

15
 UNIT 5
INTRODUCTION

Soil and Soil Mechanics

For engineering purposes, soil is defined as the mixture of mineral grains and decayed organic
matter (solid particles) with liquid and gas in the empty spaces between the solid particles.
Soil is used as a construction material in various civil engineering projects, and it supports
structural foundations. Thus, civil engineers must study the properties of soil, such as its origin,
grain-size distribution, and ability to drain water, compressibility, shear strength, and load-
bearing capacity.
Soil mechanics is the branch of science that deals with the study of the physical properties of soil
and the behavior of soil masses subjected to various types of forces. Soils engineering is the
application of the principles of soil mechanics to practical problems.
Origin and Formation of Soil

Soil is formed by the process of ‘Weathering’ of rocks, that is, disintegration and decomposition
of rocks and minerals at or near the earth’s surface through the actions of natural or mechanical
and chemical agents into smaller and smaller grains.
Weathering is the process of breaking down rocks by mechanical and chemical processes into
smaller pieces. Mechanical weathering may be caused by the expansion and contraction of rocks
from the continuous gain and loss of heat, which results in ultimate disintegration. Frequently,
water seeps into the pores and existing cracks in rocks. As the temperature drops, the water
freezes and expands. The pressure exerted by ice because of volume expansion is strong enough
to break down even large rocks. Other physical agents that help disintegrate rocks are glacier ice,
wind, the running water of streams and rivers, and ocean waves. It is important to realize that in
mechanical weathering ,large rocks are broken down into smaller pieces without any change in
the chemical composition.
In chemical weathering, the original rock minerals are transformed into new minerals by
chemical reaction. Water and carbon dioxide from the atmosphere form carbonic acid, which
reacts with the existing rock minerals to form new minerals and soluble salts. Soluble salts
present in the groundwater and organic acids formed from decayed organic matter also cause
chemical weathering. The minerals formed at higher temperatures in Bowen’s reaction series are
less resistant to weathering than those formed at lower temperatures.
Residual Soils
The soils formed by the weathered products and remain at their place of origin are called residual
soils. An important characteristic of residual soil is the gradation of particle size. Fine grained
soil is found at the surface, and the grain size increases with depth. At greater depths, angular
rock fragments may also be found.

Transported Soils
Soils which are formed by weathering of rocks and that have been moved from their place of
origin are called residual soils. The transported soils may be classified into several groups,
depending on their mode of transportation and deposition:
1. Glacial soils—formed by transportation and deposition of glaciers
2. Alluvial soils—transported by running water and deposited along streams
3. Lacustrine soils—formed by deposition in quiet lakes
4. Marine soils—formed by deposition in the seas
5. Aeolian soils—transported and deposited by wind
6. Colluvial soils—formed by movement of soil from its original place by gravity, suchas during
landslides
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Building Components
The structure of the building is divided into two parts
Substructure
– Defined as the structural work below ground level used to support the structure above.
– Foundations, basement, subfloor, Abutment, Pier
Superstructure
– Upward extension of an existing structure above a baseline called Ground Level in general and it usually serves the
purpose of the structure's intended use.
– The various members of super-structure such as columns and beams are designed to provide strength for carrying the
dead load and live load expected to come on the various parts of the structure in a safe and well distributed manner or are
some components of this area.

Super-structure

Ground Level

Sub-structure
The Foundation
16
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Foundation
 Foundation is the most important part of the building. Building activity starts with digging the ground for foundation and then
building it. It is the lower most part of the building. It transfers the load of the building to the ground.
 Foundation is the lower portion of the building, usually located below the ground level, which transmits the loads of the
super structure to the supporting soil or rock.

Its main functions and requirements are:

• Distribute the load from the structure to soil evenly and safely.
• To anchor the building to the ground so that under lateral loads building will not move.
• It prevents the building from overturning due to lateral forces.
• It gives level surface for the construction of super structure.

Footing
Footing is that part of the foundation which ultimately delivers the load to the soil and is, thus in direct contact with it.

17
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FUNCTIONS OF FOUNDATIONS
 Reduction of load intensity

 Even distribution of load

 Provision of level surface

 Lateral stability

 Safety against undermining

 Protection against soil movements

REQUIREMENTS OF GOOD FOUNDATION

 It should be strong enough to withstand the load of the building.

 It should be stable and safe against sliding, overturning etc.

 It should be sufficiently rigid to avoid settlement due to uneven distribution of the loads.

 It should be sufficiently deep and rest on firm stratum.

 It should not fail due to shearing or punching. 18

Building Components

Super-structure

Ground Level

Sub-structure

Foundation
Types of foundation
SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS
(Open Foundations)
A Shallow Foundation is a
type of foundation in which

depth is equal to or less than

its width.
SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS
(Open Foundations)
It is built by open excavation of the soil. Hence, it is
also known as Open Foundation.

The base of the structure is enlarged or spread to

provide good and individual support to the load.
SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS
(Open Foundations)
This type of foundation is provided for structures of
moderate height, built on sufficiently firm dry
ground.

This foundation is practicable up to a depth of 3 m

to 4 m.

It is generally convenient above the water-table.

DEEP FOUNDATIONS

A foundation is said to be a

Deep Foundation, when its

depth is more than the width

of the foundation.
DEEP FOUNDATIONS

Deep foundations transmit the load of a structure

through weak soils to strong soil beds or rock beds
available at great depth.

When the soil available at a reasonable depth of less

than, say, 3 to 6 meters is not having the desired

bearing capacity, deep foundation is used.

SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS
(Open Foundations)
Types of shallow foundations

(i) Spread footings

(ii) Combined footings

(iii) Strap footings

(iv) Raft or Mat Foundations

SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS
(Open Foundations)
(i) Spread footings
Spread footings are those which Spread the Super-imposed
load of wall or column over a larger area.
It supports one wall or one column.

Spread footings:
a) Strip footing
b) Isolated or Pad footing
SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS
(Open Foundations)
Spread footings:
a) Strip footing: provides a continuous longitudinal bearing.

Spread footing for a continuous wall is called Strip footing.

SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS
(Open Foundations)
Spread footings:
b) Isolated or Pad footing:

Spread footing for a

single column is called
Isolated or Pad footing
SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS
(Open Foundations)
b) Isolated or Pad footing:
Grillage Foundation:
Special type of isolated footing,
generally provided for heavily
loaded steel stanchions, specially
in those locations where bearing
capacity of soil is poor.
SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS
(Open Foundations)
ii) Combined footing: footing which supports two columns.
SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS
(Open Foundations)
ii) Combined footing: footing which supports two columns.
Combined footings are used under the following circumstances:

• When the space between two columns is so small that separate footings
for individual columns will overlap.

• When the end column is near a property line so that its footing cannot
spread in that direction.

• When the bearing capacity of the soil is so low that individual column
footing is of uneconomic size.
SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS
(Open Foundations)
Continuous footing:
footing which supports
more than two columns.
SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS
(Open Foundations)
(iii) Strap footing or Cantilever footing:
Two or more footings
of individual columns,
connected by a beam.
SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS
(Open Foundations)
(iv) Raft or Mat Foundations
A combined footing that covers
the entire area beneath a
structure and supports all the
walls and columns.

Reduces the possibility of

differential (unequal) settlement
and provides a condition of
uniform settlement.
SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS
(Open Foundations)
(iv) Raft or Mat Foundations
Raft or Mat foundations are used

(i) when the column spacing is small.

(ii) when the load of the structure is heavy.

(iii) when the soil mass contains compressible lenses or soil is

sufficiently erratic.
DEEP FOUNDATIONS
General forms of deep foundations are:

(i) Pile foundation

(ii) Pier foundation and

(iii) Caisson or Well foundation.

DEEP FOUNDATIONS
Pile foundation
Type of deep foundation in which the

loads are taken to a low level by means

of vertical members which may be of

timber, concrete or steel.

CONCEPTS OF AUTOMATION AND ROBOTICS IN CONSTRUCTION
Automation and robotics are increasingly being used in the construction industry to improve
productivity, safety, and efficiency. Here are some key concepts of automation and robotics in
construction

1. Automated machinery: Construction sites are now using automated machinery, such as
bulldozers, excavators, and cranes, to perform tasks such as grading, excavation, and
material handling. These machines can work faster, more precisely, and with less risk of
error than human operators
2. Drones: Drones are being used in construction for tasks such as surveying, mapping, and
inspections. Drones can capture high-resolution images and data that can be used to
create 3D models, monitor progress, and identify potential issues
3. Building Information Modeling (BIM): BIM is a digital representation of a building or
structure that includes information on the materials, components, and systems used in
construction. BIM can be used to optimize construction processes, improve efficiency,
and reduce waste
4. Robotics: Robots are being used in construction for tasks such as bricklaying, welding,
and concrete spraying. Robots can work with a high level of precision, speed, and safety,
reducing the need for human labor
5. Autonomous vehicles: Autonomous vehicles, such as self-driving trucks, are being used
in construction to transport materials and equipment. These vehicles can operate 24/7,
reducing the need for human drivers and improving efficiency.

APPLICATIONS OF ROBOTICS AND AUTOMATION IN THE

CONSTRUCTION

1. Building construction: Robots and automation can be used in building construction for
tasks such as bricklaying, welding, and concrete spraying. These robots can work with a
high level of precision, speed, and safety, reducing the need for human labor and
improving the quality of construction
2. Demolition and excavation: Robots can be used for demolition and excavation work,
such as demolishing buildings or excavating foundations. These robots can work in tight
spaces, reducing the need for human labor and improving safety
3. Material handling: Automated machinery, such as bulldozers, excavators, and cranes, can
be used for material handling tasks, such as moving heavy objects and transporting
materials. These machines can work faster, more precisely, and with less risk of error
than human operators
4. Surveying and inspection: Drones can be used for surveying and inspecting construction
sites, providing high-resolution images and data that can be used to create 3D models,
monitor progress, and identify potential issues
 5. Safety and monitoring: Robotics and automation can be used for safety and monitoring
purposes, such as detecting hazards, monitoring equipment, and conducting safety
inspections. These technologies can improve safety on construction sites and reduce the
risk of accidents

BENEFITS OF AUTOMATION IN CONSTRUCTION

1. Increased productivity
2. Improved quality
3. Enhanced safety
4. Reduced labor costs
5. Improved efficiency
6. Improved sustainability
7. Increased accuracy
8. Access to difficult areas

SUSTAINABILITY IN CIVIL ENGINEERING

Sustainability in civil engineering refers to the practice of designing, constructing, operating, and
maintaining infrastructure in a way that minimizes negative impacts on the environment and
society while maximizing long-term economic benefit

The concept of sustainability in civil engineering encompasses three main pillars: environmental
sustainability, social sustainability, and economic sustainability

1. Environmental sustainability: This refers to the ability to design and construct

infrastructure in a way that minimizes negative impacts on the natural environment. This
includes reducing greenhouse gas emissions, conserving natural resources such as water
and energy, minimizing waste and pollution, and using sustainable materials
2. Social sustainability: This refers to the ability to design and construct infrastructure that
meets the needs of communities and improves their quality of life. This includes
designing infrastructure that is accessible and safe for all users, including those with
disabilities, and that considers the cultural, social, and economic context of the
community
3. Economic sustainability: This refers to the ability to design and construct infrastructure in
a way that is cost-effective over the long term. This includes considering the life-cycle
cost of the infrastructure, including construction, operation, and maintenance costs, as
well as the economic benefits that the infrastructure will provide over time.
Different methods to achieve sustainability in civil engineering and its relevance to
civil engineering
There are several methods that can be used to achieve sustainability in civil engineering.
Below are some of the key methods and their relevance to civil engineering
1. Green infrastructure: Green infrastructure refers to the use of natural or semi-natural
systems to manage stormwater, reduce urban heat island effects, and provide habitat
for wildlife. Civil engineers can design green infrastructure systems, such as green
roofs, bioswales, and rain gardens, to help cities become more sustainable and
resilient to climate change
2. Sustainable materials: Using sustainable materials in construction can help to reduce
the environmental impact of buildings and infrastructure. Civil engineers can specify
sustainable materials, such as recycled content materials, and ensure that they are
sourced and manufactured in an environmentally responsible manner
3. Life-cycle assessment: Life-cycle assessment is a method for assessing the
environmental impact of a product or system throughout its entire life cycle, from raw
material extraction to disposal. Civil engineers can use life-cycle assessment to guide
design decisions and identify opportunities to reduce the environmental impact of
infrastructure project
4. Energy efficiency: Designing buildings and infrastructure to be energy efficient can
help to reduce energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions. Civil engineers
can design buildings with passive solar features, specify energy-efficient lighting and
HVAC systems, and incorporate renewable energy systems, such as solar panels and
wind turbines
5. Sustainable transportation: Encouraging sustainable transportation, such as walking,
cycling, and public transit, can help to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and improve
air quality. Civil engineers can design pedestrian and cycling infrastructure, as well as
public transit systems, to encourage sustainable transportation options
 SUSTAINABLE GOALS PROVIDED BY UNITED NATIONS AND
ITS RELEVANCE TO CIVIL ENGINEERING
The United Nations has provided 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) as part of the 2030
Agenda for Sustainable Development. These goals provide a comprehensive framework for
achieving sustainable development across all sectors, including civil engineering. Below are
some of the SDGs and their relevance to civil engineering

1. SDG 6 - Clean water and sanitation: Civil engineers play a crucial role in designing and
implementing sustainable water and sanitation systems, including water treatment plants,
wastewater treatment systems, and drainage system
2. SDG 7 - Affordable and clean energy: Civil engineers can design and implement
sustainable energy systems, such as renewable energy sources like solar, wind, and
hydroelectric power
3. SDG 9 - Industry, innovation and infrastructure: Civil engineers are responsible for
designing and building infrastructure that supports sustainable economic growth,
including transportation systems, buildings, and energy infrastructure
4. SDG 11 - Sustainable cities and communities: Civil engineers can help create sustainable
urban environments by designing infrastructure that reduces energy consumption,
promotes sustainable transportation, and enhances public space
5. SDG 13 - Climate action: Civil engineers can play a key role in mitigating climate
change by designing infrastructure that reduces greenhouse gas emissions and is resilient
to climate change impacts, such as sea-level rise and extreme weather event
6. SDG 15 - Life on land: Civil engineers can contribute to protecting and restoring
terrestrial ecosystems by designing infrastructure that minimizes habitat fragmentation,
reduces soil erosion, and conserves biodiversity.

SMART CITY

CONCEPT

The concept of smart city in civil engineering refers to the integration of advanced technology
and infrastructure to enhance the quality of life, promote sustainable development, and improve
the efficiency of urban services. Smart city initiatives typically involve the use of data and
communication technologies to connect various urban systems, including transportation, energy,
water, waste management, and public services.

Civil engineers play a critical role in the development of smart cities by designing and
implementing infrastructure and systems that can support smart city initiatives. For example,
civil engineers may design smart transportation systems that incorporate real-time data on traffic
patterns and optimize traffic flow, or they may design and implement smart energy systems that
use renewable energy sources and advanced monitoring and control systems to improve energy
efficiency.

In addition, civil engineers are responsible for designing and constructing sustainable buildings
and infrastructure that can support the long-term development of smart cities. This may involve
designing green buildings that use advanced materials and construction techniques to reduce
energy consumption and carbon emissions, or developing infrastructure that can support the use
of electric vehicles and other sustainable transportation modes.

What makes a city smart in Indian context?

In the Indian context, a smart city is characterized by the use of advanced technology and
innovative solutions to address the challenges of urbanization and improve the quality of life for
its citizens. The Government of India's Smart Cities Mission is a flagship program that aims to
promote sustainable and inclusive development in urban areas across the country.

1. Technology-enabled infrastructure: A smart city in India should have a robust and well-
connected infrastructure that leverages technology to enhance efficiency and service
delivery. This includes advanced transportation systems, smart energy grids, and digital
connectivity
2. Citizen participation and engagement: A smart city should prioritize citizen participation
and engagement, empowering citizens to have a say in how their city is developed and
managed. This can be achieved through digital platforms, public consultations, and
community engagement programs
3. Sustainable development: A smart city should promote sustainable development
practices, such as the use of renewable energy sources, waste reduction, and green
infrastructure. This can help reduce the carbon footprint of the city and mitigate the
impacts of climate change
4. Efficient public services: A smart city should provide efficient and reliable public
services, such as healthcare, education, and public safety. This can be achieved through
the use of technology, data analytics, and effective governance
5. Economic growth and innovation: A smart city should foster economic growth and
innovation by promoting entrepreneurship, creating job opportunities, and attracting
investment. This can be achieved by developing a vibrant and inclusive business
ecosystem that supports innovation and growth.
COMPONENTS OF SMART CITY

1. In the context of urban and rural development, how would you describe a smart
city? What makes a city smart?
A smart city is a city that uses technology and data-driven solutions to improve the
quality of life for its residents, enhance sustainability, and improve efficiency. In a smart
city, digital technology and data are used to manage and optimize a range of urban
services, such as transportation, energy, waste management, and public safety.
Some key characteristics that make a city smart include
1. Digital infrastructure: A smart city requires a robust digital infrastructure, including
high-speed broadband networks, sensors, and other technologies that can collect and
analyze data from various sources
2. Data-driven decision-making: Smart cities rely on data to make informed decisions
about urban planning, service delivery, and resource allocation. Data is used to
 optimize infrastructure, improve public services, and enhance the overall quality of
life for residents
3. Integration of urban systems: Smart cities integrate different urban systems, such as
transportation, energy, and waste management, to optimize efficiency and reduce
waste
4. Citizen engagement: A smart city engages its citizens in decision-making processes
and encourages their participation in shaping the city's future
5. Sustainability: Smart cities prioritize sustainability by using renewable energy
sources, promoting green infrastructure, and reducing carbon emissions
6. Innovation: Smart cities are characterized by a culture of innovation, which is
encouraged through collaboration between public and private sectors, research
institutions, and startups.

SAFE AND CLEAN CITY

Concept
The concept of a safe and clean city is important to civil engineering as it encompasses the
design, construction, and maintenance of infrastructure that supports a healthy and sustainable
environment for residents

From a civil engineering perspective, a safe and clean city involves

1. Safe buildings and infrastructure: Civil engineers play a vital role in ensuring that
buildings and infrastructure are designed and constructed to be safe and resilient to
natural disasters, such as earthquakes, hurricanes, and floods. This includes designing
structures to withstand the forces of nature and ensuring that they are constructed to meet
safety codes and standards
2. Sustainable transportation: Civil engineers are responsible for designing and maintaining
transportation systems that are safe, efficient, and environmentally sustainable. This
includes promoting the use of public transportation, bicycles, and pedestrian-friendly
infrastructure to reduce traffic congestion and air pollution
3. Efficient water and waste management: Civil engineers design and implement systems
for managing water and waste, such as stormwater management, wastewater treatment,
and solid waste management. These systems are essential for maintaining a clean and
healthy environment, preventing water pollution and minimizing the risk of disease
outbreaks
4. Green infrastructure: Civil engineers are increasingly incorporating green infrastructure
elements, such as green roofs, rain gardens, and bioswales, into their designs to improve
 the quality of urban life. These elements help to reduce the urban heat island effect,
improve air and water quality, and promote biodiversity in cities.

COMPONENTS

1. Adequate infrastructure: This includes well-maintained roads, sidewalks, public

transportation, and buildings that are up to code
2. Efficient waste management: The city must have an effective system for managing and
disposing of waste to ensure clean streets and waterways
3. Access to clean water: The city should provide clean drinking water to its residents and
have a system for monitoring and ensuring the quality of the water supply
4. Effective public transportation: A well-designed public transportation system can reduce
traffic congestion and air pollution while improving accessibility and mobility for
residents
5. Adequate lighting: Adequate lighting is important for pedestrian and driver safety and
can also discourage criminal activity
6. Clean air: The city should take measures to reduce air pollution and promote clean air
through programs such as public transportation and the use of renewable energy sources
7. Access to green spaces: The city should have parks and other green spaces for residents
to enjoy, which can also help improve air quality and reduce the urban heat island effect
8. Active community engagement: Residents should have a say in the decisions that affect
their community, and the city should promote transparency and collaboration between
government officials and community member

CHALLENGES AND WAY FORWARD

Challenges

1. Limited funding: Developing and maintaining safe and clean cities requires significant
investment, which can be difficult to secure in the face of competing priorities
2. Population growth: Rapid urbanization can lead to increased pollution, traffic congestion,
and strain on resources such as water and energy
3. Lack of public awareness: Residents may not be aware of the impact of their actions on
the environment and public health, which can hinder efforts to create clean and safe cities
4. Insufficient infrastructure: Inadequate infrastructure can lead to poor waste management,
unsafe buildings, and limited access to clean water and transportation
5. Limited public participation: Residents may feel disconnected from decision-making
processes and lack a sense of ownership over their communities, which can limit
community engagement and collaboration
Way forward
1. Investing in infrastructure: Governments can allocate resources to build and maintain
the necessary infrastructure to ensure safe and clean cities, including roads, public
transportation, and waste management systems
2. Promoting public awareness: Governments can educate residents about the
importance of environmental protection and public health, and provide information
on how individuals can contribute to the effort
3. Encouraging public participation: Governments can create opportunities for residents
to participate in decision-making processes and collaborate on community initiatives
4. Supporting innovation: Governments can support research and development of new
technologies and approaches to creating safe and clean cities, such as renewable
energy sources and smart waste management systems
5. Collaboration and partnerships: Governments, private sector, and civil society
organizations can work together to pool resources and expertise to achieve shared
goals of creating safe and clean cities.