QUALITATIVE RESEARCH VS.

QUANTITATIVE
RESEARCH
RONALD H. NACION EdD, PhD
 OPENING PRAYER
Dear Lord and Father of All.
Thank you for today.
Thank you for ways in which you provide for us all.
For your protection and love we thank you.
Help us to focus our hearts and minds now on what we are about to
learn.
Inspire us by Your Holy Spirit as we listen and write.
Guide us by your eternal light as we discover more about the world
around us.
We ask all these in the name of Jesus. AMEN
A. Read and analyze the following statements carefully. Write FACT if you
think the statement is correct, and BLUFF if incorrect.

__________ 1. Research should be empirical.

__________ 2. Research should be subjective.
__________ 3. Research follows a system in
formulating its components.
__________ 4. Any unusual phenomenon may happen
and can turn into a potential problem.
__________ 5. The first step in writing a research is
identifying any problem
__________ 6. Research can be done in just one sitting.
__________ 7. The research process entails a careful investigation
leading to the discovery of new ideas, methods, or improvements.
__________ 8. Conducting a research may be done individually or
collaboratively.
__________ 9. A researcher must always adhere to the ethical codes
and policies of research.
__________ 10. Proper acknowledgment should only be given to
chosen authors cited and sources used in research.
TAKE A LOOK ON THE COMIC STRIP BELOW. CAN YOU
DISTINGUISH THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE TWO PANELS?
QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE RESEARCH (CRISTOBAL &
CRISTOBAL, 2017)

 There are two broad categories of research

methodology: quantitative research and
qualitative research. The method to be used in
conducting a research will determine the approach the
researcher takes in identifying relevant data, and
collecting and analyzing the information gathered in
the research. Choosing either a quantitative or
qualitative approach will affect the components of the
research.
 For instance, a researcher may decide to undertake a
scientific research. If he/she takes a quantitative approach,
he/she will use statistical data to provide an explanation of
the phenomenon. On the other hand, if the researcher
chooses qualitative approach, the goal of the study will be
to discuss and analyze the underlying concepts and
theories related to the research topic.
FOR YOU TO EASILY UNDERSTAND THE SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES
BETWEEN THE TWO RESEARCH METHODS, HERE IS A SHORT DEFINITION OF
TERMS THAT YOU HAVE TO BE FAMILIAR WITH:

 contact time – the period when the researcher interacts

with the research subjects or participants to obtain relevant
information
 outlier – a statistical observation in a set of data that is
inconsistent with the majority of the data
 hypothesis – a statement usually predicting the relationship
between variables that can be tested by scientific research
 output replicability – capable of repetition, imitation or reproduction
 research instrument – a measurement tool designed to obtain, measure and
analyze data from research subjects around the research topic
 trend – an assumed development in the future that will have a long-term and lasting
effect; prevailing style or preference
 sample size – the number of subjects to be taken from the target population of the
study
 validity – the functional quality of research instrument on obtaining data and
producing results based on the purpose of the study
 •variable – any characteristic that can have different values or traits that may vary
across research participants
READ AND ANALYZE THE FOLLOWING TABLE FROM “WHAT IS QUALITATIVE RESEARCH” BY ALASUUTARI
(2011) TO BE DEEPLY ACQUAINTED WITH QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE RESEARCH BASED ON
DIFFERENT CATEGORIES.

Category Quantitative Qualitative

Question Domains Who, What, When, Where How, What, Why
Common Sample Size 150 to 200+ 10 to 15
Contact Time 1-45 minutes 45 to 240 minutes each
Validity Must be true of most of the data Must be true of each case or
or nomothetic (law oriented) ideographic (case-oriented)
Variables Define relationships and Describe relationship and
establish general case establish meaning structures and
contexts
Outliers Unique positions lost to the Valuable descriptive cases with
weight of the average unique access to average cases
Examples Surveys, numerical counts, Interviews, literature content
statistical analyses, mathematical reviews, real world observations,
modeling case studies, ethnographies
 NOW, STUDY THE FOLLOWING TABLE CITED BY CRISTOBAL & CRISTOBAL (2017) FROM
THE SOCIAL SCIENCE RESEARCH EXTENSION INSTITUTE (SSREI), UNIVERSITY OF THE
PHILIPPINES (UP)-BAGUIO (2009)
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

Aims to characterized trends and patterns. Involves processes, feelings and motives (the why’s and the
how’s) and produces in depth and holistic data.
Usually starts with either a theory or hypothesis about Usually concerned with generating hypothesis from data
the relationship between two or more variables rather than testing a hypothesis.
Uses structured research instruments like questionnaires Uses either unstructured or semi-structured instruments
or schedules
Uses large sample that are representative of the Uses small sample sizes chosen purposely
population.
Has a high output replicability Has high validity
Used to gain greater understanding of group similarities Used to gain greater understanding of individual
differences in terms of feelings, motives, and experience.
Uses structured processes Uses more flexible processes.
Methods include census, survey, experiment and secondary Methods include field research, case study and secondary
analysis analysis
 Generally, quantitative and qualitative research differs on
the type of data they produce. The former dwells on the
collection of numerical data analyzed by statistical analysis,
while the latter deals with descriptive, in-depth and
holistic data analyzed by summarizing, categorizing and
interpreting. On this note, you need to use quantitative
research if you want to confirm or test a theory or
hypothesis and use qualitative research if you want to
understand concepts, thoughts and experiences.
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

Qualitative research is not concerned with numerical representativity, but

with the deepening of understanding a given problem. In qualitative
research, the researcher is both the subject and the object of his research.
The objective of the qualitative methodology is to produce in-depth and
illustrative information in order to understand the various dimensions of
the problem under analysis. Qualitative research has its limitation and
strength. The table shows the advantages and disadvantages of a qualitative
research.
CHARACTERISTICS OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH METHODS

Qualitative research methods usually

collect data at the sight, where the
participants are experiencing issues or
problems. These are real-time data and
rarely bring the participants out of the
geographic locations to collect
information
CHARACTERISTICS OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH METHODS

Qualitative researchers typically gather

multiple forms of data, such as
interviews, observations, and documents,
rather than rely on a single data source
CHARACTERISTICS OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH METHODS

This type of research method works towards solving complex

issues by breaking them down into meaningful inferences, that
are easily readable and understood by all.
DIFFERENT QUALITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGNS

ETHNOGRAPHY-is the direct description of a group, culture or

community.
• Data are collected during fieldwork through participant observation and
interviews with the key informants as well as through documents.
Researchers observe the rules and rituals in the culture and try to
understand the meaning and interpretation that informants give them.
• They compare these with their own ethnic view and explore the
differences between the two.
• Field notes are written throughout the fieldwork about events and
behavior in the setting.
SAMPLE STUDY- ETHNOGRAPHY
Tenedero, P. P. (2022) carried out a sociolinguistic ethnography of
globalized accounting work in the Philippines. Through extended participant
observation in accounting schools and workplaces in Metro Manila and
analytic study of curricular documents and job postings, the researcher
examined how communication skills are constructed and valued in
English-Filipino bilingual work contexts. The study reveals how local norms,
professional expectations, and multilingual realities shape the meaning and
practice of “effective” accounting communication in globalized workplace
settings.

Tenedero, P. P. (2022). Communication that counts: A sociolinguistic ethnography of globalized accounting

work [Doctoral thesis].
Grounded Theory (GT) is an approach that generates and modifies a theory. •
The finished product is also called a GT—it is a development of theory directly
based and grounded in the data collected by the researcher.
• Data usually are collected through non-standardized interviews and participant
observation but also by access to other data sources.
• Data collection and analysis interact. Researchers code and categorize
transcripts from interviews or field notes. The researcher has a dialogue with the
literature when discussing categories. Throughout the analytic process, constant
comparison and theoretical sampling takes place. Memos— theoretical notes—
provide the researcher with developing theoretical ideas. The theory that is
generated has ‗exploratory power‘ and is grounded in the data
SAMPLE STUDY- GROUNDED THEORY
Danao, M. D., Manalad, J. B., Tan, W. B., & Vivas, L. C. (2023) conducted a
grounded theory study exploring the decision-making processes behind FinTech
startups in the Philippines. Through in-depth semi-structured interviews with six
founders and early-stage team members, the researchers coded emergent themes
related to business model, founding team, market, problem, product, and testing. From
these inductively generated themes they developed a profit-satisficing model,
illustrating how Philippine FinTech founders prioritize long-term organizational goals
over short-term profit maximization .

Danao, M. D., Manalad, J. B., Tan, W. B., & Vivas, L. C. (2023). A grounded theory research on fintech startups in the
Philippines. Bachelor’s thesis, De La Salle University, Manila.
Narrative Inquiry includes stories that reflect on people‘s experience
and the meaning that this experience has for them.
• Narrative research is a useful way of gaining access to feelings, thoughts
and experience in order to analyze them.
• Narratives are tales of experience or imagination and come naturally to
human beings.
• Conduct in-depth interviews, read documents, and look for themes; in
other words, how does an individual story illustrate the larger life
influences that created it.
SAMPLE STUDY- NARRATIVE INQUIRY
Almeda, A., Balisi, L. M., Concepcion, R. A., Lofamia, J. C., Tapec, J., & Padayao,
P. M. T. (2020) used narrative inquiry to uncover what it means to be a successful
entrepreneurial accountant in Laguna, Philippines. Drawing on interviews with eight
practicing entrepreneurial CPAs, the study traced their personal and business
narratives—profiles, traits, competencies, opportunities, resources, and values—to
understand how success is constructed narratively. By organizing stories via Saldaña’s
Codes-to-Theory model, the research highlighted how internal and external forces
intertwine to form entrepreneurial identity and achievement in local accounting
contexts .

Almeda, A., Balisi, L. M., Concepcion, R. A., Lofamia, J. C., Tapec, J., & Padayao, P. M. T. (2020). ‘Calculated risk-taking’: The
success factors of entrepreneurial accountants. New Trends in Qualitative Research, 1, 8–29
Phenomenology focuses on the subjective experience of the individual.
• The purpose of this research method is to describe experiences as they
are lived – to capture the “lived experience”
• Data are usually collected through In-depth conversations.
• Researcher helps the participant to describe lived experiences without
leading the discussion
SAMPLE STUDY- PHENOMENOLOGY
Tamayo, E. A. (2023) performed a phenomenological exploration of the lived
experiences of accountancy students' study habits at a state university in Laguna. Twenty
first- and second-year BSA students participated in online interviews describing their
strategies, challenges, and reflections around preparing for major exams. The study
distilled essential themes including use of the Pomodoro technique, exam reviewer
creation, sleep deprivation, distractions, and balancing obligations. These themes reveal
the essence of students' subjective experiences and offer guidance for tailored
academic support programs.

Tamayo, E. A. (2023). A phenomenological exploration of accountancy students’ study habits in a state university.
Education & Learning in Developing Nations, 1(1), 50–61.
Case Study provides an in-depth look at one test subject. The subject can
be a person or family, business or organization, or a town or city.
• It uses an interpretative research. It is chosen precisely because
researchers are interested in insight, and discover rather than the testing of
a hypothesis 7
• Multiple methods of data collection used ( interview, observation,
documents, questionnaires) • Final Report:
SAMPLE STUDY- CASE STUDY
Casas, C. M. A., Cariaga, E. P., Adlawan, K. M. C., & Batingal, A. V. B. (2024)
reported a case study on bookkeeping in the family-owned Carriaga Traders Mart in
Pagadian City. Through detailed examination of business records, documentation
practices, and context over time, they traced how the enterprise maintained growth
through careful bookkeeping transitions. This case reveals how systematic
record-keeping and contextual adaptation support long-term operational stability in
small Philippine retail businesses.

Casas, C. M. A., Cariaga, E. P., Adlawan, K. M. C., & Batingal, A. V. B. (2024). Exploring the bookkeeping practices of
family-owned business: A case study of Carriaga Traders Mart. Financial and Credit Systems: Prospects for Development,
1(24), 15–23.
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

Quantitative research is based on the measurement of quantity or amount.

It is applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in terms of quantity.
In quantitative research, you are going to have a great deal of abstraction
and numerical analysis. According to Fraenkel and Wallen (2007, p 15), the
research designs in quantitative research are mostly pre-established. Hence
having an appropriate research design in quantitative research, the
researcher will have a clearer comprehension of what he is trying to
analyze and interpret.
CHARACTERISTICS OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

1.Large Sample Size. To obtain more meaningful statistical

result, the data must come from a large sample size.
CHARACTERISTICS OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

2. Objectivity. Data gathering and analysis of results are done

accurately, objectively, and are unaffected by the researcher’s
intuition and personal guesses.
CHARACTERISTICS OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

3.Concise Visual Presentation. Data is numerical which makes

presentation through graphs, charts, and tables possible and with
better conveyance and interpretation.
CHARACTERISTICS OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

4. Faster Data Analysis. The use of a statistical tools gives way

for a less time consuming data analysis.
5. Generalized Data. Data taken from a sample can be applied
to the population if sampling is done accordingly, i.e., sufficient
size and random samples were taken.
CHARACTERISTICS OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

6. Fast and Easy Data Collection. Depending on the type of

data needed, collection can be quick and easy. Quantitative
research uses standardized research instruments that allow the
researcher to collect data from a large sample size efficiently. For
instance, a single survey form can be administered simultaneously
to collect various measurable characteristics like age, gender,
socio-economic status, etc
CHARACTERISTICS OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

7. Reliable Data. Data is taken and analyzed objectively from a

sample as a representative of the population, making it more
credible and reliable for policymaking and decision making.

8. High Replicability. The Quantitative method can be repeated

to verify findings enhancing its validity, free from false or
immature conclusions
TYPES OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGNS

EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGN

a. True Experimental – with the experimental and control group
● researcher can manipulate
● researcher identifies cause and effect
● with randomization
SAMPLE STUDY- TRUE EXPERIMENTAL
Shawver (2020) conducted a true experimental study to assess the effectiveness
of cooperative learning in advanced financial accounting courses. In the study, students
were randomly assigned to either a cooperative learning (lab-based, team-oriented)
group or a traditional lecture-only control group. Both pre-tested and post-tested, the
cooperative learning cohort achieved higher quiz scores but performed worse on
examinations compared to the control group. Students also completed an end-of-
semester survey to gauge attitudes toward the learning format. This fully randomized
design provided robust causal evidence about how cooperative learning affects different
aspects of academic performance in accounting education.
Shawver, T. J. (2020). An experimental study of cooperative learning in advanced financial accounting courses.
Accounting Education, 29(3), 247–262. https://doi.org/10.1080/09639284.2020.1736589
b. Quasi-Experimental -with strategy, intervention, treatment
● absence of a random assignment of subjects to different conditions
● Non-equivalent control group design
● Time-series design
-is used to establish the cause-and-effect relationship of variables. Although it resembles
the experimental design, the quasi-experimental has lesser validity due to the absence
of random selection and assignment of subjects. Here, the independent variable is
identified but not manipulated. The researcher does not modify pre-existing groups of
subjects. The group exposed to treatment (experimental) is compared to the group
unexposed to treatment (control
SAMPLE STUDY- QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL
Aggarao et al. (2023) conducted a quasi-experimental study with 272 accounting
students at the University of Saint Louis Tuguegarao. Using stratified sampling, students
were exposed to peer-assisted learning activities (treatment) and their academic skills
(time management, communication, critical thinking, quantitative skills) measured via
researcher-made survey. Data were analyzed using independent t-tests and ANOVA to
compare effects across involvement levels. High participation yielded significantly
greater skill improvement.

Aggarao, B. G., Cenal, X. M. U., de Austria, D. B., Reminajes, N. P. P., Tacas, M. E. U., Tindowen, D. J. T., & Catacutan, K. J.
(2023). Effects of peer-assisted learning activities on the academic skills of accounting students. IIARI Journal, 3(1), June
2023.
c. Pre-Experimental - One-shot case study
● employ to a single group
● apply pre-test, post-test design
● measure the group two times—before and after the intervention
● have the least internal validity.
SAMPLE STUDY- PRE EXPERIMENTAL
Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila study adopted a one-group pretest–
posttest design (pre-experimental) with accountancy students receiving peer tutoring
in financial accounting and reporting. Academic achievement was measured before and
after instruction; improvements were assessed using t-tests and ANCOVA. The
quasi-design lacked a randomized control group.
.
[Author(s) not specified]. (2024). The impact of peer tutoring on academic achievement in financial accounting and
reporting of first-year accountancy students in Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila. [Conference or Institutional Report]..
2. NON – EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGN (DESCRIPTIVE)

Descriptive design is used to describe a particular phenomenon by

observing it as it occurs in nature. There is no experimental manipulation,
and the researcher does not start with a hypothesis. The goal of descriptive
research is only to describe the person or object of the study.
SAMPLE STUDY- DESCRIPTIVE
Placido et al. (2024) surveyed 379 MSMEs in Ilocos Norte to
describe levels of financial management practices and compliance with
Philippine Financial Accounting Standards (FAS). Using a Likert-scale
questionnaire, descriptive statistics showed moderate implementation
levels. Regression analysis revealed significant positive relationships
between practices/compliance and firm performance.
Placido, K. J. C., Buduan, K. C. R., De la Cruz, V. N. A., & Reynon, Y. B. E. (2024). Financial management practices and
financial accounting standards compliance: Case of MSMEs in the Northern Philippines. International Journal of
Entrepreneurship, Business and Creative Economy, 4(2), 16–34.
a. Survey Research - used when the researcher intends to provide a
quantitative or numeric description of trends, attitudes, or opinions of a
population by studying a sample of that population
SAMPLE STUDY- DESCRIPTIVE
Torres et al. (2024) surveyed 361 college students at National
University Baliwag on their mental accounting practices and spending
behavior. Using a structured questionnaire, they described demographics
and survey responses and analyzed associations via correlation. Findings
indicated a strong negative correlation: more active mental accounting
corresponded to more controlled spending. Gender and program affiliation
differences were assessed as well.
Torres, J., Geronimo, E., Estabas, E. M., Banquerigo, N., Buenaflor, E. F., Serapio, J. C., & Vidal, F. A. (2024). Mental
accounting practices and spending behavior of collegiate students at National University Baliwag: An assessment.
SEISENSE Business Review, 4(1), 181–199.
b. Correlational Design - calculate correlation coefficient or relationship
of variables. e.g., Children of wealthier (V1), better educated (V2) parents
earn higher salaries as adult. The correlational design identifies the
relationship between variables. Data is collected by observation since it
does not consider the cause and effect, for example, the relationship
between the amount of physical activity done and student academic
achievement.
SAMPLE STUDY- CORRELATIONAL
Placido et al. (2024), regression and correlation analysis was used to
assess the relationship between financial management practices, FAS
compliance, and MSME performance—thus exemplifying a correlational
design in the Philippines

Torres, J., Geronimo, E., Estabas, E. M., Banquerigo, N., Buenaflor, E. F., Serapio, J. C., & Vidal, F. A. (2024). Mental
accounting practices and spending behavior of collegiate students at National University Baliwag: An assessment.
SEISENSE Business Review, 4(1), 181–199.
c. Comparative Design- involves comparing and contrasting
two or more samples of study subjects on one or more variables,
often at a single point. e.g., A comparative study on the health
problems among rural and urban older people from district
Mehsana, Gujarat.
SAMPLE STUDY- COMPARATIVE
Lucero et al. (2022) conducted a descriptive-comparative study
assessing e-learning readiness of faculty and students in government vs.
private higher education institutions across the Philippines. Using
questionnaires and t-tests, they compared readiness levels across groups.

Lucero, H. R., Victoriano, J. M., Carpio, J. T., & Fernando Jr., P. G. (2022). Assessment of e-learning readiness of faculty
members and students in government and private higher education institutions in the Philippines
[Descriptive-comparative study]. arXiv Preprint.
d. Evaluative Design -seeks to assess or judge in some way. Its
purpose is to make judgments about a program, to improve its
effectiveness, and/or to inform programming decisions (Patton,
1987). e.g., A test of children in school is used to assess the
effectiveness of teaching or the deployment of a curriculum.
SAMPLE STUDY- EVALUATIVE
Continuing Professional Development (CPD) Evaluation of CPAs in Lucena City
In this evaluative study, researchers assessed the effectiveness and relevance of the Continuing
Professional Development (CPD) program for practicing Certified Public Accountants (CPAs) in Lucena
City, Philippines. Surveying 77 CPAs, the study employed descriptive statistics, t-tests, and analysis of
variance (ANOVA) to evaluate the CPD’s contributions to career development, financial improvement,
professional networking, and enhancement of personal competencies. Results revealed that while CPD
activities significantly enhanced professional networks and personal competencies, they had negligible
impact on career advancement and financial conditions. The findings offer critical insights for tailoring
CPD prog.rams to better support CPAs' professional growth in local contexts.

Enverga University (2018). Continuing professional development of certified public accountants in Lucena City:
Evaluation [Program evaluation study]. Enverga University, Lucena City.
Ex post facto design is used to investigate a possible
relationship between previous events and present conditions.
The term “Ex post facto” which means after the fact, looks at
the possible causes of an already occurring phenomenon. Just
like the first example, there is no experimental manipulation in
this design. An example of this is “How does the parent’s
academic achievement affect the children obesity?”.
SAMPLE STUDY- EX POST FACTO
Raluca Maran conducted an event-study examining how the Philippine stock
market reacted to unanticipated changes in monetary policy, treating
unexpected policy announcements as the independent "event." Daily stock price data
from 2017 to 2022 were analyzed to compute abnormal returns around the surprise
announcements. Results show that an unexpected 25-basis-point increase in the
policy rate corresponded to an average stock price rise of about 1.09 %, holding
even after accounting for COVID-19 restrictions and macroeconomic revisions. This
fully observational study illustrates how naturally occurring financial events (monetary
policy surprises) influence outcomes (stock returns) in an ex post facto framework.

Maran, R. (2022). Reaction of the Philippine stock market to domestic monetary policy surprises: An event study approach.
Journal of Applied Economic Sciences, 17(4 (78)), 289–301. https://doi.org/10.57017/jaes.v17.4(78).01
 TRUE
EXPERIMENTAL
RONALD H. NACION EdD, PhD
 OBJECTIVES OF THIS PRESENTATION:
 To define and explain the concept of true experimental design.

 To describe the first five (5) major types of true experimental designs, such as:

✓ Pretest-posttest Control Group Design

✓ Posttest-Only Control Group Design

✓ Solomon Four-Group Design

✓ Factorial Design

✓ Repeated Measures (Within-Subjects) Design

 To evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of these designs.

 To showcase various scenarios that utilized the covered true experimental designs.
TRUE EXPERIMENTAL
 A research method in which participants
are randomly assigned to a treatment
group or a control group, while the
researcher actively manipulates one or
more independent variables to observe
their effect on a dependent variable.
TRUE EXPERIMENTAL
 Considered the gold standard in quantitative research when establishing
cause-and-effect relationships.

 Characterized by 4 components:

 (1) Manipulation of an independent variable;

 (2) Control over extraneous variables, and

 (3) Random assignment of participants to treatment and control conditions.

 (4) A control group exists.

TRUE EXPERIMENTAL

 Commonly conducted in laboratory or field settings and are widely used in disciplines such as psychology,
education, health sciences, and the social sciences.

 These designs enable the researcher to isolate the effect of the treatment or intervention and determine
whether observed changes in the dependent variable can be attributed to the experimental manipulation
rather than to other confounding factors.
TYPES OF TRUE EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS
✓ Pretest-Posttest Control Group Design

✓ Posttest-Only Control Group Design

✓ Solomon Four-Group Design

✓ Factorial Design (e.g., 2x2, 3x2)

✓ Repeated Measures/Within-Subject Design

(1) PRETEST-POSTTEST CONTROL GROUP DESIGN
 This classic design involves two randomly assigned groups: an experimental group and a control group. Both
groups are measured before the treatment (pretest), but only the experimental group receives the
intervention. Afterward, both groups are given a posttest.

Experimental Group: R → O₁ → X → O₂ Legend:

R = Random Assignment
Control Group: R → O₁ → O₂ O1/02 = Observation
X = Treatment
PRETEST-POSTTEST CONTROL GROUP DESIGN
Advantages:
•Allows comparison between groups
•Controls for maturation, testing effects, and selection bias
•Provides insight into both change over time and treatment effects

Disadvantages:
• Pretest sensitization
• Limited external validity
• External events
STUDY
SCENARIO:
A teacher-researcher
aims to investigate
whether integrating
a financial literacy
module enhances the
budgeting and
savings behaviors of
Grade 11 ABM
students.
 STUDY SCENARIO

Experimental Group Control Group

(Treatment) (No Treatment)
(2) POSTTEST-ONLY CONTROL GROUP DESIGN
 In this design, participants are randomly assigned to two groups, but no pretest is administered. The
experimental group receives the treatment, and then both groups are post-tested to measure the outcome.

Experimental Group: R → X → O Legend:

R = Random Assignment
Control Group: R → O O/0 = Observation
X = Treatment
POSTTEST-ONLY CONTROL GROUP DESIGN
Advantages:
• Eliminates the threat of pretest sensitization or testing effects
•Useful when pretesting is impractical or may influence
participant behavior
Disadvantages:
•Cannot measure change directly (only group differences at the
posttest)
STUDY SCENARIO:
 A study explores the impact of an
entrepreneurship simulation game on students'
entrepreneurial mindset. Grade 12 ABM students
from two randomly assigned classes participate.
 STUDY SCENARIO

Experimental Group Control Group

(Treatment) (No Treatment)
 Experimental
Intervention Posttest
group (Random)

Control group No Posttest

(Random) Intervention
(3) SOLOMON FOUR-GROUP DESIGN
 This design combines the pretest–posttest and posttest-only control group designs, using four randomly
assigned groups. It controls for the effects of pretesting and helps determine whether the pretest influenced
the results.

Group 1: R → O₁ → X → O₂ Legend:
Group 2: R → O₁ → → O₂ R = Random Assignment
O1/02 = Observation
Group 3: R → → X → O₂ ***01= pre-test / 02= post-test
X = Treatment
Group 4: R → → → O₂
SOLOMON FOUR-GROUP DESIGN
Advantages:

•Controls for all major threats to internal validity, including pretest effects
•Provides the most comprehensive and rigorous test of treatment effects

Disadvantages:
•Requires a larger sample size and more complex analysis
STUDY SCENARIO:
 Mr. Carlito Booban, a researcher, evaluates a public speaking training
program for senior high school students in Mabolo National High School. The
intervention consists of peer speech coaching, confidence-building exercises, and
exposure therapy over 3 weeks.
To check if pretesting affects results, four groups are formed through random
assignment:
 Group 1 receives a pretest, training, and posttest
 Group 2 receives pretest and posttest only
 Group 3 receives training and posttest (no pretest)
 Group 4 receives only the posttest (no pretest)
(4) FACTORIAL DESIGN (E.G., 2X2 & 3X2)
 It is used when researchers want to study the interaction
between two or more independent variables (factors).

 Each level of one factor is combined with each level of

another factor, and participants are randomly assigned
to each condition.
Factorial Design (e.g., 2x2 & 3x2)
Advantages:
•Allows for testing of main effects and interaction effects
•Efficient use of participants to study multiple variables
simultaneously
Disadvantages:
•Data analysis is more complicated
•Results may be hard to interpret if interactions are complex
Study Scenario
The researcher investigates how teaching method
(Traditional Lecture vs. Interactive Case-Based) and
grouping structure (Individual vs. Peer
Collaboration) affect students’ performance in
Business Math.
Grade 12 ABM students are randomly assigned to
one of four combinations:
 Traditional lecture with individual work
 Traditional lecture with peer work
 Interactive case-based learning with individual
work
 Interactive case-based learning with peer work
 The goal is to assess main effects (teaching
method, grouping structure) and interaction
effects (whether one method works better only
in specific group settings).
Factorial Design (e.g., 2x2)
Teaching Group Treatment
Group
Method Structure Code
Factor A (Teaching
Traditional Method)
G1 Individual A₁B₁ A1 = Traditional Lecture
Lecture
A2= Case-Based Learning
Traditional
G2 Peer A₁B₂ Factor B (Group
Lecture Structure)
B1= Individual Work
Case-Based
G3 Individual A₂B₁ B2= Peer Collaboration
Learning
Case-Based
G4 Peer A₂B₂
Learning
The researchers used this design…
Main Effect of Teaching Method (Factor A):
•Is one method (Traditional vs. Case-Based) better overall, regardless of grouping?

Main Effect of Group Structure (Factor B):

•Does working in pairs/teams vs. alone make a difference overall,
regardless of method?
Interaction Effect (A×B):
• Does one method work better only in a specific group setup?
(e.g., Case-Based Learning works best only when peer collaboration is used.)
 (4) FACTORIAL DESIGN (E.G., 3X2)
A 3×2 factorial design is an experimental design with:

✓ 2 independent variables (factors)

✓ One factor has three levels

✓ The other has two levels

✓ So, you end up with 3 × 2 = 6 treatment combinations (or

groups).
 STUDY SCENARIO:
•Factor B (2 levels)
 Factor A (3 levels) •Example: Group
 Example: Teaching Structure
Method
 A₁ = Traditional Lecture
•B₁ = Individual
 A₂ = Case-Based Learning •B₂ = Peer Group
 A₃ = Game-Based Learning
FACTORIAL DESIGN (E.G., 3X2)
Group Treatment
Group Teaching Method
Structure Code
G1 Traditional Lecture Individual A₁B₁
G2 Traditional Lecture Peer Group A₁B₂
G3 Case-Based Learning Individual A₂B₁
G4 Case-Based Learning Peer Group A₂B₂
G5 Game-Based Learning Individual A₃B₁
G6 Game-Based Learning Peer Group A₃B₂
 FACTORIAL DESIGN (E.G., 3X2)
Advantages:
 Allows for complex comparisons across multiple strategies
 Tests for interaction effects (whether some methods work better
with specific groupings)
 Efficient: You study two variables at once using the same
participants/scope
Disadvantages:
 You need a sufficient sample size to ensure each of the six groups has
enough participants.
 (5) REPEATED MEASURES/WITHIN-SUBJECTS DESIGN
 In this study design, every participant is exposed to all
experimental conditions or treatments.

 This enhances the reliability of the findings, as any

observed effects can be attributed more confidently to
the treatments rather than differences between
participants.
 Legend:
R = Random Assignment
Participants: R → X₁ → O₁ → X₂ → O₂ O1/02 = Observation
***01= pre-test / 02= post-test
X = Treatment
 STUDY SCENARIO
A study aims to compare how different digital
assessment platforms affect quiz performance among
Grade 12 ABM students. The same students take three
business math quizzes over three weeks.
❑ Week 1: Quiz via Kahoot (gamified multiple choice)
❑ Week 2: Quiz via Google Forms (formative test with
feedback)
❑ Week 3: Quiz via Quizizz (competitive and timed
quizzes)
 SCHEMA:
Participants: R → X₁ (Kahoot)
→ O₁ → X₂ (G. Forms) → O₂ →
X₃ (Quizizz) → O₃

Legend:
R = Randomized sequence of exposure
X₁, X₂, X₃ = Different treatments (platforms)
O₁–O₃ = Observations (scores)
REPEATED MEASURES/WITHIN-SUBJECTS DESIGN
Advantages:
• Controls for individual differences (same participants)
• Smaller sample needed
• Increased statistical power
Disadvantages:
 Risk of order effects (learning or fatigue)
 True experimental designs offer powerful tools for evaluating the

effectiveness of interventions and establishing causal

relationships. Among them, the Pretest–Posttest Control Group

Design is widely used due to its balance of control and simplicity.

 In contrast, Solomon Four-Group and Factorial Designs provide

more complex and comprehensive analyses.

 CLOSING PRAYER
Loving Father in Heaven we want to thank you for this day.
Thank you for the free grace that you have given us,
Thank you for the gift of life, thank you for the gift of learning.
We surrender unto you fully, take charge and guide us always.
Thank you for our teacher who has taken us through this class today.
Be with us and protect us always as you have promised.
Thank you, Lord, for everything for we pray in the name of our
Lord JESUS, AMEN.