Module-II Elastic Properties of Materials

Module-II Elastic Properties of Materials

Elasticity and Plasticity:
“Elasticity is the property of the material due to which, it regains its original shape or size after the
removal of deforming force acting on it”.
Ex: Quartz fibre, Phosphor-bronze alloy, Elastomers (natural rubber, synthetic rubber, nitrile rubber, silicon
rubber, etc.), steel, glass, etc.
“Plasticity is the property of the material due to which, it does not retain its original shape or size after the
removal of deforming force acting on it”.
Ex: Polyethylene plastic, nylon, polystyrene, Putty, clay, mud, wax, chewing gum, etc.
𝐀𝐩𝐩𝐥𝐢𝐞𝐝 𝐅𝐨𝐫𝐜𝐞 𝐅
Stress: “It is defined as the applied force per unit area of the body”. 𝐒𝐭𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐬 = 𝐀𝐫𝐞𝐚 𝐨𝐟 𝐜𝐫𝐨𝐬𝐬 𝐬𝐞𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 = 𝐀

Strain: “It is the ratio of the change in dimensions of the material to the original dimensions”.
𝐂𝐡𝐚𝐧𝐠𝐞 𝐢𝐧 𝐝𝐢𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐬𝐢𝐨𝐧
𝑆𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐢𝐧 = 𝐎𝐫𝐢𝐠𝐢𝐧𝐚𝐥 𝐝𝐢𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐬𝐢𝐨𝐧

Types of Stress/Strain:
Longitudinal/Tensile Stress: Volume / Compressive Stress: Shear stress/ Tangential stress:

It is the force (F) acting per unit area It is the force (F) is applied It is the tangential force (F) acting per
(a) of the solid along its length. uniformly and normally on all over unit area (A) on the surface of the
the surface area (a). pt
body.
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𝐅
 𝐒𝐡𝐞𝐚𝐫 𝐒𝐭𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐬 = 𝑨

Here, the body experiences a turning

effect and changes its shape. This is
𝐅 called Shearing & the angle is called
𝐅 𝐂𝐨𝐦𝐩𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐬𝐢𝐯𝐞 𝐒𝐭𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐬 = =𝑷
𝐋𝐨𝐧𝐠𝐢𝐭𝐮𝐝𝐢𝐧𝐚𝐥 𝐒𝐭𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐬 = 𝒂
𝒂 Shearing angle ().  is the measure of
shear strain.

Volume / Compressive Strain: It Shear Strain: It is the ratio of change

Longitudinal/Tensile Strain: It is
is ratio of change in volume (v’) to in dimension (x) due to shearing to the
the ratio of change in length (x) to the original dimension (𝐿).
the original volume (V).
original length (𝐿).
QQ|
𝐒𝐡𝐞𝐚𝐫 𝐬𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐢𝐧() =
Change in Vol 𝒙
Change in length 𝐕𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞 𝐬𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐢𝐧 = =𝑳
𝐋𝐨𝐧𝐠𝐢𝐭𝐮𝐝𝐢𝐧𝐚𝐥 𝐬𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐢𝐧 = PQ
Original length Original Vol
|
𝒗
𝒙 =
=𝑳 𝑽
Module-II Elastic Properties of Materials

Hooke’s law: The stress is directly proportional to the strain within the elastic limit.
𝐒𝐭𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐬
i.e., Stress ∝ Strain  Stress = (𝐄)Strain  𝐄 = 𝐒𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐢𝐧

Where, ‘E’ is known as Elastic constant or elastic modulus.

Hooke’s found that stress is always proportional to strain but only when deformation is small.
Because for smaller deformation, the molecular displacement will not be too large so that, the molecules
can return to their previous positions once the deforming force is removed.

Stress-Strain diagram:

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Strain hardening and Strain softening:

Strain hardening: It is a process of making material
harder/strengthen by plastic deformation.
It is also called work hardening or cold working.

Let a material be deformed beyond the yield point so

that, it is in the plastic range. Let it be unloaded gradually
from some point R. It is observed that the stress-strain curve
develops in a path (dashed line) parallel to line OP. This
curve meets the strain axis at T and shows a residual plastic
strain 𝑂𝑇=𝜖 which remains in the deformed material as
permanent set.

Now, let this deformed material be subjected to increasing stress again. It is surprisingly observed
that, the linearity doesn't end corresponding to P, but continues further up to the point U which corresponds
to R on the earlier curve exactly from where the unloading was started. Now, U becomes the new
Module-II Elastic Properties of Materials
increased yield point for the second curve. This shows that, a plastically deformed material has a higher
yield point. This effect is termed strain hardening.

Example: In industries the metals and alloys such as steel are strengthened by strain
hardening.

Strain Softening: When stress is applied to the material,

strain will build up. Once, it reaches peak stress, the material
undergoes continuous plastic deformation and thereby
softening the material. This effect is called strain softening.

Example: For certain materials such as concrete or soil, the

stress-strain curve will be typically as shown in fig. The curve
will have negative slope soon after the elastic region. The
negative slope indicates that there is, softening effect of the
material over this range. This effect is called strain softening.

Elastic modulus: From Hooke’s law, we know that,

𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔
𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 (𝑬) = 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏 here, E is the elastic modulus or elastic constant.

Types of Elastic moduli:

Young's Modulus (Y): It is Bulk Modulus (K): It is

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Rigidity Modulus (𝜼): It is

defined as the ratio of longitudinal defined the ratio of compressive defined as the ratio of Shear stress
stress to longitudinal strain within stress or pressure to the volumetric (tangential stress) to the shearing
the elastic limits. strain within the elastic limits strain.

  

𝐋𝐨𝐧𝐠𝐢𝐭𝐮𝐝𝐢𝐧𝐚𝐥 𝐒𝐭𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐬 𝐕𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞 𝐒𝐭𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐬 𝐒𝐡𝐞𝐚𝐫 𝐒𝐭𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐬

𝒀= 𝐊=
𝐕𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞 𝐒𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐢𝐧
𝜼=
𝐒𝐡𝐞𝐚𝐫 𝐒𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐢𝐧
𝐋𝐨𝐧𝐠𝐢𝐭𝐮𝐝𝐢𝐧𝐚𝐥 𝐒𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐢𝐧

𝑭/𝒂 𝑷𝑽
i.e., 𝑲= = =
𝑭/𝑨
=
𝑭/𝑨
𝑭/𝒂 𝑭𝑳 𝒗| /𝑽 𝒗| i.e., 𝜼
i.e., 𝒀= = 𝒙/𝑳 𝜽
𝒙/𝑳 𝒂𝒙
where, F; Normal force, a; surface
where, F; tangential force, a; area of
where, F; longitudinal force, a; area area, V; original volume & 𝒗| ; cross section, L; original length & x;
of cross section, L; original length & change in volume change in dimension
x; change in length

Longitudinal Strain coefficient (): It is defined as longitudinal strain (elongation strain) produced per
unit stress.
longitudinal strain 𝐱/𝐋
i.e., 𝛼= 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
= 𝑻

𝐱
or, 𝜶 = 𝑻𝑳 (1)

Lateral Strain coefficient (𝜷): It is defined as lateral strain (compressive strain) produced per unit stress.
Module-II Elastic Properties of Materials
Lateral strain(Compressive strain): If a longitudinal force acting on a body assumed to be having a circular
cross section, produces a change ‘d’ in its diameter compared to its original diameter ‘D’, then such strain
is called as ‘lateral strain’.
change in diameter d
i.e., 𝐥𝐚𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐚𝐥 𝐬𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐢𝐧 = =𝐷
𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟

lateral strain 𝑑/𝐷 𝒅

⸫ 𝜷= = = 𝑻𝑫 (2)
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑇

Poisson’s Ratio (𝝈): “Within the elastic limit of a body, the ratio of lateral strain to the longitudinal strain
is a constant and is called Poisson’s ratio”.
lateral strain
i.e., 𝝈 = longitudinal strain

𝑑/𝐷
 𝝈= 𝑥/𝐿

𝐿𝑑
or, 𝝈 = 𝑥𝐷 (3)

Further, let us consider the ratio of 𝜷/𝜶 ;

𝜷 𝑑/𝑇𝐷
i.e., = ⸪ Using eqn (1) and (2)
𝜶 𝑥/𝑇𝐿

𝜷 𝑳𝒅
 = 𝒙𝑫 (4)
𝜶

We see that RHS of eqn (3) and (4) are same. Therefore, we can write,
𝜷
𝝈=𝜶 Ph
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This is the expression for Poisson’s ratio.

Note: There are no units for Poisson’s ratio and it is a dimensionless quantity.

Relation between shearing strain, Elongation strain and Compression strain:

Elongation Strain + Compression strain = Shearing strain

Relation between Y, 𝜼 and  :

Consider a cube whose lower surface is fixed to a rigid
support. Let APSD be one of its faces. If ‘L’ is the length of each side
of the cube then, AP=AD=PS=L and the diagonals AS=DP=√𝟐L (by
Pythagoras theorem).

When a deforming force ‘F’ is applied to its upper face along

AP, then A moves to 𝑨| and P moves to 𝑷| . Let 𝜃 be the angle of
shear which is very small in magnitude and 𝑨𝑨| = 𝑷𝑷| = 𝒙. Also the
diagonal AS shrunk to a length 𝑨| 𝑺 and that DP is elongated to a
length 𝑫𝑷| .

Now,
Shearing strain along AP  longitudinal strain along DP + lateral strain along AS
Module-II Elastic Properties of Materials

If  and  are the longitudinal and lateral strain coefficients produced along DP per unit tangential stress T.
This T is equivalent to a compressive stress T along diagonal AS and longitudinal stress T along diagonal
DP. These compressive and longitudinal stresses together produce an extension along the diagonal DP.

Extension produced in the length DP due to elongation = 𝑇 ∙ 𝐷𝑃 ∙ 𝛼 (1)

𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝐸𝑥𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ/𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙(𝐷𝑃)

⸪ 𝛼 = =
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑇

Similarly, we can write,

Extension produced in the length DP due to compression along AS = 𝑇 ∙ 𝐴𝑆 ∙ 𝛽 = 𝑇 ∙ 𝐷𝑃 ∙ 𝛽 (2)

⸪ AS=DP

⸫ Total extension along DP = 𝐞𝐪𝐧 (𝟏) + 𝐞𝐪𝐧 (𝟐) = 𝑇 ∙ 𝐷𝑃 ∙ 𝛼 + 𝑇 ∙ 𝐷𝑃 ∙ 𝛽 = 𝑻 ∙ 𝑫𝑷 (𝜶 + 𝜷) (3)

From Fig, it is clear that total extension along DP is approximately equal to 𝑷| 𝑿, and DP=√𝟐𝑳 .

i.e., 𝑷| 𝑿 = 𝑇 ∙ √2𝐿 ∙ (𝛼 + 𝛽) (4)

𝑃𝑃 ′ 𝑃𝑃 ′ 𝑥
In the triangle 𝑷𝑷| 𝑿, (angle 𝑷𝑷| 𝑿 = 450 ) Cos 45 = 𝑷|𝑿  𝑷| 𝑿 = =
√𝟐 √𝟐

𝑥
Thus Equation (4) becomes = 𝑇 ∙ √2𝐿 ∙ (𝛼 + 𝛽)
√𝟐

𝑥
Rearranging, = 2 (𝛼 + 𝛽)
𝑻𝑳
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𝑇 𝟏
Inverting, =
(𝒙/𝑳) 2 (𝛼+𝛽)

𝑇 1 𝑥
 = 2(α + β ) ⸪ θ = 𝐿 = 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
θ

sℎear stress 𝑇 1
⟹𝑅𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠(𝜂)= sℎear strain =θ = 2(α + β )

1 (1/𝛼)
or, 𝜂 = 2(α + β ) = 2[1 +(β/α)]

𝐘 𝟏 𝛃
⟹ 𝜼= ⸪ 𝑌 = and 𝜎 =
𝟐(𝟏+𝛔) 𝛂 𝛂

∴ 𝐘 = 𝟐𝜼(𝟏 + 𝛔)
Which is the required relation between Y, 𝜼 and 𝛔.

𝒀
Relation between K, Y and  : 𝑲 = 𝟑(𝟏−𝟐𝝈)

𝟗𝜼𝐊
Relation between Y, 𝜼 and K: 𝐘=[ ]
𝟑𝑲+𝜼
Module-II Elastic Properties of Materials

Limiting Values of  :

We have the relations Y = 2 𝜂 (1 + 𝜎) and Y = 3K (1 - 2 𝜎)

Equating above two equations we get, 2 𝜼 (1 + 𝜎) = 3K (1 - 2 𝜎)

If 𝜎 is given any positive value, then LHS of the above eqn. will be positive, then RHS should be
𝟏
positive. It is possible if and only if, 𝛔 < 𝟐

On the other hand, if 𝜎 is given negative values, then, RHS of above eqn. will be positive, then
LHS should be positive. This is possible only if 𝜎 > -1
𝟏
⸫ -1 < 𝜎 < 𝟐

Since negative value for 𝜎 means an elongation of the body accompanied by a lateral expansion,
which is not observed in practice. Therefore, limiting values of 𝜎 is between “0 & 0.5”.

Bending of Beams

Beam: It is homogenous body of uniform cross section whose length is larger compared to its other
dimensions (breadth, thickness).

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Types of Beams:

Simple Beam: It is a bar resting upon supports at the ends (Fig. A).

Continuous beam: It is a bar resting upon more than two supports (Fig. B).

Cantilever beam: It is a beam whose, one end is fixed and the other end is free (Fig. C).

Fixed beam: It is a beam fixed at its both the ends (Fig. D).

Engineering applications of Beams:

• Beams are used in the vehicle chassis/frame as truck beds

• in the elevators

• in the construction of platforms and bridges

• as I-section girders in civil constructions (train tracks, buildings, bridges, etc.,)

• in trolley ways, etc.

Module-II Elastic Properties of Materials
Bending moment of Beam: Consider a beam fixed at
one end and loaded at the free end then beam is said to
be bent. An equal and opposite reaction forces at the
fixed end forms a ‘couple’. Under the action of the
couple the beam bends.

“The moment of applied couple due to which the beam

undergoes bending longitudinally is called bending moment”.
Now the applied couples, developed at each cross section of the beam, form an internal couple, whose
tendency is to bring back to its original position, called as restoring couple. “The moment of the restoring
couple subjected to which bent beam brings back to its original position, is called restoring moment”.

Neutral Surface and Neutral axis: A rectangular

beam may be thought as made up of a large number
of thin plane layers placed in contact and parallel to
one another. When a beam is bent by the applied
couple, its layers in the inner side get shortened
and those on the outer side get lengthened. But,
along a section in between them there is a surface in which the filaments are neither shortened nor
lengthened. This surface is called Neutral Surface.

“Neutral surface is that layer of a beam which does not undergo any change in its dimensions when the
beam is subjected to bending within its elastic limits”. Neutral axis is a longitudinal line along the neutral
surface.

Expression for the Bending Moment:

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Introduction: Consider a beam of uniform cross-section. Consider three layers 𝐴𝐵, 𝐶𝐷 and 𝐸𝐹 be three
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layers. Before applying the load 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐶𝐷 = 𝐸𝐹. The beam bent by applying load and is as shown in the
figure. On bending 𝐴𝐵 extends to 𝐴l𝐵l and 𝐸𝐹 contracts to 𝐸l𝐹l. The layer 𝐶𝐷 is the neutral surface. The
length 𝐶𝐷 forms an arc of a circle of radius 𝑅 and subtends and angle 𝜃 at the center. The layer 𝐴p𝐵p is
concentric to 𝐶𝐷 with radius 𝑅 + 𝑟.
Module-II Elastic Properties of Materials

Geometrical MI of Rectangular and Circular Beams

The Geometrical moment of inertia 𝐼𝑔 depends of the geometrical shape of beam’s cross-section.

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𝑏𝑑 3
Ig =
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1. For a beam of rectangular cross-section of breadth 𝑏 and thickness 𝑑,

12

𝜋𝑥 4
2. For a beam of circular cross-section of radius 𝑥 , Ig = 4

Single Cantilever:
“A beam fixed horizontally at one end and loaded at the other end which is free is called as single cantilever.

The expression for Young’s modulus of rectangular beam

4𝑊𝐿3
𝑌=
𝑦0 𝑏𝑑 3

Here W is the weight, L, b, d are the length, breadth and thickness of the cantilever respectively. y O is the
depression of the cantilever.

Fig (a) Simple cantilever Fig (b) Bridge section

Module-II Elastic Properties of Materials
A good example of a cantilever beam is a balcony. A balcony is
supported on one end only, the rest of the beam extends over open
space; there is nothing supporting it on the other side.
The cantilever beam is used in;
1. Buildings.
2. Cantilever bridges.
3. Overhanging projections and elements.
4. Machinery and plants such as cranes.
5. Overhanging roofs like stadium roofs.
6. Shelving and Furniture.

I Section Girder:
A girder is a support beam used in construction. It is the main horizontal support of a structure which supports
smaller beams. Girders often have an I-beam cross section composed of two load-bearing flanges separated by a
stabilizing web. A girder is commonly used to build bridges.

Its characteristics are as follows:

1. Wide flange and large lateral stiffness. Strong bending resistance
2. It has the advantages of low cost, high precision, low residual stress, no expensive welding materials and
weld detection, and saves about 30% of the manufacturing cost of steel structure.
3. Compared with concrete structure, I-shaped steel structure can increase the area of use by 6%, while the
weight of structure can be reduced by 20% to 30%.

Applications of I beam Girder

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1. It is widely used in bridge construction.

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2. It is used in the structures where there is a need of carrying heavy loads on relatively long spans.
3. I-section beams are especially important in civil constructions as they are substitute for numerous
support structures which obviously help in saving both time and money.

Types of Elastic Material: Elastic materials vary with loading or unloading conditions. In these
conditions, the material behaves on the basis of loading intensities such as instant or sudden loading or
gradual loading. Generally, we consider linear elastic material or nonlinear elastic material.
Linear Elastic Material - This type of material is applied under load and shows a linear graph between
stress and strain passing through the origin. Structural steel is taken as a linear elastic material.
Non-Linear Elastic Material - This type of material is applied under load and shows a nonlinear graph
between stress and strain passing through the origin. The non-linear elastic material is an artificial material
also known as a hyper-elastic material. Rubber is an example for nonlinear elastic material.
The elastic materials are also further classified as
Cauchy-elastic material: In these materials stress at each point is determined only by the current state of
deformation.
Hyper-elastic materials: In these materials the deformation is fully reversible with no plastic deformation.
Hypo-elastic Materials: Materials in which stress cannot be derived from strain energy.
Elastomers: Elastomers are polymers that have viscosity and elasticity for example natural rubber.
 Module-I Oscillations & Waves
Fundamentals of Fracture: Important failure of elastic materials is fracture. The fracture can be
defined as the separation of the material into two or more parts. Fatigue is one of the reason for the
fracture.
A machine/machine parts (such as automobile parts, turbines, aircraft, pumps, compressors, etc.,) are meant
for repeated use and get strained due to repeatedly loading stresses, forming cracks or fracture.
Fatigue cracks are mainly due to concentrated stresses, corrosion, overload, temperature, etc
Failure of material can involve any of the two mechanisms; ductile fracture or brittle fracture.
1. Brittle fracture: It occurs at almost elastic limit point due to sudden/quick propagation of cracks.
Because of this, body breaks into number of pieces. Brittle fracture is the sudden and rapid metal
failure in which the material shows little or no plastic strain.
Example: Rock, concrete and cast iron. Such materials are called brittle materials.
2. Ductile fracture: Ductile fracture is the material failure that exhibits substantial plastic
deformation prior to fracture. During its growth, many micro cracks join to form a big central crack
leading finally to fracture The ductile fracture process is slow and gives enough warnings before
final separation. Brittle fracture is fast and can occur at lower stress levels than a ductile fracture.
That is why ductile fracture is considered better than brittle fracture.

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Above figures explain both the fracture mechanisms. The area under the stress strain curve
represents the absorbed energy before failure. Clearly, the required energy in brittle failure is quite
less than the ductile failure.
Stress concentration:
Stress concentration (also called a stress raiser or a stress riser) is a location in an object where the
stress is significantly greater than the surrounding region. Stress concentrations occur when there are
irregularities in the geometry or material of a structural component that cause an interruption to the
flow of stress. This arises from such details as holes, grooves, notches and fillets. Stress
concentrations may also occur from accidental damage such as nicks and scratches.
The stress concentration factor, is the ratio of the highest stress σmax to a nominal stress σnom of the
gross cross-section and given by

Stress concentration factor is a function of the geometry shape and independent of its size.

The sharp corner at the brick has acted as a stress concentrator within
the concrete causing it to crack
 Module-I Oscillations & Waves

Fatigue: Fatigue is weakening of material caused by repeatedly applied loads. It is progressive and
localized structural damage that occurs when a material is subjected to cyclic loading. Fatigue failures
occur at a stress much lower than its tensile strength.
Factors affecting Fatigue failure
Surface Effect: There are always uneven machining marks on the machinated surface. These marks are
equivalent to tiny gaps, which cause stress concentration on the surface of the material, thus reducing
the fatigue strength of the material.
Design Effect: Any notch or geometrical discontinuity can act as a stress raiser and fatigue crack
initiation site; these design features include grooves, holes, keyways, threads, and so on. The sharper
the discontinuity (smaller the radius of curvature), the more severe the stress concentration.
Environmental Effects:
Two types of environment-assisted fatigue are thermal fatigue and corrosion fatigue.
Thermal Fatigue
Thermal fatigue is normally induced at elevated temperatures by fluctuating thermal stresses.
Corrosion Fatigue
Failure that occurs by the simultaneous action of a cyclic stress and chemical attack is termed corrosion
fatigue.
Corrosive environments have a harmful influence and produce shorter fatigue lives.
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