1 Aim.

To study structure and working of a compound microscope

Theory : A compound microscope is used for magnifying very small objects to study
histological details. It has the following parts:
Mechanical parts
Base. It is usually a horse-shoe shaped structure and provides a stable support for the microscope

Pillar. It is small vertical projection from the base.

Arm. It is usually curved and used for handling the instrument
Inclination joint. At this joint, the arm is attached to the pillar. The microscope can be tilted at this
joint.
Stage. It is usually a rectangular plate attached to the lower end of the arm. It is used for keeping
an object to be magnified. It has a hole in the centre for the light rays to pass.
Clips. There are two clips attached to the stage which are used for holding the slide in position.

Diaphragm. It is attached to the base of the stage and regulates the amount of light entering into
the microscope. Normally, it is of two types, dise-diaphragm and iris-diaphragm.

Body tube. It is a tubular hollow part attached to the upper part of the arm. It can be moved up
and down with the help of screws.

Nose piece. It is a circular metallic structure attached below the body tube. Three different
objective lenses can be fitted into it.

Coarse adjustment screw. It is a bigger-sized screw used for gross focussing of an object.
Fine adjustment screw. It is a smaller-sized screw used for fine focussing of the object.

II. Optical parts

Mirror. It is attached to the lower end of the arm. It is used for reflecting light rays into the
microscope.

Objective lens. They are attached to the nosepiece. Usually two objective lenses are seen with
magnifications 10X (low power) and 45X (high power). A provision for third objective lens is also
seen in the nosepiece (when present, it is of 100%).
Eyepiece lens. It is a lens fitted at the top of body tube through which the magnified image of the
object is seen. It is of magnification 10X or 15X.

Working of the microscope

First of all, adjust the mirror so that sufficient light enters into the microscope. Then keep a clean prepared
slide on the centre of the stage. Use clips to fix the slide on the stage. Now move the coarse adjustment
screw to bring the slide in focus.

We normally use the microscope in low magnification, ie., 10X objective lens is used. To use high
magnification, first adjust in low magnification and then change to 45X objective lens to a desired position.
Use the fine adjustment screw to bring the slide to the sharp focus.
Precautions to use the microscope
 Always hold the microscope with both the hands in an upright position while carrying it.
 Always clean the lenses with tissue paper or a clean silken piece of cloth.
 First focus the microscope in the low power and then only change to high power objective
lens.
 Always change to low power objective lens after using the high power objective lens.
 Do not move the coarse adjustment screw while using the high power objective lens.

2 Aim. To study stains & staining technique / Mounting .

THEORY
Stains : Most biological structures are transparent and some contrast between different
structures is required for their detailed study. This is achieved by staining, the stains help to
distinguish different tissues, cells or inclusions from one another by developing specific
colours. Safranin, light green, fast green, aniline blue, haematoxylin, crystal violet,
erythrosine, and aceto-carmine are some commonly used stains. Most of the stains are
specific in reaction and are used purposely to stain some definite structures. Some
Common stains used for staining different cell structures are as follows.
 Cell wall Safranin, crystal violet
Cytoplasm Aniline blue, erythrosine, fast green, light green
Chitin Safranin
Nucleus Crystal violet, haematoxylin
Chromosomes Haematoxylin, safranin
Certain stains like methylene blue and neutral red when used in low concentrations are
non-toxic to living tissue and can, therefore, be used on living material. These are called
vital stains.
Preparation of Biological Stains

 Aceto-carmine: Add 1g of carmine to 45 ml of glacial acetic acid. Mix and add 55 ml of

distilled water. Boil, cool and filter. Then add a few drops of saturated aqueous solution of
ferric acetate. Filter and store the stock in refrigerator. Use dark bottles (covered with a
blackpaper) for storage. This stain is suitable for chromosome studies.
 Crystal violet: Dissolve 1 g of crystal violet in 100 ml of distilled water.
 Eosin (alcoholic) Dissolve 1 g of alcohol-soluble eosin in 100 ml of 90 per cent alcohol.
 Iodine: Dissolve 1 g of iodine crystals and 2 g of potassium iodide in 300 ml of distilled water.
 Leishman stain: Dissolve 15 g of leishman in 100 ml of methyl alcohol. Store the stain in a dark
coloured bottle. It is used mainly for staining blood cells and protozoans.
 Methylene blue: Dissolve 1 g of methylene blue and 0.6 g sodium chloride in 100 ml distilled water.
 Safranin: Dissolve 1 g of safranin in 100 ml of water or 50 per cent ethyl alcohol.

Staining

The purpose of staining is to colour structures which would otherwise be difficult, if not impossible, to
observe under the microscope. Stains can be used singly or in combinations.

 Keep the material to be stained in a watch glass. Add a few drops of stain so that the material is
completely immersed.
 Keep the material in the stain for a few minutes. The time required varies with the material and
stain.
 Remove the material from the stain, and wash off the excess of stain in water Sometimes, acid
water or acid alcohol is also used for this purpose.

 Now the stained material is ready for mounting.

 Mounting

The purpose of mounting is to embed the material in a suitable medium for observation under the
microscope. Glycerine, glycerine jelly, lactophenol and canada balsam are some common media used for
mounting.

Glycerine :Pure glycerine diluted to 5-10 per cent in water is widely used for mounting temporary and
semi-permanent preparations.

Following precautions should be taken while mounting.

1. Slides should be unscrupulously clean. Hold the slide and cover slip only by their edges
2. Object to be mounted should be placed in the centre of the slide.
3. No air bubbles should enter the medium while mounting. To avoid air bubbles, touch one side of
the cover slip to the drop of mounting medium on the slide. Support the cover slip by needle and
lower it gently and then remove the needle slowly
4. Use only the required quantity of mounting medium so that it does not flow on the slide. The extra
amount can be soaked by touching a piece of blotting paper to the edges of the cover slip
5. Labels are pasted uniformly on one side of the prepared slide. It should carry details of the material.
The bottom of the label should bear the name of the student who has prepared the slide.

3 Aim. To study the biomolecules and their test.

Theory: Biomolecules are the molecules that are synthesized & present in living organism , Plays
crucial role for their survival and function.

The four main type of biomolecules are:

Protein : Large Carbohydrates : Sugars Lipids: Fats &oils , Nucleic Acid : DNA &
molecules made up of & starches, serving as acting as energy RNA, responsible for
amino acids, play role in primary source and storage, insulation and storing and transmitting
structure, catalysis and structural components membrane coponenets genetic information
signaling

Detecting the biomolecule in food item involves a variety of chemical as follow

Biomolecule Test observation inference

Protein Biuret test Detect the peptide violet purple color
bonds
Carbohydrate Benedict’s test Detect the reducing Formation of red/
Fehling’s test sugar orange precipitate on
heating
Lipids Emulsion test/ Cloudy white Indicates lipids
ethanol test emulsion
Nucleic acid Gel electroporesis Separates & visible Separates & visible
DNA/RNA fragments DNA/RNA fragments
3(a) Aim.To check the presence of reducing sugarinsugar solution by using Benedict’s test.
Material Required:Sample (sugar solution, distilled water, Benedict's reagent, test-tubes, test
tube stand, test tube holder, dropper and Bunsen Burner

Procedure 1 )Add 2 ml of Benedict's reagent to 0.5-1 mL of sugar solution and distilled water
as control.

2 Heat the test-tubes for 3to 4 minutes.

3 The appearance of brick-red precipitate confirms presence of reducing Sugar.
Principle: when a solution of reducing sugar is heated with Benedict's reagent, the alkaline
sodium carbonate converts sugar into enediol and this enediol further reduces cupric oxides of
reagent into cuprous ions. The resulting precipitate of cuprous oxide is brick-red in a colour that
confirms presence of reducing Sugar sugar.. Lactose, maltese and glucose give a positive reaction
to this test.

Obervation: 1 Sample (sugar solution) give red ppt with Benedict's reagent.
2)Distilled water gives no change with Benedict's reagent."

3 Benedict's Reagent (1 L) 173g sodium citrate

100 g anhydrous sodium carbonate

17.3 copper (II) Sulphate pentahydrate

In 1000 mL of distilled water.

Sample Test/ Procedure Observation Inference / result

Glucose 1 ml of glucose solution + Yellow-orange color Presence of Glucose
Benedict’s reagent
Fructose 1 ml of fructose solution + Orange –brown color Presence of fructose
Benedict’s reagent
Galactose 1 ml of galactose solution + Red-Brown color Presence of galactose
Benedict’s reagent
Sucrose 1 ml of sucrose solution + Light brown color Presence of sucrose
Benedict’s reagent
Maltose 1 ml of maltose solution + Orange color Presence of maltose
Benedict’s reagent
Lactose 1 ml of lactose solution + Orange-red color Presence of lactose
Benedict’s reagent
Starch 1 ml of starch solution + No color change Absence of sugar
Benedict’s reagent

3 B) AIM: To check presence of starch in given sample by using iodine solution.

Materials Required
Sample, distilled water, iodine solution, test tubes, test tube stand, test tube holder, Bunsen
burner and dropper.
Procedure
Take 1 ml. sample solution in a test tubes.
Add 5 drops of iodine solution to test tubes.

A blue-black colour shows positive result while a yellow brown color shows negative result.
Principles
Test gives positive result only with polysaccharide starch. On reacting with starch iodine gets
trapped in helical coils of polysaccharide chain via a coordinate complex. Due to complex
formation, a blue-black color is observed, which confirms presence of starch. The blue black color
disappears on addition of an alkali or on heating, this is due to uncoiling of polysaccharide network
& release of iodine molecules.
Observation:

Sample Test observation result

Starch solution 1ml of starch solution Blue –black color Presence of starch
+ iodine solution
Glucose solution 1ml of starch solution Yellow – brown color Absence of starch
+ iodine solution

AIM :To check presence of protein in given sample.

Materials Required :Sample, test tubes, test tube holder, test tube stand, Bunsen Burner, dropper,
CuSO4, NaOH, HNO3 and Biuret resgent.

Procedures

Take 1 ml. of sample solution in a test tube

Xanthoproteic test:-

1. add few drops of HNO3 (conc) and give hot unter both to test tube
2. Now, cool test tube under tap water & add few drops ofNaOH

Biuret tests-
Add fow drops of biuret reagent to sample. or

AddCuSo4-5H20 solution and NaOH to sample

Observation

Sample test observation result

milk Xanthoprotic test Yellow color Presence of Protein
1ml of milk
+HNO3+NaOH
Milk Biuret test 1 ml of milk Purple color Presence of protein
+CuSO4+ NaOH

3 C) AIM :To chack presence of fat in given samble by using ethanol

Meterials Required

Sample, water, test tubes, test tube holder, test tube stand, measuring cylinder, dropper & ethanol

Procedure

1. Take 2 ml of sample.
2. Take measuring cylinder and measure 2 ml/cm² of ethanol and then water
3. Now, first time add 2 cm³ of ethanol to sample and shake test tube.
4. Now, add 2 cm³ of water to test tube and shake it.

Observation

Sample test observation result

oil 2ml of oil+2ml of White emulsion appears Presence of fat
ethanol+2 ml of water
4 Aim : To prepare a temporary slide of transverse section of dicot and monocot stem and
root to study various plant tissues.

Material Required
Preserved material of root and stem, Preserved or fresh material of root and stem, Microscope, Sharp
blade,Slides. Watch glass , Cover slips , Safranin (1gm in 100ml of 50% ethanol), Brush, Glycerine ,Blotting
paper.

Procedure

Taking Sections

 Hold the dissected plant material between your index finger and thumb, while keeping the edge of the
razor perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the plant. Slice it into thin sections.
 Using the edge of the blade, shift these sections into a watch glass with the help of a brush. The watch
glass must hold water.

Process Of Staining

 Pick 2 to 4 thin and good transverse sections. Shift it to a different watch glass holding safranin stain.
 Let the complete set rest in the stain for a couple of minutes.
 After a while, drain the sections of the stain and rinse again with water so as to wash off the excess
strain.
 On a clean slide, place a stained section in the middle of the slide, mounting water or glycerine.

Precautionary Measures
 While dissecting the section, both the blade and the material should be supplied with adequate water.
 While working with sections, use a brush.
  Gently place the coverslip in order to avoid air bubbles.
 Excess glycerine can be removed with filter paper.

Dicot Root Monocot root

Dicot stem Monocot stem

5 AIM :To observe plasmolysis and deplasmolysis in potato cells.

Material required: Fresh potato ,Table salt (NaCl),Distilled water ,Two beakers or glass
containers, Scalpel or knife , Peeler ,Spoon or spatula ,Microscope (optional for detailed
observation),Slide and coverslip (optional),Tissue paper

Procedure :

 Peel and cut the potato into thin, uniform strips (about 5–6 cm long and 0.5 cm thick).
 Prepare two beakers:

o Beaker A: Fill with a concentrated salt solution (e.g., 10–20% NaCl).

o Beaker B: Fill with distilled water.
Plasmolysis (Water leaves the cells):

1. Place some potato strips into Beaker A (salt solution).

2. Leave them for 30–60 minutes.
3. Observe:
o The strips become flaccid, soft, and possibly shriveled.
o This occurs because water moves out of the potato cells due to osmosis, causing
plasmolysis.

Deplasmolysis (Water re-enters the cells):

1. After plasmolysis, transfer the same strips from Beaker A to Beaker B (distilled water).
2. Leave for another 30–60 minutes.
3. Observe:
o The strips become firm again, indicating deplasmolysis.
o Water re-enters the cells by osmosis, restoring turgor pressure.

Conclusion:

 Plasmolysis is the process of water moving out of the cells in a hypertonic solution.
 Deplasmolysis is the reverse—water moves into the cells in a hypotonic solution.

AIM :Study of permanent slides of mitosis and meiosis

6 Aim : Study of permanent slides of mitosis and meiosis

Theory : Mitosis and meiosis are two types of cell division processes that are essential for growth,
development, and reproduction in living organisms. Here is a breakdown of both processes as observed in
permanent slides.

Procedure

Step 1
Identify the type of cell division: Mitosis is responsible for growth and repair, while meiosis is involved in
the formation of gametes (sperm and eggs).

Step 2
Examine the permanent slides under a microscope, focusing on the different stages of mitosis: prophase,
metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.

Step 3
In prophase, look for chromatin condensing into visible chromosomes and the nuclear envelope breaking
down.

Step 4
In metaphase, observe chromosomes aligning at the cell's equatorial plane, attached to spindle fibers.

Step 5
In anaphase, note the separation of sister chromatids moving towards opposite poles of the cell.

Step 6
In telophase, identify the reformation of the nuclear envelope around the separated sets of chromosomes
and the beginning of cytokinesis.

Observation : The study of permanent slides of mitosis reveals distinct stages such as prophase,
metaphase, anaphase, and telophase, each characterized by specific cellular changes. In contrast, meiosis
involves two rounds of division, resulting in four non-identical gametes, which can also be observed in
slides.
 7 Aim : To observe the structure and characteristics of mold fungi under a microscope.

Theory : Aspergillus niger is the most common species of aspergillus. Its name is
adapted from the Latin name aspergillum, which means holy water sprinkler because it
has a sprinkler like an appearance when viewed under a microscope.

Materials Needed
 Permanent slide of mold (e.g., Aspergillus or Penicillium)
 Light microscope structure of Penicillium
 Microscope cover slips (if preparing your own slide)
 Glass slides (if preparing your own slide)


Identify Key Morphological Features:

Structure Description

Conidiophore Long, erect stalk that arises from a foot cell.

Vesicle Swollen end of the conidiophore, often round or club-shaped.

 Structure Description

Phialides Flask-shaped cells on the vesicle, arranged in a single or double row.

Conidia (Spores) Chains of round or oval spores that extend from the phialides.

Hyphae Septate (have cross-walls), branched filaments forming the mycelium

Observation

 A "dandelion-like" head – due to conidiophores ending in a vesicle

covered with phialides and conidia.

 Septate hyphae running through the background.

Observe the structural features of the mold, such as hyphae (the thread-
like structures), spores, and fruiting bodies (if present).

Take notes on the appearance, including color, shape, and arrangement of

structures.

7 A) Aim: To prepare the slide of mould & observe under microscope

Material Required: Glass slide and cover slip,Inoculating needle or sterile toothpick, Mould sample
(e.g. bread mould like Rhizopus or Aspergillus) ,Lactophenol Cotton Blue stain (or methylene blue if not
available, Forceps, Microscope

Procedure:
1. Collect the Mould Sample:

 Choose a mouldy source like stale bread or fruit.

 Use a sterile needle or toothpick to gently scrape off a small amount of mould from the surface. Be
sure to include both spores and some hyphae.

2. Place on the Slide:

 Place a drop of Lactophenol Cotton Blue stain in the center of the slide.
 Transfer the mould sample into the stain gently.

3. Cover with a Cover Slip:

 Carefully place a cover slip over the stained sample.

 Use forceps to avoid air bubbles. Lower one side of the cover slip first, then the other.
Observe Under the Microscope:

Structure Description
Hyphae Thread-like, branching filaments of the mould
Mycelium A network of hyphae
Sporangia / Conidiophores Specialized structures producing spores
Spores Asexual reproductive units, round or oval in shape

7C ) Aim : to study the specimen of cone of pinus

Theory: Category Classification

Kingdom Plantae
Division Pinophyta
Class Pinopsida
Order Pinales
Family Pinaceae
Genus Pinus
Types of Cones in Pinus

Pinus is monoecious, meaning it has both male and female cones on the same plant.

 Male Cone (Staminate Cone):

o Small, short-lived, and occurs in clusters.
o Found at the base of the current year's shoots.
o Produces pollen grains (microspores).
o Each scale is a microsporophyll bearing two microsporangia.

Female Cone (Ovulate Cone):

 Large, woody, and long-lived (may take 2–3 years to mature).

 Found in clusters, typically on upper branches.
 Each cone scale (megaspore scale) bears two ovules on the upper surface.
 After fertilization, it becomes a seed cone.

Functions

 Male Cone: Pollen production and dispersal.

 Female Cone: Site of ovule development, fertilization, and seed
maturation.
 Key Identification Features
Feature Male Cone Female Cone

Size Small Large

Duration Short-lived Long-lived (up to 3 years)

Function Produces pollen Produces seeds

Arrangement Clusters at branch base Solitary or few per branch tip

Botanical Importance

 Used to study alternation of generations.

 Demonstrates gymnosperm reproductive
adaptations.
 Useful in taxonomy and forest ecology.

8 Aim : to study the Animal specimen Star fish , Snail , earthworm,fish

1. Starfish : Classification
 Kingdom - Animalia
 Class - Asterioda
 Genus - Asterias
 Phylum - Echinodermata
 Order - Forcipulata
 Species - Rubers

Key Features

 It is a coastal organism that lives in the stony and sandy seafloor.

 a creature that resembles a star and has a core disc and five radiating arms. the extremities
are narrow at the bottom and taper there
 The skin can be divided between an aboral surface that faces upward and an oral surface
that faces below.
 A pentagonal mouth may be seen on the oral surface of the disc's center.
 The five corners of the mouth form five little ambulacral grooves, which run from the center
of the oral area of the five arms to their edges.
 This groove's two double rows of tube feet aid in movement.

2. Snail : Classification
1. Kingdom - Animalia
2. Class - Gastropoda
3. Genus - Pila
4. Phylum - Mollusca
5. Order - Prosobranchiata
6. Species - Globosa
 Key Features

 It features a coiled calcareous shell surrounding a slim, squishy body.

 A strong, plated operculum seals the shell aperture.
 The head, foot, visceral mass, and mantle are the four distinct parts of the body and with
the genders being separated, there is a very small sexual dimorphism.
 Univalved and coil-shaped is the body and the forefoot is big and strong.
 Tentacles and eyes are separate from the brain.

3. Earthworm : Classification
4. Kingdom - Animalia
5. Class - Oligochaetra
6. Genus - Pheretima
7. Phylum - Amelida
8. Order - Terricelae
9. Species - Posthuma

Key Features

 In the segments 14th, 15th, and 16th forms a band called clitellum that focuses on one or
more eggs where ova is fertilized.
 Anus is present in the last segment and mouth in the anterior end.
 The body is divided metamerically, triploblastic, cylindrical, eucoelomate, and long.
 The mouth is at the front end, while the anus is at the back.
 The 14th, 15th, and 16th segments contain the clitellum, a ring of glandular tissue.
 Hermaphrodites include earthworms that have the 14th segment and one female genital
opening located mid-ventrally.
 two male genital openings are present ventrolateral in the 18th segment.
 The 17th and 19th segments each have a pair of ventrolateral genital papillae.
 The final section contains the anus.
 Except for the first and last segments, all segments have setae, which are locomotory
organs.

Aim : to study the process of fermentataion (Yeast)

Theory : In yeast fermentation, by mixing yeast with sugar and warm water in a
flask. The resulting carbon dioxide gas production can be observed as bubbles or by
using a balloon to collect the gas, The process involves yeast converting sugar into
ethanol and carbon dioxide.

Fermentation Equation: C6H12O6→2C2H5OH+2CO2+energy

Materials:

 Active dry yeast

 Sugar (glucose or sucrose)
 Warm water (30–40°C)
 Balloon or fermentation lock
 Flask or bottle
 Procedure:

1. Mix yeast with warm water and sugar in the flask.

2. Fit a balloon over the flask’s mouth (or use a fermentation lock).
3. Observe over time – the balloon will inflate as CO₂ is produced.

Key Observations: Factors Affecting Fermentation:

 Carbon dioxide production:
 Sugar concentration
 Sugar consumption:  Temperature: .
 Ethanol production:  Yeast type
 Oxygen availability

9 Aim : TO conducting this experiment is to understand the basic concept of the ABO
blood group system and to know our blood group and type.
Theory : A blood sample is mixed with antibodies to identify the presence or
absence of specific antigens (A, B, and Rh) on red blood cells. This process helps
determine if the blood group is A, B, AB, or O, and whether it's Rh-positive or Rh-
negative.
Tools and Equipment Needed

 Antisera (anti-A, anti-B, anti-D), Microscope slides or test tubes , Blood lancet and collection supplies

Procedure
 Take a clean glass slide and draw three circles on it.
 Unpack the Monoclonal Antibodies (MAB) kit. In the first circle add Anti-A, to the second circle add Anti-B
and to the third circle add Anti-D with the help of a dropper.
 Keep the slide aside safely without disturbing.
 Now wipe the ring finger with the alcohol swabs and rub gently near the fingertip, where the blood
sample will be collected.
 Prick the ring fingertip with the lancet and wipe off the first drop of the blood.
 As blood starts oozing out, allow it to fall on the three circles of the glass slide by gently pressing the
fingertip.
 Apply pressure on the site where it was pricked and to stop blood flow. Use the cotton ball if required.
 Mix the blood sample gently with the help of a toothpick and wait for a minute to observe the result.

Conclusion
Blood Type A B O AB

Rh-positive A+ B+ O+ AB+

Rh-negative A- B- O- AB-
The groups are based on the presence or
absence of two specific antigens and
antibodies– A and B:

1. Group A- Antigen A and Antibody B.

2. Group B- Antigen B and Antibody A.
3. Group AB- Antigen A and B both and no
Antibodies
4. Group O- No Antigens and both A and
B Antibodies.

Safety and Precautions

 Use of sterile equipment

 Personal protective equipment (PPE)
 Proper disposal of sharps and biohazard waste
 Verification with multiple methods for critical cases

10 Aim: To clasify morphology of Inflorescence or types of inflorescence.

Material required Different specimen of plants.

Observation Table

Specimen. Types of Inflorescence

Bottle Brush → Simple Recemose inflorescence ,Spike

Mulberry → Simple Recemose inflorescence , Catkin or Amentum.

Elephant ear → Simple Recemose inflorescence. , Spadise

Maize → Simple Recemose inflorescence , spedix

Mustard (Brassica campestris) → Simple Recemose inflorescence , corymbose Receme

Fennel → Simple Recemose inflorescence , Umbel

Brahmi → Simple Recemose inflorescence. , Umbel

Sunflower → Simple Recemose inflorescence , Head or Capitulum

Jasmine → Cymose inflorescence , Biparous dichasiel cyme

Aak (Calotropis) →Cymose inflorescence , multiporous , polychasial cyme

Banana → Recemose inflorescence , compound

Lantana → Simple Recemose inflorescence, Corymb , spedix

10 A ) Aim : To study the leaf morphology