Scattering and dispersion

Forced vibration:
Forced Vibrations in Mechanical and Electrical Systems
Forced vibration occurs when a periodic external force drives an oscillatory system, causing it
to respond at the forcing frequency. This is fundamental in:
• Mechanical systems (e.g., bridges under wind loads, machinery vibrations).
• Electrical systems (e.g., RLC circuits with an AC source).
• Wave phenomena (e.g., resonance in sound and light).
1. Equation of Motion for a Damped, Driven Oscillator
Consider a mass-spring-damper system (mechanical) or an RLC circuit (electrical) subjected to a
sinusoidal driving force 𝐹(𝑡) = 𝐹0 cos(𝜔𝑡):
Mechanical System:
¨ ˙
𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐𝑥 + 𝑘𝑥 = 𝐹0 cos(𝜔𝑡),
where:
• 𝑚 = mass,
• 𝑐 = damping coefficient,
• 𝑘 = spring constant,
• 𝜔 = driving frequency.
Electrical System (RLC Circuit):
¨ ˙ 1
𝐿𝑞 + 𝑅𝑞 + 𝑞 = 𝑉0 cos(𝜔𝑡),
𝐶
where:
• 𝐿 = inductance,
• 𝑅 = resistance,
• 𝐶 = capacitance,
• 𝑉0 = AC voltage amplitude.
2. Steady-State Solution (Particular Solution)
The long-term response (ignoring transients) is:
𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐴cos(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜙),
where:
 • Amplitude 𝐴:
𝐹0 /𝑚
𝐴= ,
√(𝜔02 − 𝜔 2 )2 + (2𝜁𝜔𝜔0 )2

o 𝜔0 = √𝑘/𝑚 (natural frequency),

𝑐
o 𝜁 = 2√𝑚𝑘 (damping ratio).
• Phase Lag 𝜙:

2𝜁𝜔𝜔0
𝜙 = tan−1 ( ).
𝜔02 − 𝜔 2
3. Key Phenomena in Forced Vibrations
(A) Resonance
• When 𝜔 ≈ 𝜔0 , the amplitude 𝐴 peaks.
• Maximum amplitude at resonance:
𝐹0
𝐴max = .
2𝑚𝜁𝜔02
• Sharpness of resonance depends on damping (𝜁):
o Low damping → Narrow, tall peak.
o High damping → Broad, flat peak.
(B) Phase Shift
• Below resonance (𝜔 < 𝜔0 ): 𝜙 ≈ 0 (response in phase with force).
• At resonance (𝜔 = 𝜔0 ): 𝜙 = 90∘ .
• Above resonance (𝜔 > 𝜔0 ): 𝜙 ≈ 180∘ (response out of phase).
(C) Quality Factor (𝑄)
• Measures sharpness of resonance:
𝜔0 1
𝑄= = .
2𝜁𝜔0 2𝜁
• High 𝑄 → Sustained oscillations (e.g., tuning forks, superconducting cavities).
4. Applications
1. Mechanical Engineering:
o Vibration isolation in vehicles/machinery.
o Earthquake-resistant building design.
2. Electrical Engineering:
o Radio tuning (RLC circuits).
o Filters and impedance matching.
3. Acoustics & Optics:
o Resonant cavities in lasers.
 o Sound amplification in musical instruments.
5. Comparison with Free Vibration
Feature Free Vibration Forced Vibration
Driving Force None (natural motion) External periodic force
Frequency Natural frequency 𝜔0 Driving frequency 𝜔
Amplitude Decays due to damping Constant (steady-state)
Phase Fixed by initial cond. Lags behind driving force

Conclusion
Forced vibrations explain how systems respond to periodic driving forces, with resonance being
a critical phenomenon. Understanding this helps in:
• Controlling unwanted vibrations (e.g., in bridges, aircraft).
• Harnessing resonance (e.g., in sensors, clocks, wireless charging).
The mathematical framework applies universally across mechanical, electrical, and acoustic
systems.

Scattering by Free and Bound Electrons

Scattering of electromagnetic waves (e.g., light, X-rays) by electrons depends on whether the
electron is free or bound to an atom/molecule. The key processes are:
1. Scattering by a Free Electron (Thomson & Compton Scattering)
(A) Thomson Scattering (Classical, Low-Energy Limit)
• Applicability:

o Low-energy photons (𝐸𝛾 ≪ 𝑚𝑒 𝑐 2 ≈ 511 keV).

o Electron recoil is negligible.
• Mechanism:
o Incident EM wave accelerates the free electron → electron radiates scattered
wave.
o Elastic scattering (no energy change, only direction changes).
• Differential Cross-Section:
2
𝑑𝜎 𝑒2 1 + cos 2 𝜃 2
1 + cos 2 𝜃
=( ) = 𝑟𝑒 ,
𝑑𝛺 4𝜋𝜖0 𝑚𝑒 𝑐 2 2 2

where:
𝑒2
o 𝑟𝑒 = 4𝜋𝜖 2 ≈ 2.82 × 10−15 m (classical electron radius),
0 𝑚𝑒 𝑐
o 𝜃 = scattering angle.
 • Total Cross-Section:
8𝜋 2
𝜎𝑇 = 𝑟 ≈ 6.65 × 10−29 m2 .
3 𝑒
(B) Compton Scattering (Quantum, High-Energy Limit)
• Applicability:

o High-energy photons (𝐸𝛾 ∼ 𝑚𝑒 𝑐 2 or higher).

o Electron recoil is significant → inelastic scattering.
• Wavelength Shift:
ℎ
𝜆′ − 𝜆 = (1 − cos𝜃),
𝑚𝑒 𝑐
ℎ
where 𝑚 = 2.43 × 10−12 m (Compton wavelength).
𝑒𝑐

• Klein-Nishina Cross-Section (Quantum Electrodynamics):

o Reduces to Thomson scattering at low energies.
1
o Suppressed at high energies (𝜎 ∝ 𝐸 ).
𝛾

2. Scattering by Bound Electrons (Rayleigh & Raman Scattering)

(A) Rayleigh Scattering (Elastic)
• Applicability:
o Low-energy photons (𝐸𝛾 ≪ binding energy).
o Electron remains in the same energy state.
• Mechanism:
o EM wave induces dipole oscillation in bound electron → re-emits at same
frequency.
o Coherent scattering (phase preserved).
• Cross-Section:
1
𝜎Rayleigh ∝ ,
𝜆4
explaining why the sky is blue (shorter wavelengths scatter more).
(B) Raman Scattering (Inelastic)
• Applicability:
o Photon energy near molecular vibrational/rotational levels.
• Mechanism:
 o Photon excites electron to virtual state → decays to a different state.
o Stokes line (lower energy, 𝜔′ = 𝜔 − 𝛥𝜔),
o Anti-Stokes line (higher energy, 𝜔′ = 𝜔 + 𝛥𝜔).
• Applications:
o Molecular spectroscopy (chemical fingerprinting).
3. Comparison of Scattering Processes
Process Electron State Energy Change Cross-Section Dominant Regime
Thomson Free Elastic 𝜎𝑇 Low-energy (𝐸𝛾 ≪ 𝑚𝑒 𝑐 2)
Compton Free Inelastic Klein-Nishina High-energy (𝐸𝛾 ≳ 𝑚𝑒 𝑐 2 )
Rayleigh Bound Elastic ∝ 𝜆−4 Optical wavelengths
Raman Bound Inelastic Weak Molecular vibrations

4. Key Takeaways
1. Free Electrons:
o Thomson (elastic, low-energy) → Compton (inelastic, high-energy).
2. Bound Electrons:
o Rayleigh (elastic) → Raman (inelastic, vibrational transitions).
3. Applications:
o X-ray crystallography (Thomson/Rayleigh),
o Gamma-ray astronomy (Compton),
o Atmospheric optics (Rayleigh),
o Chemical analysis (Raman).
This distinction is crucial in astrophysics, material science, and quantum optics.

Thomson,Rayleigh and Resonance Scattering

Thomson, Rayleigh, and Resonance Scattering: A Comparative Analysis
These three scattering mechanisms describe how electromagnetic waves interact with electrons,
depending on whether the electrons are free or bound and the energy regime of the incident
radiation.
1. Thomson Scattering (Free Electrons, Classical Regime)
Definition: Elastic scattering of low-energy photons by free electrons (no binding energy).
Key Features:
• Electron State: Free (unbound).
• Energy Change: None (elastic scattering).
 • Cross-Section: Constant (independent of wavelength).
• Scattered Intensity:
𝑟𝑒2
𝐼(𝜃) = 𝐼0 (1 + cos2 𝜃),
2
𝑒2 −15
where 𝑟𝑒 = 4𝜋𝜖 𝑚 𝑐 2 ≈ 2.82 × 10 m (classical electron radius).
0 𝑒

Applications:
• X-ray scattering in plasmas.
• Early models of Compton scattering (before quantum corrections).
2. Rayleigh Scattering (Bound Electrons, Elastic Scattering)
Definition: Elastic scattering of light by bound electrons (e.g., in atoms/molecules), where the
photon energy is much less than the electron’s binding energy.
Key Features:
• Electron State: Bound (e.g., in an atom/molecule).
• Energy Change: None (elastic).
• Wavelength Dependence:
1
𝜎Rayleigh ∝ 4 ,
𝜆
meaning shorter wavelengths scatter more strongly (why the sky is blue).
• Coherence: Preserves phase (important in optical phenomena).
Applications:
• Atmospheric scattering (blue sky, red sunsets).
• Light propagation in optical fibers.
3. Resonance Scattering (Bound Electrons, Inelastic or Enhanced Scattering)
Definition: Scattering that occurs when the incident photon energy matches an atomic/molecular
transition energy, leading to temporary absorption and re-emission.
Key Features:
• Electron State: Bound (in an atom/molecule).
• Energy Matching: 𝐸photon ≈ 𝐸transition .
• Cross-Section: Greatly enhanced near resonance.
• Possible Outcomes:
o Elastic (Rayleigh-like): Re-emission at the same wavelength.
o Inelastic (Fluorescence/Raman): Re-emission at different wavelengths.
Applications:
• Laser cooling (using atomic resonance).
• Fluorescence spectroscopy.
 • Resonance Raman spectroscopy (enhanced vibrational signals).
4. Comparison Table
Thomson Rayleigh
Property Scattering Scattering Resonance Scattering
Electron State Free Bound Bound
Energy Change None (elastic) None (elastic) Elastic or inelastic
Cross-Section Constant (𝜎𝑇 ) ∝ 𝜆−4 Strongly peaked at resonance
Wavelength None Strong (𝜆−4) Narrow-band enhancement
Dep.
Examples X-rays in plasmas Blue sky, sunsets Atomic absorption lines,
fluorescence

5. Key Takeaways
1. Thomson Scattering:
o Applies to free electrons.
o Elastic, wavelength-independent cross-section.
o Dominates in high-temperature plasmas.
2. Rayleigh Scattering:
o Applies to bound electrons.
o Elastic, 𝜆−4 dependence (explains sky color).
o Important in atmospheric optics.
3. Resonance Scattering:
o Occurs when photon matches atomic transition.
o Strongly enhanced cross-section near resonance.
o Used in spectroscopy and laser cooling.
Understanding these processes is essential in astrophysics, atmospheric science, quantum
optics, and spectroscopy.