French Revolution

The French Revolution was revolutionary since it changed the status quo in France and caused the fall of the
monarchy.

Who was Louis XVI?

King Louis XVI was the absolute monarch of France in the 18th century. This means he had complete power and
ruled the country without limits. At the time, France was a very powerful country and a central point of European
culture.
However, by the late 1780s, King Louis XVI's government was facing serious financial problems and was bankrupt.
To try and solve these money issues and discuss new taxes, he was forced to call a meeting of the Estates General
in 1789. He was accused of abuse of power and government incompetence.
During this meeting, the Estates General, particularly the members who were not nobles or clergy, decided to
challenge his rule. They declared themselves the National Assembly, stating that they, not the King, were now
ruling France.
Ultimately, King Louis XVI did not remain in power. In 1793, he was executed by guillotine, and his wife Queen
Marie Antoinette was killed a few months later. His death marked the end of the absolute monarchy in France.

Causes
The French Revolution was caused by a combination of significant political and socioeconomic factors that
accumulated over time.

Political Causes
Absolute Monarchy: France was ruled by an absolute monarchy under King Louis XVI. The King had supreme
power, there was a royal abuse of power and government incompetence
Convocation of the Estates General: In 1789, King Louis XVI was forced to call the Estates General (the French
Parliament) to address new taxes and government debts
Demand for Reform: Instead of just discussing taxes, the Estates General decided to address the lack of a
democratic constitution, the King's abuse of power, and the government's incompetence

Socioeconomic Causes
Government Bankruptcy: By 1786, the French government was bankrupt. This was made worse by expensive
wars against Great Britain, especially France's financial support for the American rebels during their War of
Independence
Unequal Taxation: (unfair tax system) The nobility paid very few taxes, while the poorest population bore most
of the tax burden
Resentment from Lower Classes: Poor peasants and industrial workers felt deeply anger and insulted because
of their taxes and the unfairness of a corrupt legal system

Frustrated Middle Class: A prosperous middle class of merchants and business owners had grown significantly
over the previous 150 years. They were increasingly frustrated by widespread social and political inequality.
This class felt they deserved a greater say in how the country was run because they paid most of the taxes
Bad Harvests and Food Prices: A series of bad harvests led to higher food prices, which was a particularly
severe problem for the poor living in cities

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Who were the Revolutionaries? What was their role?
The French Revolution was driven by different groups and individuals who wanted change Here are the key
revolutionaries and their roles:
•The Middle Class (Merchants and Business Owners): Before the revolution, a prosperous middle class felt
frustrated because they had little say in the government despite paying many taxes. They believed they deserved
more political influence
•The Estates General / National Assembly:
In 1789, King Louis XVI called the Estates General (the French Parliament) to deal with France's money problems.
However, instead of just talking about taxes, this group, especially the members who were not nobles or clergy,
decided to address bigger problems like the lack of a democratic constitution and the King's abuse of power.
They then boldly declared themselves the National Assembly, saying that they, not the King, now ruled France
This was a very important step towards revolution.
•The Common People (Mobs): Ordinary people, especially in cities like Paris, also played a big role. They took
part in riots, attacked government officials, and burned buildings. A key moment was the storming of the Bastille,
a royal prison, by a large group of people. This showed the power of the angry public.

•Radical Politicians: As the revolution continued, radical politicians became very powerful in the Assembly Key
figures included Maximilien Robespierre and Jean-Paul Marat They led special courts during a period called
"The Terror"
What were their Aims and Objectives?
The revolutionaries had several goals to change France:
•End Absolute Monarchy: They wanted to stop the King from having all the power and control

•Establish a Democratic Constitution: They aimed to create a new system of government based on a
constitution to ensure fairness and limit power

•Eradicate Abuses and Corruption: They wanted to get rid of the old problems like corruption, unfair laws, and
the government's incompetence
•Fairness and Justice for All: A core idea was to ensure fair treatment and fair laws for everyone, not just the
nobles or clergy
•People's Rule: They wanted the people, represented by the National Assembly, to rule France instead of the
King

Did they Succeed?

The success of the revolutionaries is complex, with both achievements and failures:
•Overthrowing the Monarchy: They succeeded in ending the absolute monarchy. They even executed King
Louis XVI in 1793, and his wife, Queen Marie Antoinette, died months later
•Ending Old Abuses: They worked to eradicate the old abuses, corruption, and incompetence of the previous
government
•Lasting Ideas: Even though the initial revolutionary government didn't last, the ideas of fair treatment for all
and fair laws for all "lived on" in France
•Period of Chaos and Violence: However, the revolutionary period was extremely chaotic and violent. This
time, known as "The Terror," saw thousands of people executed or imprisoned because they were suspected of
supporting the monarchy. This indicates that the revolution itself became very destructive.

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How it developed
The French Revolution developed through a series of stages, driven by political and socioeconomic causes,
leading to radical changes in France's structure and having a lasting impact on Europe.

Initial Crisis and Discontent.

France was an absolute monarchy under King Louis XVI in the 18th century
The French government was bankrupt by 1786, exacerbated by the high cost of wars, especially the support for
the American War of Independence against Great Britain.
The nobility did not pay many taxes, while poor peasants and industrial workers resented their taxes and a corrupt
legal system. Moreover, a prosperous middle class of merchants and business owners was frustrated by social
and political inequality, feeling they deserved more voice in the government as they were the main taxpayers
A series of bad harvests led to a rise in food prices, severely affecting the urban poor
Convocation of the Estates General and the rise of the National Assembly (1789). In 1789, due to the financial
crisis, King Louis XVI was forced to call the Estates General (the French Parliament) to discuss new taxes and
pay off government debts
Instead of just discussing taxes, the Estates General decided to address the lack of a democratic constitution,
royal abuses of power, and government incompetence. Then the nobles and clergy were expelled from the Estates
General, which proclaimed itself the National Assembly and declared that they, not the King, now ruled France

Initial Violence and Riots

These conditions led to riots in Paris and other cities, where government officials were attacked and government
buildings burned.

The storming of the Bastille, a royal fortress and prison in Paris, was a key event
Street violence spread. Thousands of French people fled abroad to escape the violence
Ascent of Radicalism and The Terror (1792-1794)
Radical politicians rose to power in the Assembly. Figures like Maximilien Robespierre and Jean-Paul Marat led
revolutionary tribunals during The Terror, where thousands were executed or imprisoned on suspicion of
supporting the monarchy.

In 1793, King Louis XVI was executed, and his wife, Queen Marie Antoinette, died months later

End of Chaos and the Arrival of Napoleon (1799)

The chaos in France came to an end in 1799, when the army staged a coup that overthrew the Revolutionary
Assembly. A dictatorship was established under General Napoleon Bonaparte. Bonaparte later made himself
Emperor of the French, reintroducing a monarchical style of government but ensuring that the old abuses,
corruption, and incompetence were eradicated

Napoleonic Wars
Great Britain was at war against France for over twenty years, led by William Pitt the Younger. The British strategy
was to use their fleet and troops to seize French overseas colonies and keep the French war fleet blockaded in
port.

A turning point was the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805, where the main British fleet, led by Horatio Nelson, achieved a
decisive victory over the Franco-Spanish fleet, securing near-total British dominance over the seas of Europe
Napoleon attempted to economically cripple Great Britain with the "Continental System," prohibiting European
countries from buying British goods or selling their own to Great Britain6. Great Britain responded with its own
trade prohibitions.

Britain's opportunity to fight on mainland Europe came in 1807 when French forces controlled Spain, leading to
British involvement in the Peninsular War in Spain and Portugal. Arthur Wellesley (later Duke of Wellington)
commanded the British forces. Wellesley led British forces in the Iberian Peninsula, supporting Spain and Portugal
against French occupation. His victory at Vitoria in 1813 was decisive in clearing Spain of enemy presence. Finally,
Wellington defeated Napoleon at the Battle of Waterloo in 1815.

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Great Britain's Post-War Position

Great Britain emerged from this period as one of the great powers of Europe and, increasingly, of the world
Its navy "truly ruled the ocean waves," and its merchant ships sailed globally
The British Empire extended from Australia to India, South Africa, and Canada

Who was William Pitt the Younger?

William Pitt the Younger was a very important British politician who served as Prime Minister during the period
of the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars
He was the second son of William Pitt the Elder, who was also a famous British Prime Minister
He is described as one of Britain's most remarkable prime ministers.
He became a Member of Parliament (MP) at the age of 22 in 1781
He served as Chancellor of the Exchequer (the person in charge of the country's money) in 1782 until the
government fell.
•He became Prime Minister at just 24.
•His main goal was to stabilize and improve the finances of Britain, especially after the expensive American
War of Independence. He did this by reducing smuggling and reforming taxation. He also saved money by
cutting corruption in government.
•Pitt the Younger wanted to encourage free trade between nations and open up overseas markets to competitors.
•As Prime Minister, he faced a number of threats, France was one of these. He believed that the French
revolutionary form of government was dangerous and wanted to stop its spread throughout Europe
•He sought (searched) to fight the revolution at home and abroad •At home: His government encouraged and
supported the Loyalists; his government led a growing conservative and patriotic backlash against the ideas of the
revolution in Britain. At abroad: he tried to persuade other countries to join Britain in war against France. Pitt
offered British weapons to arm foreign armies and British money to pay the soldiers.
Habeas corpus was suspended by William Pitt. That means people could be arrested and kept in jail indefinitely
without a trial. Moreover, meetings were banned unless they were permitted by local magistrates. So, Radicals
were arrested to be traitors. Also Trade Unions were forbidden and declared illegal in 1799
•He died six years after the Battle of Trafalgar, with his plans against Napoleon still ongoing

Who was Edmund Burke?

Edmund Burke was an important Member of Parliament (MP) in Britain.
•He is known because he feared that the French Revolution would lead to bloody chaos and a dictatorship.
Indeed, Frenches wanted to export the revolution to everywhere.
•He wrote down his thoughts about the revolution in his famous book called Reflections on the Revolution in
France.

Who was Horatio Nelson?

Horatio Nelson was a very famous and successful British naval commander. He is known as one of Britain's
most remarkable commanders.

Early Life and Career:

◦Nelson was the son of a clergyman
◦He became a seaman at the young age of twelve
◦He earned his position as an officer through hard work and success

Military Career and Achievements:

◦During his career, he had some injuries; for example, he lost his right arm in 1797 after being hit by a musket
ball
◦He led the British forces in many important naval campaigns, often against France and its allies
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◦He was very aggressive with tactics (took a lot of risks). he was the first in line, the commander in chief.
◦He took democratic decisions with his group. Moreover, he shared his decision with the rest of commanders and
peers.

Key Campaigns and Battles:

▪In 1798, he was sent to the Mediterranean where he learned that Napoleon Bonaparte was leading a French
army to invade Malta and Egypt. Nelson then discovered and attacked Bonaparte's fleet.
▪In 1800, he helped form an alliance to blockade French ports in the Baltic Sea
▪He was a key commander in the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805, which was a very important sea battle where Britain
fought against the combined fleets of France and Spain... Nelson's plan for this battle involved breaking through
the enemy's line in two columns
◦He died during the Battle of Trafalgar

Who was the Duke of Wellington?

Arthur Wellesley, who later became the Duke of Wellington, was a very important British military leader and
politician.... He was one of the three main British commanders during the time of the French Revolution and the
Napoleonic Wars

Early Life and Military Start:

He was born in 1769 in Ireland. He was the second son of an Anglo-Irish nobleman, His mother didn't think much
of him, calling him the "awkward son" and "fool of the family," and she decided that army would suit for him
◦Unlike many officers who bought their ranks without experience, Wellesley also bought his position due to money
and influence, but he learned from his experiences and understood the importance of having good, skilled soldiers
under him,
◦His first important mission was in the Netherlands, where he commanded the 33rd Regiment of Foot and learned
what not to do in war because his troops didn't have enough supplies
◦In 1796, he was sent to India where he won several battles there, including Assaye, there he defeated a much
larger army of 40,000 men with only 9,000 of his own, even though two horses were shot from under him
• he became a Major-General and was knighted in 1805.

The Peninsular War (in Spain and Portugal):

◦When Napoleon's forces invaded Portugal and Spain in 1807, Britain saw a chance to fight the French on land in
Europe, ◦Wellesley became the main military leader for these campaigns.

Decisive tactical actions that proved important for the British to win the Peninsula War

•Skilled Leadership and Supply: The British had a very capable commander, Sir Arthur Wellesley, who later
became the Duke of Wellington. He worked very hard to succeed. He made sure his troops were well-supplied
and fed, which was important because the French army often had trouble finding food. This allowed his men to
keep fighting effectively.
•The Lines of Torres Vedras: In 1810, when a large French army moved into Portugal, Wellington used a smart
defensive tactic. He retreated his forces behind strong, fortified lines called the Lines of Torres Vedras. These
lines were like a big wall of defenses, and they also held all the civilians and food from western Portugal. Because
of these lines, many French soldiers could not get food and starved. This defense effectively stopped the French
advance and weakened their army without a major battle.
•Guerrilla Warfare by Local People: The local people in Spain and Portugal continuously attacked the French
troops. This type of fighting, called "guerrilla war," meant that the French army was always busy fighting small

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groups and could not focus all its power. This helped the British by tying down a large number of French
soldiers and wearing them out.
•Decisive Victory at Vitoria: in 1812 Wellesley decided to go on the offensive and advance into Spain. A key
moment was when Wellesley's army defeated the French forces led by King Joseph at the Battle of Vitoria
in June 1813. This victory was very important because it successfully cleared Spain of the French enemy.
After this, the British forces were able to advance into France itself. This major win showed the British dominance
and helped end the war in the Iberian Peninsula.
◦After his many victories, Arthur Wellesley was given the title Duke of Wellington

The Battle of Waterloo (1815)

◦After Napoleon escaped from exile, Wellington was put in charge of the Allied armies (including British and
Prussian forces) in Belgium to fight Napoleon's army.
◦On June 18, 1815, at the Battle of Waterloo, Wellington led 68,000 men and 150 cannons
◦He positioned his men on a ridge, waiting for the Prussian army to join the fight
◦Despite fierce French attacks, including by Napoleon's Imperial Guard, Wellington's troops held their ground.
◦The British soldiers fired at the French Imperial Guard at very close range, stopping them and forcing them to
retreat.
◦Wellington's victory over Napoleon at Waterloo was a decisive defeat for Napoleon, leading to Napoleon's
final surrender and exile in 15 July of 1815

Who was Napoleon? By Pace

Napoleon Bonaparte was a French army general
After the chaos of the French Revolution, the army performed a special action called a "coup" in 1799. This
coup overthrew the government, and Napoleon became the new leader, first as a dictator.
Later, Napoleon made himself the Emperor of the French. This was like bringing back a king-like government,
but he made sure that the old bad ways, like corruption and bad management, were stopped
Even though France was no longer a democracy under him, the ideas of fairness for everyone and fair laws
continued to be important.

Napoleon's Most Important Battles and Campaigns:

During Napoleon's time, there were many wars across Europe.
The Battle of Trafalgar (1805): This was a very important naval (sea) battle. It was fought between the British
fleet and the combined French and Spanish fleets. The French Admiral Villeneuve was in charge of the combined
fleet. Horatio Nelson led the British fleet to a decisive victory. This battle gave Britain almost complete control
over the seas of Europe. Even though Napoleon himself wasn't on a ship there, this battle was a big defeat for
his plans against Britain Why was it important? The British won a decisive victory. This battle gave Britain
strong control over the seas of Europe and was a big blow to Napoleon's plans against Britain. Nelson, a hero
in Britain, died during this battle

The Peninsular War (starting 1807): This was a long fight in Spain and Portugal, French forces controlled
Spain, and Britain got involved to help Spain and Portugal. Arthur Wellesley (who later became the Duke
of Wellington) led the British forces. He fought against Napoleon's armies in many battles in this region. A key
victory for Wellesley in this campaign was at Vitoria in 1813, which was important for clearing French forces out
of Spain. Why was it important? This war created an opportunity for Britain to fight Napoleon's armies on land in
Europe.
The Battle of Waterloo (1815): This was the final and most famous battle for Napoleon. It took place in 1815.
Wellington's British forces, together with other allied armies fought against Napoleon's French army.
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The Battle of Waterloo was a hard-fought conflict that lasted for eleven hours. The decisive tactical action that
led to the Allied victory involved the arrival of the Prussian army. During the battle, a Prussian army, under the
command of General Blücher, arrived to reinforce Wellington's troops. This crucial reinforcement from the
Prussians allowed the allied forces to finally defeat Napoleon. After this defeat, Napoleon gave up and was sent
away to the island of St- Helena, where he died six years later at the age of 51 in 1821

Who was Napoleon Bonaparte? By Peal

Napoleon was born into a family of minor nobility on the French island of Corsica in 1769. At the age of 9, he was
sent to a military academy in Paris. He was a French military and political leader. His period of influence was
from 1799 to 1815.

Rise to Power
Napoleon was a 20 years old junior artillery officer when the French revolution began.
At the age of 24, he was made Brigadier General because of his military skills.

In 1796, Napoleon was placed in command of the French’s army of Italy. At that time, Italy was ruled by Austria.
Then Napoleon defeated the large Austrian army and turned Austria’s Italian possessions into republics like
France.
In 1798 he returned to Paris like a national Hero
Napoleon became the First Consul of France in 1799. At the age of 30 Napoleon was given a complete control
over French politics Later, in 1804, he crowned himself Emperor of the French
In 1803 Napoleon resumed France’s plans to invade Britain, He knew that to invade Britain, he first needed to gain
control of the channel and so had to defeat the Royal Navy
In 1803, Britain sent his Admiral Horatio Nelson to defeat French and Spanish navy (battle of Trafalgar)

Military Campaigns:
Under his leadership, France started extensive military campaigns across Europe
The only major European power standing outside Napoleon’s influence was Britain
1806 Continental system (economic blockade by which Napoleon ordered all the European nations to stop
trading with Britan) Portugal however, refused to follow the continental system. In response, Napoleon
sent an army through Spain to occupy Portugal in 1807

In 1808 Napoleon forced the king of Spain to abdicate and replaced him with his brother Joseph Bonaparte. But
Spanish people did not accept French rule and presented him resistance by guerrillas
In 1809 Napoleon defeated Austria (Emperor Francis I)

In 1809 Britain sent troops to Portugal, under the command of the Duke of Wellington, who allied with Portuguese
and Spanish resistance fighters, finally pushed French out of the Iberian Peninsula
In 1810, the Russian Tsar Alexander I abandoned the Continental System and resumed trade with Britain, so that
Napoleon began planning an invasion of Russia.
A notable event was his disastrous invasion of Russia in 1812. European powers formed allied forces to fight
against France and later against Napoleon. The Russian army did not meet Napoleon, instead they retreated
further and further into Russia. As the Russian army retreated, they emptied and burned the villages, fields and
foods. Napoleon’s troops died of disease, starvation and pneumonia in the cruel Russian winter. Finally, Napoleon
abandoned his army and returned to Paris.

Key reasons for Napoleon's failure in Russia

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•Russian Military Tactics: The Russians employed a "scorched earth" policy, destroying everything that could
be of use to the French army as they retreated. This meant Napoleon's army struggled to find supplies.
•Vast Distances: The immense distances involved in the campaign meant that Napoleon's army had to march
long distances, which likely contributed to their struggles.
•Massive Casualties: The campaign resulted in enormous losses for Napoleon's army. An estimated 200,000
horses perished and many men died from starvation during the retreat. The total number of casualties for
Napoleon's forces during this period reached 400,000 men
•Harsh Winter Conditions: The winter of 1812-1813 was particularly cruel, with deep snow and extreme cold,
which caused significant suffering and deaths among Napoleon's troops
•Disease, Starvation, and Pneumonia: Soldiers were affected by widespread disease, starvation, and
pneumonia

Downfall and Exile

Napoleon’s catastrophic invasion of Russia was the beginning of the end for the emperor

He was forced to abdicate on March 31, 1814. However, he escaped from Elba, returned to Paris, and raised
a new army. Finally, he was defeated by allied forces at the Battle of Waterloo in 1815 This battle happened
on June 18, 1815. After his defeat, Napoleon surrendered to the British and was imprisoned on the St Helena,
island where he died in 1821 at the age of 51.

Legacy
One of his most significant contributions was the Napoleonic Code, a new French legal system established in
1804 that unified and modernized the country's laws
. He also led the Continental System, which was an economic blockade against Great Britain