Week 1

Introduction to Logic and Critical Thinking Topic 2

Session By the end of the afternoon session, students
should be able to:
Objectives
Analyze real-life examples of logical errors in
(PM) healthcare.
Identify reasoning patterns in clinical settings.

Reflect on personal decision-making

processes.
Explain common logical fallacies.
Common Hasty generalizations
Errors in False cause
Reasoning Appeal to emotion
Slippery slope
Circular reasoning
Red herring
Ad Hominem
Straw Man
Hasty
generalizations Jumping to a conclusion based on too
little evidence

Example: Three patients who ate salad

got sick, so salads are dangerous.

Why it’s wrong: It’s based on a small

sample. There could be other causes.
False cause or
Post hoc fallacy Assuming that because one thing
happened before another, it caused it.
Post hoc is short for the Latin phrase
post hoc, ergo propter hoc, which Example: A patient took vitamin C and
means, “After this, therefore because
of this.”
got better, so the vitamin cured them.

Why it’s wrong: The recovery may have

happened anyway or had other causes.
Appeal to
emotion Using feelings instead of facts to
convince someone.

Example: We should skip the protocol

because the patient looks so scared.

Why it’s wrong: Decisions should be

based on reasoning, not just feelings.
Slippery slope Claiming that one small step will lead
Example 1 to a chain of bad events.

Example: If we allow one exception to

the rule, soon no one will follow the
rules at all.

Why it’s wrong: It assumes extreme

consequences without proof.
Slippery slope
Example 2 Claiming that one small step will lead to a chain of bad events.

Example: If we let this one patient refuse a medication, soon all

patients will start refusing treatments, and we’ll lose control of
care.

Why it’s wrong: It assumes that one exception will automatically

lead to a chain of harmful events, without real evidence.

Each case should be judged individually, based on informed

consent and patient autonomy.
Circular
Using the conclusion as one of
reasoning the reasons.

Example: I’m right because I said

I’m right.

Why it’s wrong: It doesn’t offer

real proof, just repeats the claim.
Red Herring
A red herring is a fallacy where someone
introduces irrelevant information to distract from
the actual issue or question.

Example: A patient refuses medication and the

nurse says, “You should take this, do you want the
doctor to think you don’t care about your health?”

Why it’s wrong: It diverts attention away from the

real argument or clinical concern, preventing
proper evaluation or decision-making.
Ad Hominem An ad hominem fallacy occurs when someone
attacks the person making the argument instead of
addressing the argument itself.

Example: During a team discussion, a nurse says,

“We shouldn’t listen to his suggestion, he’s just a
new graduate.”

Why it’s wrong: It shifts the focus away from the

logic or evidence and targets the individual's
character or identity, which is irrelevant to the
actual issue.
Straw Man A straw man fallacy happens when someone
distorts or oversimplifies another person’s argument
to make it easier to attack or dismiss.

Example: A nurse suggests adjusting the pain

management plan. Another nurse responds, “So
you just want the patient to suffer in pain?”

Why it’s wrong: Instead of responding to the actual

point, the person attacks a weakened version of the
argument. This misleads the discussion and blocks
real understanding.
Fallacies in
Medical and
Nursing
Practice
REAL-WORLD FALLACY MISINTERPRETATION PATIENT
EXAMPLES FROM OF SYMPTOMS AND MISINFORMATION AND
CLINICAL SETTINGS CORRELATIONS COGNITIVE BIAS
Real-world fallacy examples from clinical
settings
• Errors in reasoning made by nurses, doctors, or patients in real-life
scenarios, often due to rushed decisions or unverified assumptions.
Real-world fallacy examples from clinical settings

Example:
This is a false cause
“Every time I give this
fallacy, the
medication at night, the
improvement may not
patient improves. So it
be related to timing.
only works at night.”
Misinterpretation of symptoms and
correlations
• Believing that because two things happen together, one causes the
other, without checking the actual cause.
Misinterpretation of symptoms and correlations

Example: “The patient This is a post hoc

has a cough and takes (false cause) fallacy,
vitamin C. The cough recovery could be
went away, so the natural or due to
vitamin cured it.” another factor.
Patient misinformation and cognitive bias

• Patients may rely on inaccurate beliefs or emotional thinking, leading

to flawed reasoning and risky health decisions.
Patient misinformation and cognitive bias

This shows a hasty

Example: “My neighbor generalization and
tried this herbal tea and possibly appeal to
got better, so I don’t need emotion, one case isn’t
chemotherapy.” evidence for treatment
decisions.
Activity: Logic in Action

• Analysis of flawed clinical decisions

• Identify fallacies and propose better reasoning
Example 1 • Case: “She’s a great
charge nurse because
she always leads well.”
Example 1 • Case: “She’s a great charge nurse
because she always leads well.”
• Error: Circular reasoning, the statement
uses the conclusion (“great nurse”) as
its own explanation.
• Better reasoning:
Support the claim with specific
behaviors (e.g., delegation skills,
conflict resolution) that show strong
leadership.
Example 2 • Case: “If we allow one
visitor to stay past
hours, soon everyone
will demand it, and we’ll
lose control of the
ward.”
 • Case: “If we allow one visitor to stay
past hours, soon everyone will demand
Example 2 it, and we’ll lose control of the ward.”
• Error: Slippery slope, assuming one
small action will lead to extreme
consequences without evidence.
• Better reasoning:
Assess each request individually and
develop clear, enforceable guidelines
without assuming chaos.
Example 3 • Case: The patient’s
daughter begs the
nurse, “Please
discharge my dad early,
he’s sad and wants to go
home.”
Example 3 • Case: The patient’s daughter begs the
nurse, “Please discharge my dad early,
he’s sad and wants to go home.”
• Error: Appeal to emotion, using
sympathy instead of clinical criteria to
make decisions.
• Better reasoning:
Base discharge decisions on medical
readiness and patient safety, not
emotional pressure.
Example 4 • Case: A patient drank
ginger tea and later felt
better. The nurse
concludes, “The tea cured
your infection.”
 • Case: A patient drank ginger tea and
Example 4 later felt better. The nurse concludes,
“The tea cured your infection.”
• Error: False cause, assuming that one
event caused another just because it
came first.
• Better reasoning:
Review other factors like medications,
test results, and timeline before linking
cause and effect.
 • Case: After one elderly
Example 5 patient reacts badly to a
new pain med, a nurse
says, “Let’s not give this to
any seniors again.”
 • Case: After one elderly patient
reacts badly to a new pain med, a
Example 5 nurse says, “Let’s not give this to any
seniors again.”
• Hasty generalization, making a broad
rule based on one case.
• Better reasoning:
Evaluate the patient’s specific health
profile. Consult evidence and
consider dosage or alternatives.
Prepare for a
20-item quiz
(1) at 3:30 PM