T.C.

GAZİ UNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

CHE392 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING LABORATORY I

EXPERIMENT 5a REPORT

B1 GROUP STUDENTS

Sarah IBRAHIM 22114042413

Merve Karakulak 22114042039

Abdirahman Abdi Ibrahim 21114042405

Elif Berfin Elçi 21114042005

Burak Küçük 191142042

Nazlı EŞ 21114042019

Seyit Emre Osanmaz 21114042007

Submitted to: Prof. DİLEK VARIŞLI

2024-2025 SPRING SEMESTER

ABSTRACT

The aim of this experiment is to determine the energy losses of a fluid that cannot be
compressed due to friction in a cylindrical pipe while passing through fittings such as valve,
elbow, sudden contraction and sudden expansion by using the pressure difference and to
examine the results. Friction loss is the loss caused by the frictional resistance of the inner
surface of the pipe to the fluid. Some of the factors affecting friction loss are the length of the
pipe, the roughness factor, the type of fluid passing through the pipe, the connection elements
(valves, fittings, elbow, pump etc.). The effect of the difference in the angles of the pipe at the
corners on the friction was also observed. First, it was checked whether the fluid passing
through the pipe was laminar or turbulent, and the flow type was determined according to the
Reynolds number. Depending on the Reynolds number, the fanning friction factor was
calculated using the moody diagram and the related formula. Friction loss: Viscosity is
directly proportional to pipe length and fluid velocity and inversely proportional to pipe
diameter.

2
TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. Introduction…………………………………………………………………………….
2. Theory………………………………………………………………………………….
2.1. Compressibility and Incompressibility………………………………………
2.2. The Bernoulli Equation…………………………………………………….
2.3. Mechanical Energy Equation…………………………………………………
2.4. Continuity Equation…………………………………………………………
3. Experimental Procedure……………………………………………………................
3.1. The study………………………………………………………………..
3.2. Experimental Procedure…………………………………………………….
4. Calculations………………………………………………………………..………….
4.1. Gate Valve Section………………………………………………………………
4.2. Globe Valve Section…………………………………………………………..
5. Results and Discussion…………………………………………………………..……
6. Recommendation………………………………………………………………..............
7. References………………………………………………………………………..…...

3
TABLE OF FIGURES
Figure – 1:
Figure – 2:
Figure – 3:
Figure – 4:
Figure – 5:

4
TABLE OF TABLES
Table – 1:
Table – 2:
Table – 3:
Table – 4:

5
 1. INTRODUCTION
The sum of energy in a pipe system is the total sum of major and minor losses. Major losses are
related to frictional energy loss that is caused by the viscous effects of the fluid and also roughness of
the pipe wall is important. Major losses create a pressure drop along the pipe since the pressure must
work to overcome the frictional resistance [1]. The Darcy-Weisbach equation is the most widely
accepted formula for determining energy loss in pipe flow. In this equation, the Darcy friction factor (
f D ), a dimensionless quantity, is used to describe the friction loss in a pipe. In laminar flows, f is only
a function of the Reynolds number and is independent of the surface roughness of the pipe. In fully
turbulent flows, f depends on both the Reynolds number and relative roughness of the pipe wall. In
engineering problems, f is determined by using the Moody diagram which can be found in the
Appendix part of this report [1].

The Darcy-Weisbach equation follows as;

2
ρV
Δ P=L f D
2 D

Δ P = Pressure loss [Pa]

L= Length of the pipe
f D = Darcy friction factor
ρ = Fluid density [kg/m3]
V= Mean fluid velocity [m/s]
D= Pipe diameter [or hydraulic diameter for non-circular ducts] (m)

Reynolds recorded a number of experiments to determine the laws of resistance in pipes. By

introducing a filament of dye into the flow of water along a glass pipe he showed the existence of two
different types of motion [2]. At low velocities the filament appeared as a straight line which passed
down the whole length of the tube, indicating laminar flow. At higher velocities, the filament, after
passing a little way along the tube, suddenly mixed with the surrounding water, indicating that the
motion had now become turbulent. He presented an equation to find whether the flow is turbulent,
laminar or transition.

This equation follows as;

𝑅=
ρvD
μ

𝜌 = The density of the fluid

R = The Reynolds Number of the motion

v = The velocity of flow

𝜇 = The coefficient of viscosity of the fluid.

D = The diameter of the pipe

6
The laboratory work is carried out to determine the type of flow in fluids like laminar, turbulent, and
transitional flows. It is important to consider the after effects that occur due to increase or decrease in
velocity which is a determining factor for type of flow. Considering these factors, this data is essential
in finding friction factors, based on this critical pipe systems for various applications can be
determined. Determining hydraulic gradients helps us to understand the difference between levels
relative to their flows. An essential part of the experiment is carried out to analyze the difference and
similarities between theoretical and practical values and understand the relation between them. These
analyses and resulting data can be used to design stable and reliable pipe systems [2]. There are
various applications of this concept like;

• Designing Industrial pipe systems.

• Community pipe systems like water, gas, and other consumables etc.
• Aerodynamic flow in cars and aero planes.

7
 2. THEORY
Viscosity is the internal friction of a fluid that is caused by molecular attraction, which makes it resist
a tendency to flow. Friction force develops at the contact surface in the direction opposite motion,
when two solid bodies in contact move relative to each other.
Reynolds discovered that, for low velocities of flow in the glass pipe, a thin filament of dye issuing
from the tube did not diffuse but was maintained intact throughout the pipe, forming a thin straight line
parallel to the axis of the pipe. As the valve was opened, however, and greater velocities were attained,
the dye filament wavered and broke, eventually diffusing through the flowing water in glass pipe.
Since mixing fluid particles during flow would cause diffusion of the dye filament, Reynolds deduced
from his experiments that at low velocities this mixing was absent and that the fluid particles moved in
parallel layers, or laminae, sliding past adjacent laminae but not mixing with them, this is the regime of
laminar flow. Since at higher velocities the dye filament diffused through the pipe, it was apparent that
mixing of fluid particles was occurring, or, in other words, the flow was turbulent.
As we mentioned, the nature of the streak-line created by injecting dye depends on
the fluid velocity. The flow regime in the first case is said to be laminar,
characterized by moving smoothly and streamlines, get a well-defined streak-line
and turbulent in the second case, where it is characterized by having highly
disordered motion, also getting an irregular streak-line which blurs and spreads the dye out.
Reynolds was able to universalize his conclusions from the dye stream experiments with a
dimensionless Re term, later called the Reynolds Number and defined as follows.

qvD
Re= μ V: mean velocity of the fluid in pipe D: diameter of the pipe
μ and ρ: Physical properties of the fluid

We may say that the flow will be laminar if Re<2000 and turbulent if Re>4000 in the concept of a critical
Reynolds number to the flow of any fluid in cylindrical pipes.

2.1. Compressibility and Incompressibility

Compression and expansion are important properties of liquids. The volume of real fluids changes
when they are expanded or compressed by an external force or the change of pressure or temperature.
A fluid whose volume changes is called compressible fluid. On the other hand, an incompressible fluid
is a fluid which is not compressed or expanded, and its volume is always constant. In reality, a
rigorous incompressible fluid does not exist. However, when a flow is less affected by compressibility,
as a flow of air or water around us, the flow can be considered as an incompressible fluid flow.
One of the factors that complicates the life of engineers and plays a major role in our lives is the force
we also identify as the force between two surfaces that prevents those surfaces from sliding across
each other which is friction. Morever, friction also occur between the walls of the pipes in which the
fluid is flowing and the fluid and between the molecules of the fluid.
Friction losses are a complex function of the system geometry, the fluid properties and the flow rate in
the system. The head loss in flow through circular pipes is expressed by the Darcy-Weisbach equation.

Where f is a dimensionless constant which is a function of the Reynolds number of the flow and the
8
roughness of the internal surface of the pipe.

Figure 1: Head Loss Equation from Darcy-Weisbach Equation

In a widely used piping system, the fluid passes through

many connecting elements such as valves, on-off valves,
elbows, and expansion-contraction in addition to the
pipes. These elements interrupt the smooth flow of the
fluid and cause additional losses as they cause flow
separations and mixing.
i) Loss due to sudden changes in area:

A) Sudden Expansion

Figure 2: Sudden Expansion

As it is seen in the figure above, the friction loss caused by the fluid flowing from the A1 section pipe
suddenly starts to flow through the smaller section pipe, and the friction loss is found by the equation
given below.

B) Sudden Contraction

Figure 3: Sudden Contraction

The friction loss caused by the fluid flowing from the larger section pipe suddenly starts to flow from
the smaller section pipe, is found by the equation given below.

(ν1–ν2)2
ℎL = 2g

Where K is a dimensionless coefficient which depends upon the area ratio as shown in Table 1.
9
L
 Table 1. Loss Coefficient For Sudden Contractions

i. Losses due to valves and fittings:

Valves and fittings connect pipelines, direct flow, and isolate equipment and parts of a piping system
and hydraulic energy is used to move fluid through the piping system.

Where Ki is friction coefficient (loss factor for friction) is given for different
fittings in the below table.
Table 2. Friction Coefficient of fittings

10
 2.2. The Bernoulli Equation
Bernoulli’s principle is a seemingly counterintuitive statement about how the speed of a fluid relates to
the pressure of the fluid. Many people feel like Bernoulli's principle shouldn't be correct, but this might
be due to a misunderstanding about what Bernoulli's principle actually says. Bernoulli's principle states
the following,
Bernoulli's principle: Within a horizontal flow of fluid, points of higher fluid speed will have less
pressure than points of slower fluid speed.

P1+1/pv12+ρgh1=P2+1/2ρv22+ρgh2

Utilizing this general equation, we now make the following assumptions:

 we have a single input and a single output stream
 rate of work and heat effects are negligible compared to other energy-related terms
 changes in density are insignificant (incompressible flow)
 the velocity adjustment factor, α, is unity
 the internal energy consists of ‘rate of flow’ work only

Under these conditions, we arrive at the Bernoulli Equations, which is often employed in engineering
to relate velocities and pressures in various types of flows.
Bernoulli's principle: At points along a horizontal streamline, higher pressure regions have lower
fluid speed and lower pressure regions have higher fluid speed.
2.3. Mechanical Energy Equation
Let’s now consider a more general case involving our conservation of energy equation. We will still consider
steady-state conditions, but also assume that
 mechanical effects are not negligible, but do dominate thermal effects (W˙>>Q˙)
 changes in density are insignificant (incompressible flow)
We also separate our work term into shaft and frictional components and express them as work per
mass terms: ws and wf, respectively. *(wf-ws= Ws,on)
The value of ws will be positive when work is done on the fluid and will be negative when the fluid does work
on its environment.
On the other hand, wf, which represents the work (per mass) done by the fluid to overcome friction (or
alternatively, the energy that was lost to friction), is always positive.
Utilizing these definitions and assumptions, we can derive a mechanical energy balance between an inlet and
outlet point or two points along a flow stream.
Unlike in the previous examples using the Bernoulli equation, we now consider cases where the frictional and
shaft work are not negligible. Common cases will involve frictional losses in pipes and other devices in a
process and work done on the fluid by devices such as pumps.

11
For an incompressible fluid ρ1 = ρ2 then;

12
 2.4. Continuity Equation
The continuity equation describes the transport of some quantities like fluid or gas. The equation explains how a
fluid conserves mass in its motion. Many physical phenomena like energy, mass, momentum, natural quantities,
and electric charge are conserved using the continuity equations.

The continuity equation provides beneficial information about the flow of fluids and their behaviour during their
flow in a pipe or hose. Continuity Equation is applied on tubes, pipes, rivers, ducts with flowing fluids or gases
and many more. Continuity equation can be expressed in an integral form and is applied in the finite region or
differential form, which is applied at a point.

3. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
3.1 The system
The system’s water cycle can be completed in two separate ways. One pathway is connected to the
glove valve (indicated by the light blue line), while the other is linked to the gate valve (shown by the
dark blue line). A pump supports the system by sustaining water circulation, and a water reservoir is
included to allow for monitoring of water levels. Plastic tubing is used for piping throughout the
system.
13
3.2 Experimental procedure
1. Initially, measurements are conducted on the system connected to the gate valve. During this
assessment, the globe valve is fully closed to halt water flow through it.
2. The gate valve is gradually opened at a specific rate to initiate the flow of water for the dark
blue line.
3. The pump is activated, commencing the water cycle by submerging it into the water pool to
supply water flow to the system.
4. As the pump immerses into the water pool, the pool's water level begins to rise, which can be
observed using an indicator outside the pool. To calculate the flow rate, the time taken for the
pump to fill a 5-liter volume is recorded.
5. Subsequently, pressure losses are measured across various components of the system: a 90°
elbow (1-2), straight pipe (3-4, diameter = 13.7 mm), and a 90° miter (5-6). Since these
pressure drops are minor, they are measured using water-filled gauges (mmH2O). However,
due to higher pressure drop, the valve is assessed using a mercury-filled gauge (mmHg). All
recorded data is documented.
6. Lastly, the identical procedure is repeated for the system equipped with a globe valve (light
blue). This system encompasses sudden expansions (7-8), sudden contractions (9-10), and
circular corners of different diameters (r = 104mm (11-12), r = 152mm (13-14), r = 52mm (15-
16)). These measurements are taken using water-filled gauges (mmH2O), while the valve
measurement employs a mercury-filled gauge (mmHg). All pressure data for this system are
also recorded.

14
 4. CALCULATIONS
The experimental data collected is as follows:

4.1. Gate Valve Section

Table 3: Experimental Data Collected for Gate Valve section

Time Piezometer Readings (mmH2O) U-tube

Tank Filled
Experiment needed (mmHg)
Capacity
No. to fill the 1-2 3-4 5-6 Gate
(L)
tank (s) Valve
1 90.86 5 755 665 700 680 865 839 525 290
2 25.87 5 358 650 648 455 785 453 340 300
3 24.95 5 330 653 638 441 760 435 335 310
4 24.15 5 321 655 623 440 760 432 335 310
5 24.78 5 320 655 630 440 760 431 335 310
6 26.22 5 320 655 626 440 760 430 335 310

The viscosity and density of water were taken from Transport Processes and Separation
Process Principles by Geankoplis for water at 4°C [3].

4.2. Globe Valve Section

Table 4: Experimental Data Collected for Globe Valve section

Time Piezometer Readings (mmH2O)

needed Tank
Experimen to fill Filled U-tube
t No. the Capacity 7-8 9 - 10 11 - 12 (mmHg)
tank (L) Gate
(s) 13 - 14 15 -16 Valve
7 44.02 5 585 595 590 530 488 413 449 374 365 290 444 320
8 33.13 5 565 584 576 484 461 347 420 304 335 218 396 350
9 29.52 5 550 569 560 450 441 301 390 254 305 167 365 380
10 27.98 5 535 553 550 415 420 255 365 290 285 117 340 306
11 24.13 5 514 540 530 372 387 187 325 130 243 50 309 340
12 23.92 5 510 538 527 370 385 184 321 125 232 43 305 345
a) Straight line

The friction loss due to straight-line is represented by points 3 and 4 in the dark blue line.
The theoretical value of friction factor (f) is obtained using Reynolds number from
equation 2. Selecting the temperature of water to be 21.11°C, the density of water is
997.4 kg/m3 and its viscosity 9.8×10^-4 kg/m.s [2]. The roughness of plastic pipes is
taken to be 0.0015mm [3]. Using the moody diagram and the value of roughness, the
friction factor is obtained.

Figure 5: Moody diagram [3].

The experimental value can be obtained using

The detailed calculations are as follows:

b) Sudden expansion:
The friction loss due to sudden contraction is shown in the light blue line and is
experimentally represented by the difference between points 7 and 8.

Table 6 shows the detailed results

 c) Sudden contraction:
Friction loss due to sudden contraction is shown in the light blue line and is experimentally
represented by the difference between points 9 and 10. Using

(ν1–ν2)2
L ℎ = 2g

Table 7 shows the detailed results

d) Bending
Table 8 shows the detailed results of the following calculations that were done by using the
following equation:

e) Valves
According to the second experiment in dark blue circuit, the time needed to fill 5L tank is
25.87s. Table 9 shows the results and the following equation was used to find K value:

Likewise, according to the eighth experiment in light blue circuit, the time needed to fill 5L
tank is 33.13s.

5. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

a) Straight line
Table 5: f values at different flow rates.

Time hL,
Ex. needed experimental Q(m3/s) V(m/s) Re f f
No. to fill the (m H2O) theoretical experimental
tank (s) △3-4
1 90.86 0.02 5.50E-05 3.73E-01 5.08E+03 0.0095 1.06E-02
2 25.87 0.193 1.93E-04 1.31E+00 1.78E+04 0.0071 8.25E-03
3 24.95 0.197 2.00E-04 1.36E+00 1.85E+04 0.0070 7.84E-03
4 24.15 0.188 2.07E-04 1.40E+00 1.91E+04 0.0069 7.01E-03
5 24.78 0.19 2.02E-04 1.37E+00 1.86E+04 0.0070 7.46E-03
6 26.22 0.186 1.91E-04 1.29E+00 1.76E+04 0.0071 8.17E-03
7 90.86 0.02 5.50E-05 3.73E-01 5.08E+03 0.0095 1.06E-02

logQ vs loghL in straight line

0
-4.3 -4.2 -4.1 -4 -3.9 -3.8 -3.7 -3.6
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
log hL

-1
-1.2
-1.4
-1.6
-1.8
logQ

Figure 6: loghL vs. logQ in straight line graph.

b) Sudden expansion
 Table 6: Friction losses due to sudden expansion.

hL hL experimental
Ex. No. Q(m3/s) V7(m/s) V8(m/s) theoretical (mH2O)
(mH2O) △8-7
8 1.14E-04 0.770528932 2.08E-01 1.62E-02 0.01
9 1.51E-04 1.023805723 2.76E-01 2.85E-02 0.019
10 1.69E-04 1.149006897 3.09E-01 3.59E-02 0.019
11 1.79E-04 1.212247448 3.26E-01 4.00E-02 0.018
12 2.07E-04 1.405664467 3.79E-01 5.38E-02 0.026
13 2.09E-04 1.418005167 3.82E-01 5.47E-02 0.028

Experimental hL vs. Theoretical hL Due to Sudden

Expansion
0.03

0.025 f(x) = 0.411892877610054 x + 0.00427255695658946

R² = 0.907763914732837
Experimental hL

0.02

0.015

0.01

0.005

0
1.00E-02 2.00E-02 3.00E-02 4.00E-02 5.00E-02 6.00E-02
Theoretical hL

Figure 7: Experimental hL vs. Theoretical hL due to sudden expansion graph.

c) Sudden contraction
Table 7: Friction losses due to the sudden contraction

Ex. No. V9 V10 hL theoretical hL experimental (mH2O)

(mH2O) △9-10
8 2.08E-01 0.7705289 1.15E-02 0.06
9 2.76E-01 1.0238057 2.03E-02 0.092
10 3.09E-01 1.1490069 2.56E-02 0.11
11 3.26E-01 1.2122474 2.85E-02 0.135
12 3.79E-01 1.4056645 3.83E-02 0.158
13 3.82E-01 1.4180052 3.89E-02 0.157
 Experimental hL vs. Theoretical hL Due to Sudden
Contraction
0.18
0.16
f(x) = 3.62659631299822 x + 0.0200836902249984
0.14 R² = 0.97783233684719
0.12
Experimental hL

0.1
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0
1.00E-02 1.50E-02 2.00E-02 2.50E-02 3.00E-02 3.50E-02 4.00E-02 4.50E-02
Theoretical hL

Figure 8: Experimental hL vs. Theoretical hL due to sudden contraction graph.

d) bending
Table 8: Friction losses for bending.

Ex. V (m/s) h h h KB KB KB
No. (r=52mm) (r=102mm) (r=152mm) (r=52mm) (r=102mm) (r=152mm)
8 0.770529 0.075 0.075 0.075 2.478462576 2.478462576 2.478462576
9 1.023806 0.117 0.114 0.116 2.190028463 2.133873887 2.171310271
10 1.149007 0.138 0.14 0.136 2.050844906 2.080567296 2.021122517
11 1.212247 0.168 0.165 0.165 2.242981687 2.202928443 2.202928443
12 1.405664 0.193 0.2 0.195 1.916430079 1.985937905 1.936289458
13 1.418005 0.195 0.201 0.196 1.902733602 1.961279251 1.91249121

KB vs. r/d
3

2.5
f(x) = − 0.0581002269021739 x + 2.67553035009964
2 R² = 0.960977715425862

1.5
KB

0.5

0
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
r/d

Figure 9: KB vs. r/d (r/d= bending diameter/pipe diameter) graph.

e) Valves
 Table 9: The relationship between the loss coefficient - volumetric flow rate for both valves in the system.

Ex. No. V (m/s) V(m/s) hgate hglobe Kgate Kglobe

Dark Blue Light Blue (mH2O) (mH2O) (mH2O) (mH2O)
1 0.373307105 0.770528932 3.194825 1.68578 449.7939037 55.70856855
2 1.311120355 1.023805723 0.5438 0.62537 6.206590415 11.70579573
3 1.359466276 1.149006897 0.339875 0.475825 3.608123101 7.071328099
4 1.404500356 1.212247448 0.339875 0.46223 3.380449998 6.171270388
5 1.36879272 1.405664467 0.339875 -0.421445 3.559121798 -4.184818003
6 1.293618749 1.418005167 0.339875 -0.5438 3.984791672 -5.306187346
7 0.373307105 0.770528932 3.194825 1.68578 449.7939037 55.70856855

Loss Coefficient vs. Volumetric Flow Rate in Dark

Blue System
500
450
400 f(x) = − 454.838685800208 x + 617.770121966876
R² = 0.994475126718684
350
Loss Coefficient

300
250
200
150
100
50
0
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6
Volumetric Flow Rate

Figure 10: Loss coefficient vs. volumetric flow rate in dark blue system graph.

Loss Coefficient vs. Volumetric Flow Rate in Light

Blue System
60

50 f(x) = − 121.539869903102 x + 147.017052779924

R² = 0.936778703056103
40
Loss Coefficient

30

20

10

0
0.7 0.8 0.9 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5
Volumetric Flow Rate

Figure 11: Loss coefficient vs. volumetric flow rate in light blue system graph.

6. RECOMMENDATION
One of the things that can be done to minimize the problems that may be encountered during
the experiment and to ensure that the experiment is completed in the specified time is to
determine the time with a professional timer and the researchers should look carefully without
taking their eyes off the water level. In addition, it should not be forgotten that we are
working with a barometer filled with mercury in our denier. There are two reasons why we
work with mercury; density of mercury is greater than that of all the liquids, so only 0.76m
height of mercury column is needed to balance the normal atmospheric pressure and it gives
the correct reading because it neither wets nor sticks to the glass tube. It should be noted that
the laboratory staff should be notified as soon as the barometers are damaged because
mercury is a highly toxic heavy metal and if it is ingested regularly, can lead to kidney failure,
respiratory arrest and death.

7. REFERENCES
[1]: Ahmari, H., Kabir, S., Czubai, A., Sopko, N. and Patel, A., n.d. Applied fluid mechanics lab
manual.

[2]: Amaravadi, S., Minami, K. and Shoham, O., 1998. Two- Phase Zero-Net Liquid Flow in Upward
Inclined Pipes: Experiment and Modeling, SPE Journal, 3(03), pp. 253-260.

[3] Geankoplis, C. J, Transport Processes and Separation Process Principles, 4th edition, Prentice Hall,
2003